Gist Ray optics

Class 12
Definitions connected with spherical mirrors

Principal axis

F
C P Pole

F: Principal focus
PF: focal length
DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS FOR SHOWING IMAGE FORMATION

C F
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE
AND CONVEX MIRROR FOR
VARIOUS POSITIONS OF THE
OBJECT
 4.Object
2.
2.Object
6.Object
1.Object
5.Object
Object placed
placed
placed
at between
between
between
placed
placed
Infinity
at Centre
infinity
Focus and
atFocus
Centre Pole ofand
of Curvature
CurvatureCentre of
Curvature
and Focus
A large distance away
To Infinity from the mirror

Centre of Focus Pole

Curvature

Hence we can see that as the Object moves towards the

mirror the image moves away from the mirror until the
object reaches the focus. Then the mirror produces virtual
image as we further move the object towards the mirror
2.Object
1.Objectplaced
placedanywhere
at Infinity
between Infinity and
pole

P F C

Hence we can find that for a convex mirror the image is virtual
and always formed between the pole and focus of the mirror.
Image formation in Concave and
Convex mirrors
Identification and uses of mirrors
SIGN CONVENTION
Why sign convention?
x

A B C
y
z
z=x+y
Convention: All distances measured to the right of A shall be
positive.
z

B A C
-x

y
z=y-x z = y – (- x) z=y+x
Same formula for different geometry
 Paraxial ray approximation and mirror formula
Rays that are close to the principal axis are called paraxial rays. And those away from the principal axis are called marginal
rays.
∠��� = ∠��� = � angle of incidence and reflection
In DOAC: a - b = i and
In DIAC: b - g = i
or
A
a + g = 2b
g b a
P under paraxial ray approximation �� ⊥ ��
I C O
�� �� ��
+ =2
�� �� ��
1 1 2 1 1 2
+ = or + =
−� −� −� � � �
The mirror formula

P
F
f
u
v

1 1 + 1
f= R = size of image
2 f u v magnification m= size of object = V
u
Application of sign convention while solving
numerical for mirror
For example
• No sign for unknown Ø u always negative for real
variables object
• Identify the situation to Øv is negative for real image
give sign of the known and positive for virtual
variables image
• Apply mirror formula and Øf is positive for convex
magnification formula mirror
• Magnitude of Øfor concave mirror f is
magnification (m) less negative
than 1 means diminished ØNegative m indicates
image inverted image
 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When a ray of light travels in a homogeneous medium and it
encounters at a surface separating two different homogeneous medium
then it bends from original path . This phenomenon is called Refraction.

• The cause of refraction is variation in speed of light in different optical media

• In different media speed of light is different and it is associated in terms of
Refractive index(n) of medium. The absolute refractive index of a medium is
defined as
Speed of light in free space
n= = c/v
Speed of light in medium

vmedium= c/n n≥ 1
n=1 for free space
If we compare two medium and vmedium1 < vmedium2 then medium 1 is considered as
optically denser medium with respect to medium 2(optically rarer)
 i med I Optically rarer
med II Optically denser
med I

i>r
v1>v2
r n1<n2
med II

n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices

of medium I and II respectively.
Laws of Refraction
These are the laws according to which refraction of light from one medium to another is
governed. These are called Snell’s laws

normal Plane
§Law I: Incident ray ,Normal to the i

Inc
surface of separation at the point of n1

i de
nt
incidence and Refracted ray lie in same

ray
plane
§Law II: For a given colour of light

Refra
product of sine of the angle made by n2

cted
the light ray with normal and

ray
refractive index of medium is a r
constant.
n2 1n =
2 Relative refractive index
n1sini=n2sinr = constant = 1n2
n1

Normal incidence on an interface should be considered as

a refraction or not? Applying by Snell’s law = 1n2
=indeterminate
Apparent position of an object in a
medium of different optical density
for near normal incidence
Shift of object due to refraction at plane surfaces
Case I: When object(O) is in denser medium and observer in rarer medium

For small angles of i and r

i
air
A B Sin i almost equal to tan i = AB/AI
i
water Sin r almost equal to tan r = AB/AO
I
r r
Dividing these two we get

