SYLLABUS OF COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH - 1

Module-1

Introduction to Communicative English:

Introduction, Language as a Tool, Fundamentals of Communicative English, Process of Communication,
Barriers to Effective Communicative English, Different styles and levels in Communicative English
(Communication Channels). Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication Skills, How to improve and
Develop Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication Skills.

Module-2

Introduction to Phonetics :
Introduction, Phonetic Transcription, English Pronunciation, Pronunciation Guidelines Related to
consonants and vowels, Sounds Mispronounced, Silent and Non-silent Letters, Syllables and Structure,
Word Accent and Stress Shift, – Rules for Word Accent, Intonation – purposes of intonation, Spelling Rules
and Words often Misspelt – Exercises on it. Common Errors in Pronunciation.

Module-3

Basic English Communicative Grammar and Vocabulary PART - I :

Grammar: Basic English Grammar and Parts of Speech - Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs,
Conjunctions, Articles and Preposition. Preposition, kinds of Preposition and Prepositions often Confused.
Articles: Use of Articles – Indefinite and Definite Articles, Pronunciation of ‘The’, words ending ‘age’, some
plural forms. Introduction to Vocabulary, All Types of Vocabulary –Exercises on it.

Module-4

Basic English Communicative Grammar and Vocabulary PART - II:

Question Tags, Question Tags for Assertive Sentences (Statements) – Some Exceptions in
Question Tags and Exercises, One Word Substitutes and Exercises. Strong and Weak forms
of words, Words formation - Prefixes and Suffixes (Vocabulary), Contractions and
Abbreviations. Word Pairs (Minimal Pairs) – Exercises, Tense and Types of tenses, The
Sequence of Tenses (Rules in use of Tenses) and Exercises on it

Module-5

Communication Skills for Employment:

Information Transfer: Oral Presentation - Examples and Practice. Extempore / Public Speaking, Difference
between Extempore / Public Speaking, Communication Guidelines for Practice. Mother Tongue Influence
(MTI) – South Indian Speakers, Various Techniques for Neutralization of Mother Tongue Influence –
Exercises. Reading and Listening Comprehensions – Exercises.

MODULE -1

Introduction to Communication

What is Communication?
 Think about communication in your daily life. When you make a phone call, send a text message, or like a post on
Facebook, what is the purpose of that activity? Have you ever felt confused by what someone is telling you or
argued over a misunderstood email? The underlying issue may very well be a communication deficiency.

There are many current models and theories that explain, plan, and predict communication processes and their
successes or failures. In the workplace, we might be more concerned about practical knowledge and skills than
theory. However, good practice is built on a solid foundation of understanding and skill. For this reason this module
will help you develop foundational skills in key areas of communication, with a focus on applying theory and
providing opportunities for practice.

Defining Communication

The word communication is derived from a Latin word meaning “to share.” Communication can be defined as
“purposefully and actively exchanging information between two or more people to convey or receive the intended
meanings through a shared system of signs and (symbols)” (“Communication,” 2015, para. 1).

Let us break this definition down by way of example. Imagine you are in a coffee shop with a friend, and they are
telling you a story about the first goal they scored in hockey as a child. What images come to mind as you hear
their story? Is your friend using words you understand to describe the situation? Are they speaking in long,
complicated sentences or short, descriptive sentences? Are they leaning back in their chair and speaking calmly,
or can you tell they are excited? Are they using words to describe the events leading up to their big goal, or did
they draw a diagram of the rink and positions of the players on a napkin? Did your friend pause and wait for you to
to comment throughout their story or just blast right through? Did you have trouble hearing your friend at any point
in the story because other people were talking or because the milk steamer in the coffee shop was whistling?

All of these questions directly relate to the considerations for communication in this module:

1. Analyzing the Audience

2. Choosing a Communications Channel
3. Using Plain Language
4. Using Visual Aids
5. Evaluating Communication via Feedback

Language as a Tool of Communication

Language is the most remarkable tool that man has invented. It enables him to express his ideas and emotions
emphatically. To quote T. Balasubramanian, "Language has a very important social purpose, because it is mainly
used for linguistic communication". Man can communicate even without using a language. A little baby cries when
he is hungry or he slaps his mother when he is angry. In both the above examples, communication takes place
without the use of language. But man needs language since he has fine ideas to express. It is language which
distinguishes man from the animal world. Thus, man has a genuine need of linguistic communication . It is an
important aid for socialization for it fosters emity and brotherhood round the globe. People of different castes and
creed, of different ethnic groups and also of different nationality can share their views with one another if they
know one another's language.
A language can be used in two ways for the purposes of communication. It can be spoken or written Le., we can
communicate either using the spoken medium or the written medium. No doubt, speech medium is more popular
medium of communication than the writing medium. "In fact, it came centuries before writing in the history of any
language community."Keeping in view both the mediums of communication, the Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol. 13
defines language as "a system of conventional, spoken or written symbols, by means of which human beings, as
members of a social group and participants in its culture communicate".

