Photoluminescence Imaging

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Contents
• Ideal characterisation method
• Luminescence imaging methods
• How to interpret a luminescence image

• Use as a characterisation tool

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 An ideal Characterisation technique

• Fast (1 second or less)

• Spatially resolved
Current (A)

Voltage (V)

• Can be used at any stage of production (contactless)

• Gives information on as many cell parameters as possible

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 Photoluminescence Imaging

PL imaging

Measurement time < 1s

Spatial resolution 165um
Contactless Yes
Parameters – implemented V, ‫זּ‬eff , Rseries ,
commercially
Parameters – implemented, still in I, Rsh, Rsheet , Ln,
research SRVf, SRVr Fe conc

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 What is luminescence?
Light emitted from a material under external excitation

Conduction Band

Emitted Emitted
Absorbed
phonon photon
Energy
(a) (b) (c)
Energy

Valence Band

In a semiconductor, luminescence is the emitted radiative recombination

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 Types of luminescence

Type of luminescence is defined by the method of excitation.

Photoluminescence - excitation by incoming photons

Electroluminescence - excitation by an electric current.

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 Photoluminescence (PL) imaging

Cooled Si CCD

72W laser
Approx. 1 sun

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Image from: http://www.btimaging.com/LuminescenceImaging.aspx
PL imaging with Current Extraction (PLCE)

Cooled Si CCD

72W laser
Approx. 1 sun

e-
+

-
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Electroluminescence (EL) imaging

Cooled Si CCD

- e-

+
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 Comparison of luminescence imaging techniques

Contactless Contact
PL PLCE EL
No influence from Rseries Can measure Rseries Can measure Rseries
V = Voc 0 ≤ V ≤ Voc Any V
Requires laser Requires laser No laser
($$, complex optics, safety) ($$, complex optics, safety)
Current (A)

Voltage (V)

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 Interpreting a luminescence image
PL Image

Darker = less radiative

recombination

Brighter = more radiative

recombination

but.....
What does this mean, in terms of useful information? 11
 Interpreting
Luminescence a luminescence image

Conduction Band
ne nh
Emitted Emitted
Absorbed
phonon photon
Energy
(a) (b) (c)

PL ∝ ne nh
Energy

Valence Band

So, how is nenh related to any relevant cell properties?

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 Interpreting
Luminescence a luminescence image

PL ∝ ne nh

Voltage Lifetime

⎛V ⎞
n e n h ∝ exp ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ne n h ∝ τ
⎝ Vt ⎠
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 Interpreting
Luminescence a luminescence image

Voc Æ Material quality Æ maximum possible final cell quality

Voc ≈ 600mV Voc ≈ 650mV

(a) (b)

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Image (a) courtesy Nicole Kuepper and Alex Han
Image (b): M.D. Abbott et al. Application of photoluminescence characterisation to the development and manufacturing of high-efficiency silicon solar cells J. Appl. Phys. 100, 114514 (2006)
 Interpreting
Luminescence a luminescence image

Lifetime τ
• Material quality (bulk)
• Passivation quality (surface)

Higher lifetime
grains

Lower lifetime
grains

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Image (a) courtesy Nicole Kuepper and Alex Han
Image (b): M.D. Abbott et al. Application of photoluminescence characterisation to the development and manufacturing of high-efficiency silicon solar cells J. Appl. Phys. 100, 114514 (2006)
Applications of PL imaging to solar cell manufacture

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 Benefits of luminescence imaging
PL imaging

Measurement time < 1s

Spatial resolution 165um
Contactless Yes
Parameters – implemented V, ‫זּ‬eff , Rseries
commercially

Other current methods

• CELLO (solar CELl LOcal characterisation) - spatially resolved, large parameter
range

• IV curve – fast

• QSSPC, QSSPL - fast, contactless

So far, no other technique can measure the range of parameters, spatially

resolved, contactlessly and fast.

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 Typical
Luminescence Applications of PL imaging
Bricks / Ingots
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Wafering
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9

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Finished Cells/Modules
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 Applications
Luminescence - Bricks and Ingots

• Lifetime
• Dislocations
• Grain depth/size

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T. Trupke, J. Nyhus, R.A. Sinton, J.W. Weber Photoluminescence Imaging on Silicon Bricks, 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Hamburg, Germany (2009) p1029
 Applications
Luminescence - As-cut wafers

• Dislocations

• Low lifetime regions

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Images courtesy BT Imaging
 Applications
Luminescence - Diffused wafers

Relative Lifetime Æ Diffusion uniformity

•Furnace contamination

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Images furnace contamination courtesy Nicole Kuepper and Alex Han
Relative lifetime image courtesy M.D. Abbott et al. Application of photoluminescence characterisation to the development and manufacturing of high-efficiency silicon solar cells J. Appl. Phys.
100, 114514 (2006)
 Applications
Luminescence - Process induced defects

• Tweezers • Cracks • Four point probe

• Micrometer marks (blue)

• Dislocations
• Dent in substrate holder (red)
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Images courtesy M.D. Abbott et al. Application of photoluminescence characterisation to the development and manufacturing of high-efficiency silicon solar cells J. Appl. Phys. 100, 114514 (2006)
 Applications
Luminescence - Process induced defects

• cracks
(multicrystalline)

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Images courtesy T. Trupke et al. Progress with luminescence imaging for the characterisation of silicon wafers and solar cells 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference (2007) Milan, Italy
 Applications
Luminescence - Process induced defects

Edge Isolation - Diffused wafers

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 Applications
Luminescence - Process induced defects
• Finished cells

• After laser scribing

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 Applications
Luminescence - Passivation

Before After

• Rear Surface
• (Front Surface)
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Images courtesy Chee Mun
 Applications
Luminescence - Complete cell

● Series resistance (qualitative)

EL PLCE

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 Applications
Luminescence - Complete cell

Series resistance - quantitative

PLCE 28
 Applications
Luminescence - Complete cell
Shunts – Inclusions (material shunts)

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 Applications
Luminescence - Complete cell

Shunts – Metal (processing induced)

Shunt Isolation

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 Summary
Luminescence - Typical Applications
Bricks / Ingots
Lifetime Imaging, dislocation density
Wafering
Lifetime Imaging, dislocation density

Quality of texturing

Uniformity, Quality of diffusion

Furnace contamination
Processing induced defects

Effectiveness of edge isolation

Passivation – effectiveness, front/rear defects

Overall quality, Shunts, Series resistance 31

Finished Cells
 Still to
Luminescence do

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Luminescence Question

PLCE Image
Cell voltage, V = 0V

Why is there an image?

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 Development of luminescence characterisation

1900s – Luminescence known, as “non-thermal radiation”. No idea how

it was related to the material

1950s – van Roosbroeck and Shockley: figured out how it related to

semiconductors, theoretically described direct semiconductors

1990s – Wuerfel: luminescence from silicon explained

1990s-2000s – used as a scanning method for characterising silicon,

and solar cells. SLOW

2005 – Fuyuki: EL imaging invented. Fast, contact (finished cell).

2006 – Trupke: PL imaging invented. Fast, contactless.

2007 – BTimaging founded, PL imaging commercialised.

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