= AO/AI
O
n = AO/AI
dapparent= dreal / n
AI= AO/n

Shift of the object = dreal - dapparent = dreal (1-1/n)

Case II: When object(O) is in rarer medium and observer in denser medium

Derivation is left as an exercise

for students

air

water

happarent= hreal * n

Shift of the object = happarent - hreal = hreal (n - 1)

Let us see the phenomenon
of refraction through
simulation
Refraction of light through a glass slab
N
According to Snell’s law i
Sin i = n Sin r Δ Lateral Shift
air (n=1) A
Lateral Shift(Δ) = BC (i-r)

t
Now, from Δ ABC,
BC= AB sin (i-r) ……..(1) r r C
glass (n)
from Δ ABD D
air (n=1) B
AD = AB cos r
or, AB = AD / cos r …….(2) N’ i Δ
Putting the value of AB in equation (1) we get,

BC =

Δ= as,[AD= t ]
Critical angle and Total internal reflection
This phenomenon can take place only when a light travels from a denser
medium to rarer medium

Critical angle (ic) is angle of incidence of a ray of light,

moving from denser medium to rarer medium ,such that the ic
angle of refraction become 900
glass

nglass sin i = nair sin r air

900
for i= ic , r=900
nglass sin ic = nair
i >ic
nair glass
ic = Sin-1 ic = critical angle for
nglass air-glass interface
air
For i > ic light is completely reflected back into the denser
medium and is known as Total internal reflection
Grazing Incidence of light on an interface of two media
med I Optically rarer
med II Optically denser
med I

ic

med II

As we know the path of light ray in Reflection and Refraction is retraceable

med I Optically rarer
med II Optically denser

med I 900

This kind of incidence in the

boundary of two media is called
ic Grazing incidence

med II
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES:

med I(n1) N med II(n2)

i
r I
M
O C
R
u v

for small angles, for ΔNOC , i = ∠NOM + ∠NCM

tan ∠NOM = MN/OM
i = (MN/MN) + (OM/MC)
tan ∠NCM = MN/MC
tan ∠NIM = MN/MI r = ∠NCM – ∠NIM
r = (MN/MN) – (MC/MI)
For small angles, n1 i = n2 r
n1 n2 n2 – n1
OM + MI = MC

OM = –u, MI = +v, MC = +R n2 n1 n 2 – n1
v - u = R
Thin Lenses :
These are thin transparent regions bounded by two spherical
surfaces. There are two types of lenses--

1. Intersecting surface lenses (convex lenses)

R2 R1 R1 R1
R2

Biconvex lens Concavo-convex lens

Planoconvex lens
If R1=R2 then it is termed R 2 = Infinity
as Equiconvex lens
2. Nonintersecting surface lenses (concave lenses)

R2 R1 R1

Biconcave lens
Planoconcave lens Convexo concave lens
If R1=R2 then it is termed
R 2 = Infinity
as Equiconcave lens
 Refraction by Lens
Fig (i) shows the image formation by a Biconvex lens (i) A
The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps: N1 N2
O B D I
For the first interface ABC,
n1 n2 n2 – n1 u v
OB + BI = BC
1 1
C
For the second interface ADC, (ii)
- n1 n2 n2 – n1 N1 A
+ DI = DC i1
DI1 2 O I1
r1
For a thin lens, BI1 = DI1 and adding we get, B C1
n1 n2 n1 R1
1 1 n2
OB + DI = (n2 –n1) ( BC + DC ) C
1 2

n1 1 1 (iii) A N2
= (n2 –n1) ( BC + DC ) OB → ∞ , DI = f i2 r2
f 1 2

BC1 = + R1, DC2 = –R2 C2

D I I1
R2
1 1 1
= (n21– 1) ( R - R2 ) n2 n1
f 1 C
n1 n2 1 1
OB + DI = (n2 –n1) ( BC + DC )
1 2
A
n1 1 1 N1 N2
= (n2 –n1) ( BC + DC )
f 1 2 O B D I
Comparing these two equation we get, u v
n1 n2 n1 C
OB + DI = f

Applying the sign convention, BO = – u, DI = +v, we get

1 1 1 h
v - u = f F’
F h’
Magnification produced by the lens is u v

h’ v
m= h =
u

According to the sign convention, for erect (and virtual) image formed by a convex or
concave lens, m is positive, while for an inverted (and real) image, m is negative.
 Focal length of a Thin lens:
For a thin lens its focal length can be given by Lens Makers formula for paraxial rays