Purpose/Functions of Communication

While defining communication Keith Davis compared it to a bridge of meaning which helps a person to cross a
river of misunderstanding. In fact, this definition highlights the purpose of communication in one's personal and
professional life. The following are the main objectives of communication:
(i) Exchange of information : The most important purpose of communication is to exchange information from
one person to another. In business world, communication also occupies a prominent place since the employees
receive different messages from the employer or the juniors from their seniors so that they can perform their job
better.

(ii) Persuasion : One important purpose of communication is persuasion. Communication helps in persuading or
convincing someone for a favourite response. Written as well as oral communication is used to influence others.

(iii) Counselling : Seniors counsel the subordinate staff from time to time whenever they face some difficulty at
their work place.

(iv) Co-ordination : Communication is indeed an effective tool in co-ordinating the working of the employees of
different departments or positions. Mutual understanding, joint consultation, seeking suggestions etc. are all
possible through formal or informal communication. Besides, communication helps in releasing suffocating
emotions when one is able to know other's pent-up emotions. Finally, it leads to sharing ideas freely and in
building up a tension free atmosphere.

Language as a tool of communication and characteristics of language

When we try to define language, the first thing that comes to mind is words. Language is a system of words and
sounds to communicate ideas in a meaningful way. By changing the word order in a sentence, one can change its
meaning, or even make it meaningless.

Language arose out of the human need to communicate. It is a well-established fact that effective communication
is made possible with the help of language. One does not have to be a good linguist in order to acquire good
language skills. However, a basic knowledge of the theory of language will certainly help to understand the
intricacies of writing and speaking clearly. Though it is accepted that language is universal, it cannot be denied
that it is also specific to individuals. Our use of language reflects our personality and gives an insight into our
thinking.

People use language to express their experiences. Since language is not exact, many a time it leads to
misunderstandings. Being aware of the basic characteristics of language can help us understand this better and
communicate more effectively.

Famous linguists Noam Chomsky and Ferdinand de Saussure classified language as

Artificial
Restricted
Abstract
Arbitrary
Creative
Redundant
Recursive

Language as artificial:
Language is created by people. It does not exist in isolation or outside the minds of people. It is created by
humans based on their needs. Every symbol is attached to a particular thought or thing, called a referent.
Let us take the word AIDS, which did not exist until people were infected by this contagious disease. The process
of how this word was created is easy to trace. But this is not always possible. Now, let us consider connotation of
the word gay, although it originally meant ‘uninhibited and carefree’, somewhere in the twentieth century it came to
mean ‘a homosexual’. Humans attach meanings to words according to needs, and modify these meanings
according to changing needs. This is why we say that the language is artificial.

Language is restricted:
When we think and translate our thoughts into language, some meaning is lost in the process. No symbol or word
can transmit our exact perception. That is one reason we sometimes find ourselves saying that we cannot find
words to express our feelings. This is because language is restricted.
In other words, it has limitations. To overcome the limiting quality of language, people add meaning to their words
with non-verbal cues to explain things better.
Language as abstract:
To be abstract is to generalize, and to generalize is to leave out many details. Language is abstract because it
represents generalized ideas of things or thoughts. A word could represent different ideas at different times. For
example, ‘dress’ can represent anything from a frock to a sari.
Abstractness is an important feature of language. It is this feature that makes all generalization possible. When we
talk about a number of similar items, such as paper clips, pins, staples, etc., we can group them through
abstraction, labeling their common features. This makes it possible to not to constantly redefine the new
information we receive.

Language is arbitrary:
How did words acquire their meanings? There is no direct relationship between a word and the idea or object it
represents. Language has evolved as a cultural system of agreements in which words represent certain symbols,
thoughts, or they may have been onomatopoeic, i.e., the words might have contained sounds similar to the noises
they described (ex: buzz, drizzle, murmur). Learning these agreements is part of learning a particular language.
To summarize, language keeps changing to include new concepts, and words can assume a number of specific
and arbitrary meanings.

Language is creative:
Language is indeed creative, and its ability to generate so many words every day is a marvel. Every year
innumerable words are added to the dictionary. These words can be added by different processes: borrowing –
taking over words from other languages such as ‘alcohol’ from Arabic and ‘boss’ from Dutch, constructing
portmanteau words – words made by combining the sound and meaning of two different words, ex: Edutainment =
education + entertainment, back formation – where a word of one type is reduced to a word of another type, ex:
‘opt’ for option.

Language is redundant:
Whatever language you use, it has the capacity for redundancy or repetition. This may either improve or impede
effective communication. A closer look at the sentence, a couple of girls are riding their bicycles indicates that
repetition of information makes the meaning clear. On the other hand, excessive and unnecessary repetition may
lead to verbosity or wordiness without contributing to the meaning.

Language is recursive:

Recursion is the characteristic of language which enables one to generate any number of sentences using the
same basic grammatical templates. It also allows one to express any idea, thought, or feeling with immense
freedom. It implies that there is no limit to the potential length of a sentence.

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Introduction
Communication is the process of exchanging messages or information between two or more parties.
Organizations today are heavily dependent on information to meet organizational needs. Effective
communication plays a key role in fulfilling these needs and contributes significantly to organizational success.
Despite its importance, communication has not been given enough attention and grown as it should have
between civil and military entities.

2. The Importance of Communication

Effective communication is crucial for the success of individuals as well as organizations. This is true within the
individual organization itself as well as how that organization communicates with other organizations within its
sphere of contact, influence and competition.
Communication is a complex two-way process, involving the encoding, translation and decoding of
messages. Effective communication requires the communicator to translate their messages in a way that is
specifically designed for their intended audience.
Creating and delivering an effective message requires a basic understanding of the communication process.
Most aviation related proposals or presentations require the clear and unambiguous communication of a
message in a way that can be clearly understood by the recipient.
It is human nature to assume that when we communicate we are doing so effectively, and that if anything
goes wrong consequently the responsibility for that must rest with the recipient. It is critically important to
understand that civil and military organizations have drastically different funding streams, daily mission
requirements and bottom line benchmarks for determining success.

Communication is a skill and like any skill it requires practice. It is improvement through practice that
differentiates a skill from other forms of knowledge. Understanding the theory of communication and effective
presentation will not in itself make you a brilliant communicator or presenter but should make you aware of how
to maximize the impact of your presentations.

The most important thing to remember is that the message that you intend to communicate is likely to be
misunderstood. Therefore, in addition to carefully preparing and presenting your message, stay alert for any
signs that your audience are mis-interpreting it. It is up to you, the presenter, to continually check that your
message has been received, understood, correctly interpreted and filed in the receivers mind.

3 . The Basic Forms of Communication

The basic forms of communication are of two types such as verbal and non-verbal communication. It can be in
the form of meetings, speeches or writing, gestures or expressions.
Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is a primitive form of communication that does not involve the use of words. It rather
uses gestures, cues, vocal qualities, spatial relationships etc. to convey a message. It is commonly used to
express emotions like respect, love, dislike, unpleasantness, etc.
Non-verbal communication is less structured compared to its verbal counterpart and is most often spontaneous.
As it is not planned, it is sometimes considered more reliable than verbal communication, as it reflects the
communicator’s true feelings.
Non-verbal communication enhances the effectiveness of the message as gestures and body language are
registered easier and quicker with the audience than verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication, when combined with verbal communication, makes a presentation more effective
and has greater impact on the audience.
Verbal communication
However, non-verbal communication has its limitations. Many complex ideas, thoughts or messages have to be
communicated sequentially to be meaningful. Verbal communication involves the arrangement of words in a
structured and meaningful manner, adhering to the rules of grammar. The message is then conveyed to the
audience in either spoken or written form.
Speaking and Writing
Effective verbal communication involves the use of both speech and writing to transmit a message. While oral
communication is more effective in reaching a focused target audience, as it involves interaction and additional
non-verbal cues to augment the speech, written communication is necessary for reaching a large number of
scattered recipients. Depending on the situation and the requirements, organizations use both the spoken as
well as written channels for communication.
Listening
Organizations have not paid much attention to listening as a skill. Equal importance should be given to listening
and expression. Oral communication cannot be effective unless the audience is good at listening and most of its
content is forgotten after a presentation. Developing good listening skills is essential for grasping the contents
of an oral presentation and retaining them.
 The Process of Communication
Communication goes through a process, involving the following phases:
• Sender / Message / Channel / Receiver / Feedback

How the Communication Process Works (Example Included)

Communication is fundamental to the health and operation of an organisation. A clear communication process
creates a space and platform for people to share ideas, information, facts and feelings. It improves the reliability
and coordination of information. As a result, key stakeholders can make informed decisions quickly and efficiently.

In this article, we define the communication process, identify its major components and explain how a
communication process works with an example for you to follow.

Related: Communication Skills: Definitions and Examples

What is the communication process?

The communication process is a dynamic framework that describes how a message travels between a sender and
receiver using various communication channels. Its goal is to ensure the receiver decodes the message correctly
and can provide feedback with ease and speed. This is especially important for larger organisations that need to
notify people in different areas and time zones about an event, problem or change.