1 1 1
= (n21– 1) ( R - R2 )
f 1

Here, n21 = n2 / n1 R1,R2 = Radius of curvature for the two surfaces

Biconvex/ Biconcave R1R2

f=
R1 and R2 = opposite sign (n 21 – 1)(R1+R2 )

Equiconvex / Equiconcave
R
f=
R1 = R2 =R 2 (n 21 – 1)
R
Planoconvex / planoconcave R1 = R ; R2 = Infinity f=
(n 21 – 1)

concavoconvex / covexoconcave R1R2

f=
R1 and R2 = same sign (n 21 – 1)(R1- R2 )
Longitudinal magnification by Thin lenes:

dx x y dy

f
1 1 1
v - u = f 1 1 1
+ =
From lens formula y x f
u = - x ; v = +y ; f = + f differentiating we get,

-1 1
dy - dx = 0
LONGITUDINAL MAGNIFICATION y2 x2

dy dy y2
mL = = m2 dx = x2
dx
dy
Width of image = m2
mL = m2 = dx
Width of object
Velocity magnification by Thin Lens

V01 = vsinΘ
v
Θ I Vi11
O
Vo11 = vcosΘ Vi1
f

Velocity of image perpendicular to principal axis of lens

Vi1 = m * V01
Velocity of image parallel to principal axis of lens
Here m = v/u
Vi1 1= m2 * V011
Converging and Diverging behaviour of Convex lenses
If nlens > nsurrounding behaves as converging

If nlens < nsurrounding behaves as diverging

Converging and Diverging behaviour of Concave lenses
If nlens > nsurrounding behaves as diverging

If nlens < nsurrounding behaves as converging

Relative position of image formed by a convex lens

Case I : When object is at infinity

F
•Image is formed in Focal plane
•Real and Diminished
Focal Plane

Case II : Object is placed beyond 2F point

F 2F
•Image is formed between F and 2F
•Real , Diminished and Inverted 2F F

Case III : Object is placed at 2F

F 2F

•Image is formed at 2F 2F F
•Real , same in size and Inverted
Case IV : When object is placed
between F and 2F
F 2F
•Image is beyond 2F
•Real , enlarged and Inverted 2F F

Case V : When object is placed at F

F 2F
•Image is formed at infinity
• highly enlarged 2F F

Case VI : Object is placed between 2F

F and optical centre F
2F F
•Image is produced on the same side of object
• virtual, enlarged and erected
Relative position of image formed by a concave lens

Case I : When object is at infinity

F
•Image is formed in Focal plane
•Virtual and Diminished
Focal Plane

Case II : Object is placed anywhere

on principal axis of lens
F 2F
2F F
•Image is formed between F and optical centre
•Virtual , Diminished and erected
 Power of a lens :
Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens
introduces in the light falling on it.

h δ δ F
O
f

The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges
or diverges a beam of light falling at unit distant from the optical centre
h 1
tan δ = if h=1 tan δ =
f f
1
δ = for small value of δ
f
1 The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1D = 1m–1
P=
f
Combination of thin lenses in contact :
A B

O P I I1
v
u v1

the image formed by the first lens A, we get equivalent to a single lens of focal length f
1 1 1
- = 1 1 1
v1 u f1 = +
f f1 f2
the image formed by the second lens B, we get
1 1 1 In terms of POWER
- =
v v1 f2
By adding, we get P =P1 +P2
1 1 1 1
- = +
v u f1 f2
PRISM :
It is a transparent region bounded by some rectangular surfaces
and two identical polygons

Trihedral prism :

2 – triangles
3 – rectangular faces
Refraction through a Trihedral prism :
A (prism angle/Refracting angle of prism) n= refractive
N1 index of prism
N2 By Snell’s law at faces AB and AC-
i D F
e Sin i = n Sin r1
r1 r2
air(1) Sin e = n Sin r2
n E
B C