Technology in the workplace has made the communication process more effective. A message is no longer
communicated just through voice or writing; it is also shared through audio, video, email and social media. A
communication process streamlines the flow of information and takes advantage of multiple channels in the best
way possible.

Communication processes need good management to sustain them in the long-run. Leaders in the workplace
establish the style, tone and function of communication. If you are in a position of authority, it is especially
important that you model good communication.

Key components of the communication process

Here are seven essential components that make up the communication process:

1. Sender : The person who conceptualised the idea and wants it delivered to the recipient.
2. Encoding : The way the information is described or translated into a message.
3. Message: The idea, fact or opinion that the sender wants to communicate.
4. Communication channel : The method of delivering the message.
5. Receiver : The target audience of the message.
6. Decoding: The interpretation of the message.
7. Feedback: The response or action a receiver takes after decoding a message.

How does the communication process work

The communication process works through a series of seven steps, they include:

1. The sender develops an idea to be sent

Communication begins with an idea. For you to construct a clear and actionable message, you need to organise
your thoughts. To understand the purpose of your message, answer these three essential questions:

 Who do you want your message to reach?

  What information does the receiver need to know?
 What do you want the receiver to do with this information?

2. The sender encodes the message

Once the sender develops an idea, they need to present the message in a coherent structure. Ask yourself the
following questions to understand the receiver's communication style better:

 Is the receiver knowledgeable about the topic?

 Does the receiver prefer a general overview or detailed information?
 Do you need to provide any additional resources to aid their judgement?
 Can you think of any distractions, such as preconceived ideas, that could influence their interpretation of
the message?

3. The sender selects the channel of communication that will be used

Think about how you need to send your message. The communication channel you use should organise your
information in a way that enhances your point. Consider the four main types of communication channels when
making your decision:

 Verbal: Face-to-face, telephone, video conferences, presentations and visual media

 Non-verbal: Eye-contact, facial expressions, body language and dress code
 Written: Emails, newsletters, press releases, text messages, social media posts,
records, proposals and other business documents
 Visual: Graphs, charts and drawings

4. The message travels over the channel of communication

The sender should select an appropriate medium for the message. This will depend on your relationship with the
receiver, the purpose of your writing and the urgency of the message.

Technology has made it faster than ever to share important information. However, in the business environment,
formal written communication, such as contracts and legal documents, continues to exist to safeguard the interests
of an organisation and its employees.

5. The receiver receives the message

Next, the recipient receives the message. The receiver will process the message according to the communication
channel the sender uses. For example, the sender could deliver the message by speaking to the receiver face-to-
face. For more formal messages, the sender may present the message during a board meeting instead.

6. The receiver decodes the message

The receiver then decodes the sender's message. In this stage, the receiver processes the information,
understands its context and analyses its implications. This is one of the most crucial stages in the communication
process. If the receiver can successfully decode the message, this implies the effectiveness of the communication
process. As a result, businesses can continue their operations with little disruption.

7. The receiver provides feedback

Feedback is the most important step in the communication process. Ask yourself the following questions to
analyse and improve your future communication:

 Have you arranged a process for collecting feedback?

 Have you given the receiver an opportunity to ask questions?
  Can you pick up on non-verbal cues to understand how the message has been received?
 Could you have done anything differently to achieve a better result?

Types of noise during the communication process

Reducing 'noise' or distractions can significantly increase your chances of successfully communicating your point.
It ensures your message does not get misinterpreted or ignored, and the receiver takes it seriously instead. To
effectively eliminate noise, senders should consider the receiver's personal beliefs and their physical environment.
Here are the four types of noise you need to eliminate for smooth communication:

1. Psychological noise

This type of noise interferes with communication between the sender and receiver because of personal barriers.
Managing psychological noise is a sign of respect. It helps build trust and encourages people to speak up Some
examples of psychological noise are:

 Preconceived beliefs
 Biases and prejudice
 Stereotypes
 Sarcasm

2. Physical noise

Physical noise describes external distractions in your workplace. Noise from colleagues speaking loudly or
listening to music exemplifies how our surroundings can hamper us from understanding or decoding a message.

3. Environmental noise

Environmental noise makes it difficult to hear or concentrate on a message, for example, noise from a construction
site or passing traffic. Noise can affect our emotions and, therefore, the way we perceive a message. That is why it
is important to keep distractions to a minimum.

4. Semantic noise

Semantic noise is interference on the sender's end. This could be because of technical issues or poor
communication skills. To communicate a message clearly, it is important to avoid jargon, abstract ideas and
ambiguous language when writing. Similarly, speaking clearly in a relaxed and confident tone can communicate
your point more effectively.

When choosing a technological channel of communication, it is best to check the file size of your attachment and
the audio quality of your video before sending it to the receiver.

Communication process example

Priya is a sales manager who wants to request a larger department-wide budget for the next fiscal year. To get her
budget approved, she needs to go through the proper communication process. She takes the following steps:

Step 1: Priya needs to develop her budget idea before she can send it out.

Priya identifies the key stakeholders that need to approve her budget. They include the CEO and investors of the
company.

Next, she outlines key information she needs to share to convince her boss about her message:

 She needs the extra funds to remain competitive.

  The additional budget will elicit a strong return on investment.

Step 2: Priya encodes the message.

Priya knows the receiver of this information, her CEO, very well. He prefers information that relates to the big-
picture organisational goals. Her boss is also a very busy man; therefore, she needs to schedule a suitable time
where he will not be distracted by other operational matters. To convince him of the importance of her budget
request, she needs to provide him with valid statistics and data.

Step 3: Priya needs to select the channel of communication that she will use.

Priya decides that the best way to get her budget approved is via a face-to-face presentation.

Step 4: Priya's message travels over the channel of communication.

Priya delivers her presentation at the company's monthly board meeting.

Step 5: Priya's CEO receives her budget request during their meeting.

Step 6: Priya's CEO decodes the message.

The executives on the board ask her questions about her additional budget request. They review her statistics and
discuss her presentation amongst themselves.

Step 7: Priya's CEO provides feedback.

After the presentation, Priya looks over the comments made and thinks about how she can use their input in future
budget proposals.

Barriers to Communication
The process of communication is susceptible to many barriers. These can be categorized into problems caused
by the sender, problems in message transmission, problems in reception, and problems in receiver
comprehension.

Dealing with Communication Barriers

Though most communication barriers require situation specific handling, a few basic methods for dealing
with them are available. These methods such as know your subject, focus on the purpose, know your
audience, and be organized.

Summary
• Communication is the process of transmitting messages.
• Communication can be verbal, non-verbal or both. Non-verbal communication involves the use of
gestures and facial expressions to convey a message.
• Verbal communication involves the written and spoken forms.
• The process of communication comprises the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback.
• There are many barriers to effective communication.
• These barriers can arise at the level of the sender, receiver, in the channel of communication,
the medium or at the stage of message comprehension.
• The barriers to effective communication can be overcome by a thorough knowledge of the subject, by
focusing on the purpose, by knowing or understanding the audience (their background, experience, what
are they here for, etc) and by organizing the content of your briefing or mission.
 Barriers to Effective Communication

Common Barriers to Effective Communication:

 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and some
topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may include, but are not limited to, politics,
religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and sex, racism and any opinion that may be seen as
unpopular.

 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. (See our page Barriers to
Effective Listening for more information).

 Differences in perception and viewpoint.

 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.

 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures,
posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone calls, text messages and other
communication methods that rely on technology are often less effective than face-to-face communication.

 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.

 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People often
hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions. Our page The
Ladder of Inference explains this in more detail.

 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the way in
which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies between cultures and between
different social settings. See our page on Intercultural Awareness for more information.

A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by continually
checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

A Categorisation of Barriers to Communication

Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.
However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as a
barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of specialist jargon
and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used.

Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even considered offensive. See our
page: Effective Speaking for more information.

Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent, received and
perceived.

For example:

If someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message as if
they were not stressed.
 Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships. See our
pages Stress: Symptoms and Triggers and Avoiding Stress for more information.
Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it is easy to say things
that we may later regret, and also to misinterpret what others are saying.

See our pages: What is Anger? and Anger Management for more information.
More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel comfortable
communicating - they may feel shy or embarrassed about saying how they really feel, or read unintended negative
sub-texts in messages they hear.

Visit our pages on Improving Self-Esteem and Assertiveness for more information.

Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers to communication may result from the receiver’s physical state.
For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the content of a spoken conversation especially
if there is significant background noise.

Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the
sender and receiver(s).
Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available and less
technology is required. The ideal communication is face-to-face.

Although modern technology often helps to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate channel can be used
to overcome the physical barriers.

Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organisations where there are inefficient or
inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of understanding of the
roles and responsibilities for communication. In such organisations, people may be unclear of their role in the
communication process and therefore not know what is expected of them.

Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from communicating effectively.

Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to
change or a lack of motivation. To be an effective receiver of messages you should attempt to overcome your
own attitudinal barriers to to help ensure more effective communication.