Base of prism In cyclic quadrilateral ADEF A+E=π

In ΔDEF we get r1 +r2 +E = π

Comparing these we get A = r1 + r2

Let us see the refraction
through simulation
Angle of deviation of light ray through a prism
A n= refractive
N1 δ = Angle of deviation index of prism
G N2
i D δ
e
r1 r2 Angle of deviation δ = angle GDF + angle DFG
F
air(1) n E Angle of deviation δ = (i – r1 ) + ( e – r2 )
B C

δ=i+e-A as, A = r1 + r2
Sin e = n Sin r2

r1)]  = i - A + sin-1 n sinA - sin-1 sinn i 

δ = f (i)
Let us see the refraction
through simulation
 δ
δ = f (i)

δ will be min when =0

δmin
On analysis of this experiment we find that

=0 When light ray passes through i1 i0 i2 i

the prism symmetrically
By Snell’s law
When i = e and r1 = r2 = A/2 Sin i = sin r1
Sin i0 = n sin A/2
As, δ = i + e – A
Sin [(δm + A)/2] = n * sin (A/2)
δ = 2i0– A
i0 = (δm + A) /2 A

δmin
i0 i0
Maximum deviation of light by a prism

There are two conditions under which deviation is maximum

Grazing A Grazing A
incidence δmax emergence

e δmax
900
ic A-ic i
ic 900
A-ic
B C
B C
Condition for a light to pass through a prism

A
If (A- ic ) ˃ ic
Or, A > 2 ic
A-ic
900 ic
n= refractive Light ray will suffer TIR at the
index of prism second surface of prism
n

Where,

ic =

No light ray can pass through two adjacent faces of the prism
DISPERSION
 Cauchy’s equation for Refractive Index:
For a transparent medium Refractive Index for a light depend on its wavelength and the relation
is given by an empirical called Cauchy’s equation

B
n(λ) = A +
λ2

here A and B are constants which depend on medium characteristics.

For Red and Violet light λR > λV ; nR < nV

NOTE: In a medium violet light travel slower than Red light

 Index of Refraction and wave aspects of light
First, the frequency f of the wave does not change when passing from one material to another.
That is, the number of wave cycles arriving per unit time must equal the number leaving per
unit time

Second, the wavelength of the wave is different in general in different materials. This is
because in any material v= λf , since f is the same in any material as in vacuum and v is always
less than the wave speed c in vacuum, λ is also correspondingly reduced

λ0
λ= n = Refractive index of medium
n

For Red and Violet light λR > λV ; nR < nV

 DISPERSION:
When white light is incident on a transparent medium all colours in white light are
refracted in different angles and light split into different colours in other medium this
splitting of light into colours is called Dispersion of light.

As nV > nR , Violet colour bend

more toward normal compared to
Red colour air

Glass
Dispersion of white light by a Prism

Due to refraction at two surfaces of prism , with deviation emerging beam of light
split into colours and it produces a spectrum of white light on screen as shown
 Dispersive power of a Prism material:
Dispersive power of a material is defined as relative deviation of light beam from
its mean path as a function of Refractive Index. It is given as

dΘ
ω=
Θ
Where Θ is mean deviation of light and dΘ is the change in deviation due to variation
in Refractive Index dn which is due to wavelength difference dλ

For a small angled prism we use deviation Θ = A (n-1)

dΘ= A.dn
dΘ = (Θ/(n-1)) dn

λ2 dΘ dn
λ1 Θ ω= =
Θ n-1
λ1
dΘ
λ2
Dispersion Analysis by a Thin Angle
Prism :

A(n)
δR= A ( nR – 1)
δ
δR δY V δV= A ( nV – 1)
δY= A ( nY – 1)

Mean deviation of light , δY= A ( nY – 1)

Angular dispersion D =δV – δR = A( nV – 1) – A (nR – 1)
D = A ( nV – nR )

D ( nV – nR ) dn
Average Dispersive power of material ω= = ( n – 1) =
δY Y n-1
 Achromatic Prism Combination:

Deviation of white light without dispersion A(n)

A’(n’)

This is a combination of two prisms in which no dispersion take place

Condition of deviation without dispersion A(nV – nR) = A’ (nV’ – nR)

Aberrations in lenses and mirrors:
Defects of images formed by lenses and mirrors are called Aberrations. These are classified
in two main categories. These are --

(1) Chromatic Aberrations:

These are defects due to dispersion of light by a lens. Mirrors are free from chromatic
aberrations.