Seven Cs of Effective Communication

 Clear. Ensure that the information is presented clearly.
 Concise. Be concise. ...
 Correct. Be accurate, avoid giving misleading information.
 Complete. Give all the information, not just part of it.
 Courteous. Be polite and non-threatening, avoid conflict.
Constructive
There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as oral
communication. These are as follows:

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set and convey the
message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:
 Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.
 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional cost is
incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It leaves no
questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the audience/readers/receivers of
message as they get all desired and crucial information.
 It persuades the audience.

2. Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in least
possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity for effective
communication. Concise communication has following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
 Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.

3 Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective

communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view points,
background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience,
their requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the
audience is maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message
to suit the audience’s needs while making your message complete. Features of
considerate communication are as follows:

 Emphasize on “you” approach.

 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will stimulate a positive
reaction from the audience.
 Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather than “what is
impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed, thanks, warm, healthy, help,
etc.

4 Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than
trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:
 It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

5 Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather

than fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message
has following features:

 It is supported with specific facts and figures.

 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
 6 Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s
expression as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be
sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following
features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the receiver of the
message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.

7 Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in

communication. Correct communication has following features:
a. The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
b. If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
c. Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
d. It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
e. It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

Awareness of these 7 C’s of communication makes you an effective communicator.

Flow of Communication in an Organization

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. External

Downward Flow of Communication:

Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In
other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication.
This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the employees at lower
levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and formeeting the expectations of their
managers. Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes -
Providing feedback on employees performance
Giving job instructions
Providing a complete understanding of the employees job as well as to communicate them how their job is
related to other jobs in the organization.
Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.
Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of downward
communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers must:
 Specify communication objective
 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
1. Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form .

Upward Flow of Communication:

Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. It provides
feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to
convey their problems and performances to their superiors.
 The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in
the decision-making process.
Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the
employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The
managers get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and
organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.
Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in
improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -performance reports
made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,
letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.

Lateral / Horizontal Communication:

Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e.,
communication between peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent
organizational member. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
It is time saving.
It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
It facilitates co-operation among team members.
It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
It helps in solving various organizational problems.
It is a means of information sharing
It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts within a
department.

Diagonal Communication:
Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal
communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a
training manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.

External Communication:
Communication that takes place between a manager and external groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks,
financial institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

The Five Communication Styles

1) Assertive
2) Aggressive
3) Passive-aggressive
4) Submissive
5) Manipulative

The Assertive Style

Assertive communication is born of high self-esteem. It is the healthiest and most effective style of communication
- the sweet spot between being too aggressive and too passive. When we are assertive, we have the confidence
to communicate without resorting to games or manipulation. We know our limits and don't allow ourselves to be
pushed beyond them just because someone else wants or needs something from us. Surprisingly, however,
Assertive is the style most people use least.
Behavioural Characteristics Non-Verbal Behaviour

o Achieving goals without hurting others o Voice – medium pitch and speed and volume
o Protective of own rights and respectful of others' o Posture – open posture, symmetrical balance, tall,
 rights relaxed, no fidgeting
o Socially and emotionally expressive o Gestures – even, rounded, expansive
o Making your own choices and taking responsibility for o Facial expression – good eye contact
them o Spatial position – in control, respectful of others
o Asking directly for needs to be met, while accepting
the possibility of rejection
o Accepting compliments

Language People on the Receiving end Feel

o "Please would you turn the volume down? I am really o They can take the person at their word
struggling to concentrate on my studies." o They know where they stand with the person
o "I am so sorry, but I won't be able to help you with o The person can cope with justified criticism and
your project this afternoon, as I have a dentist accept compliments
appointment." o The person can look after themselves
o Respect for the person

The Aggressive Style

This style is about winning – often at someone else's expense. An aggressive person behaves as if their needs
are the most important, as though they have more rights, and have more to contribute than other people. It is an
ineffective communication style as the content of the message may get lost because people are too busy reacting
to the way it's delivered.

Behavioural Characteristics Non-Verbal Behaviour

o Frightening, threatening, loud, hostile o Voice – volume is loud
o Willing to achieve goals at expense of others o Posture – 'bigger than' others
o Out to "win" o Gestures - big, fast, sharp/jerky
o Demanding, abrasive o Facial expression – scowl, frown, glare
o Belligerent o Spatial position - Invade others' personal space, try to
o Explosive, unpredictable stand 'over' others
o Intimidating
o Bullying

Language People on the Receiving end Feel

o "You are crazy!"
o "Do it my way!" o Defensive, aggressive (withdraw or fight back)
o "You make me sick!" o Uncooperative
o "That is just about enough out of you!" o Resentful/Vengeful
o Sarcasm, name-calling, threatening, blaming, o Humiliated/degraded
insulting. o Hurt
o Afraid
o A loss of respect for the aggressive person
o Mistakes and problems are not reported to an
aggressive person in case they "blow up'. Others are
afraid of being railroaded, exploited or humiliated.

The Passive-Aggressive Style

This is a style in which people appear passive on the surface, but are actually acting out their anger in indirect or
behind-the-scenes ways. Prisoners of War often act in passive-aggressive ways in order to deal with an
overwhelming lack of power. People who behave in this manner usually feel powerless and resentful, and express
their feelings by subtly undermining the object (real or imagined) of their resentments – even if this ends up
sabotaging themselves. The expression "Cut off your nose to spite your face" is a perfect description of passive-
aggressive behaviour.

Behavioural Characteristics Non-Verbal Behaviour

o Indirectly aggressive o Voice – Often speaks with a sugary sweet voice.
o Sarcastic o Posture – often asymmetrical – e.g. Standing with
o Devious hand on hip, and hip thrust out (when being sarcastic or
o Unreliable patronising)
o Complaining o Gestures – Can be jerky, quick
o Sulky o Facial expression – Often looks sweet and innocent
o Patronising o Spatial position – often too close, even touching other
o Gossips as pretends to be warm and friendly
o Two-faced - Pleasant to people to their faces, but
poisonous behind their backs (rumours, sabotage etc.)
People do things to actively harm the other party e.g. they
sabotage a machine by loosening a bolt or put too much
salt in their food.

Language People on the Receiving end Feel

o Passive-aggressive language is when you say
something like "Why don't you go ahead and do it; my o Confused
ideas aren't very good anyway" but maybe with a little o Angry
sting of irony or even worse, sarcasm, such as "You o Hurt
always know better in any case." o Resentful
o "Oh don't you worry about me, I can sort myself out –
like I usually have to."

The Submissive Style

This style is about pleasing other people and avoiding conflict. A submissive person behaves as if other peoples'
needs are more important, and other people have more rights and more to contribute.

Behavioural Characteristics Non-Verbal Behaviour

o Apologetic (feel as if you are imposing when you ask o Voice – Volume is soft
for what you want) o Posture – make themselves as small as possible,
o Avoiding any confrontation head down
o Finding difficulty in taking responsibility or decisions o Gestures – twist and fidget
o Yielding to someone else's preferences (and o Facial expression – no eye contact
discounting own rights and needs) o Spatial position – make themselves smaller/lower
o Opting out than others
o Feeling like a victim o Submissive behaviour is marked by a martyr-like
o Blaming others for events attitude (victim mentality) and a refusal to try out
o Refusing compliments initiatives, which might improve things.
o Inexpressive (of feelings and desires)

Language People on the Receiving end Feel

o "Oh, it's nothing, really."
o "Oh, that's all right; I didn't want it anymore." o Exasperated
o "You choose; anything is fine." o Frustrated
o Guilty
o You don't know what you want (and so discount you)
o They can take advantage of you.
o Others resent the low energy surrounding the
submissive person and eventually give up trying to help
them because their efforts are subtly or overtly rejected.

The Manipulative Style

This style is scheming, calculating and shrewd. Manipulative communicators are skilled at influencing or controlling
others to their own advantage. Their spoken words hide an underlying message, of which the other person may be
totally unaware.

Behavioural Characteristics Non-Verbal Behaviour

o Cunning o Voice – patronising, envious, ingratiating, often high
o Controlling of others in an insidious way – for pitch
example, by sulking o Facial expression – Can put on the 'hang dog"
o Asking indirectly for needs to be met expression
o Making others feel obliged or sorry for them.
o Uses 'artificial' tears

Language People on the Receiving end Feel

o "You are so lucky to have those chocolates, I wish I
had some. I can't afford such expensive chocolates." o Guilty
o "I didn't have time to buy anything, so I had to wear o Frustrated
this dress. I just hope I don't look too awful in it." ('Fishing' o Angry, irritated or annoyed
for a compliment). o Resentful
o Others feel they never know where they stand with a
manipulative person and are annoyed at constantly having
to try to work out what is going on.