1 1 1
= (n21– 1) ( -
f R1 R2 )

fv

fR FV FR

nV >nR ; fV < fR
(2) Spherical Aberration:

These are defects in images due to large aperture of lenses or mirrors.

Due to Spherical aberration a lens or a mirror of large aperture fails to produce sharp image
of an object or point image of a point object due to marginal rays
 RAINBOW:
This is a phenomenon due to combined effect of dispersion, refraction and reflection
of sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain.
Raindrop
Raindrop
Sunlight
Sunlight 1
420 2
400

400
420

500 530
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
 Optical Instruments:
The device which utilize the phenomenon of reflection and refraction
for image formation of various object for their study in detail.

The most common and important optical instrument we study are --

(1) Human Eye
(2) Simple Microscope
(3) Compound Microscope
(4) Refracting Telescope
(5) Reflecting Telescope
(6) Terrestrial Telescope
(7) Galilean Telescope
 Simple Microscope ( Magnifying glass)

•It is a converging lens of small focal length.

h Θ
•In order to use a simple microscope, It is held D
near the object and eye is placed on the other
Angular size of object Θ = h/D
side.
•Image produced will be erect, virtual and magnified.

Magnification of a Simple Microscope is

h’ Θ’ h/D D
m= h = = = h’
Θ h’/D u h
D
m= Θ’
Df / (D+f) m= 1+ D u
f D

When image is produced at near point Avg size of image Θ’ = h’/D =h/u

m= D When image is
f produced at infinity
Compound Microscope
Simple Microscope has limitations on its magnifying part. So for higher magnification we use
Compound microscope. It uses two lenses called Objective (closer to object) and Eyepiece
(closer to eye) .
If we use the lens formula for
fE Objective
fo
u 1 1 1
h h’ v - u = f
v uf0
v=
h’’ u-f0
uE
D mO = - v =-
f0
u u-f0
fo < fE D
mE = 1+
fE
Magnification power for Compound microscope
mC = - v (1 +
D
)
For image produced at near point u fE
mC = - v (
D
) For image produced at far point
u fE
 Tube length of compound microscope:
Tube length: Distance between the Objective and Eye piece

Case-I : When image is produced at near point

fE
fo Tube length
u
h h’ L = v +uE
v
uf0 DfE
h’’ L= +
uE
u-f0 D+fE
L
D
Case-II : When image is produced at far point Tube length

fE L = v + fE
fo

uf0 fE
L= +
u-f0
u v
fE
L
Refracting Telescope : (Astronomical Telescope)

It provides angular magnification for distant objects and uses two lenses Objective (large
aperture) and Eyepiece

fo
angular size of object Θ = h / fo
fE
angular size of image β = h / uE
Θ h
Θ β
Magnifying power of Telescope
h’
fo uE MP = β/Θ = fO / uE

For image produced at near point

D fO
MP = - ( D + fE )
DfE
Using lens formula for eye piece
1 1 1 m = - fO (1 +
fE
)
v - u = f
fE D

DfE
u=
For image produced at far point
m = - fO
D+fE fE
Terrestrial Telescope :
It produces erected images
fo f1 fE

fo 2f1 2f1 fE

for final image at near point

m = - fO (1 +
fE
)
fE D

for final image at far point m = - fO

fE

Tube length L = ( fO + 4f1 + fE )

Galilean Telescope :
It also uses two lenses (i) Convex ( Objective) (ii) Concave (Eye piece)

•The advantage of Galilean Telescope is shorter tube length

•It gives erected image without using the erecting lens.

fo fE

fE
fo

Tube length L = ( fO - fE )
Reflecting Telescope : ( Cassegrain)
Modern Telescopes use a concave mirror
rather than a lens for the objective.
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called
Reflecting Telescopes.

Advantages:
• There is no Chromatic aberration.
•If a parabolic reflecting surface is chosen, spherical aberration is also removed.

The arrangement using a convex secondary mirror to focus the incident light, which now
passes through a hole in the objective primary mirror, is shown in fig. This is called
Cassegrain Telescope.

It has the advantages of a large focal length in a short telescope.