The Benefits of Understanding the Different Styles of Communication

A good understanding of the five basic styles of communication will help you learn how to react most effectively
when confronted with a difficult person. It will also help you recognise when you are not being assertive or not
behaving in the most effective way. Remember, you always have a choice as to which communication style you
use. Being assertive is usually the most effective, but other styles are, of course, necessary in certain situations –
such as being submissive when under physical threat (a mugging, hijacking etc.).
Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. Once you understand your own communication
style, it is much easier to identify any shortcomings or areas which can be improved on, if you want to start
communicating in a more assertive manner.
If you're serious about strengthening your relationships, reducing stress from conflict and decreasing unnecessary
anxiety in your life, practice being more assertive. It will help you diffuse anger, reduce guilt and build better
relationships both personally and professionally.
Remember the first rule of effective communication: The success of the communication is the responsibility of the
communicator
The 4 communication styles and how they impact Customer

Passive Communicators
Passive communicators are people that often feel uncomfortable advocating for themselves or their needs. They’ll
try to come across as indifferent and yielding in discussions, and often support others over themselves when
communicating. Passive communicators can often feel a lot of anger or frustration because they struggle with
outward communication. That frustration can start to transition them to a more passive-aggressive style.
In real or in-person conversations, some tell-tale signs of passive communicators are:
 Difficulty making eye contact with the person they're speaking to
 Inability to say no to requests from others
 A go-with-the-flow type of attitude
 Poor posture and closed-off body language
When communicating over text with passive communicators, some phrases that you might see are:
 "It's no big deal."
 "I'm not super worried about it."
 "I just want to keep the peace."
In customer support, these communicators are usually the type of customer who will seem fine in a conversation,
but then leave a negative CSAT review. Or, if you respond to them, they may never respond at all, preferring to
internalize the issue or give up on its resolution, rather than needing to advocate for themselves.
The best things to do to communicate effectively with passive communicators are: give them time to open up and
share their concerns, listen to them patiently, and ask leading questions that may help them open up. For instance,
if a customer doesn't respond to a conversation, follow-up a few days later to check-in.
Passive communicators struggle with conflict, so avoid confrontation, dismissing their questions, or speaking over
them.
Aggressive Communicators
Aggressive communicators rely heavily on volume and force for their communications. Their primary focus is to
dominate or control the conversation with tactics like shaming, attacking, and making intense eye contact.
You can recognize aggressive communicators through the following in-person traits:
 Talking over other people
 Listening poorly with frequent interruptions
 Making intense demands that may seem ungrounded
  Making gestures such as pointing fingers, staring, frowning or glaring
 Criticizing or threatening the people around them
Via text, aggressive communication looks much the same:
 "I know I'm right!"
 "I'll get my way no matter what."
 "It's all your fault."
 In support, aggressive communicators abound: they're the type of customer that threatens to sue, asks to
speak with your manager, or maybe even throws around the fact that they are looking at your competitors.
They can feel frustrating and painful to deal with, but just like the other communicators, it's all a matter of
understanding where they're coming from.
 When working or trying to defuse aggressive communicators, be ready to confidently answer any of their
follow-up questions right on the spot, and communicate bluntly and decisively. Any customers or
colleagues that are aggressive communicators will expect to immediately focus on the topic at hand and
get down to business. Don't make any promises that you can't keep, or take their bluntness too
personally—they're human, just like you are.
Passive-Aggressive Communicators
Like passive communicators, most passive-aggressive communicators would instead internalize confrontation than
outwardly express it—at least directly. That said, they are more verbal than their fully-passive counterparts. For
instance, a passive-aggressive communicator will mutter under their breath, rather than saying nothing like a
passive communicator, or yelling like an aggressive communicator. They can have trouble recognizing their anger,
often use facial expressions that don't align with how they feel, and frequently deny there's even a problem.
Passive-aggressive communication is, ironically, pretty easy to recognize when in-person or over video chat:
 Frequently using sarcasm in conversation
 Using words or facial expressions don't match up with their actions

 Having difficulty acknowledging the emotions of themselves or others

In text, this style of communication can be less simple to interpret, as is often misconstrued as genuine. Here are
some examples of ways that passive-aggressive communicators might talk over email or in chat:

 "That's fine with me, but don't be surprised if someone else gets mad."

 "Sure, I guess we can do things your way if you really think that's best."

 "I guess I could do that, but isn't that meant to be your job?"

In customer communication, passive-aggressive communicators may be the type of person to respond to a well-
written email explaining why your company doesn't offer a particular feature with "Figures." They can get under
your skin and make you see red when it comes to trying to communicate with them.

Keep your cool! Try to understand what is driving their behavior and what role you play in it. Pay attention to the
way things are phrased, or what they’re emphasizing—you may be able to defuse their frustration quickly if you
focus on their core issue or problem.
Always try to set core ground rules for communication, as well. Just because they're your customer doesn't mean
that you should let them talk down to you. Do not let yourself become passive or all-out aggressive. Remember
that everyone brings a few internal frustrations to conversations, and it may not have anything to do with you.
Assertive Communicators
Assertive communicators bring the best of every communication style to their conversations. They can express
their own needs while still considering others' perspectives and aim to balance their rights with others' rights. It is
best for customer support agents to communicate assertively.
Some physical representations of assertive communicators are:
 Speaking with confidence about their needs
 Encouraging everyone to speak in a conversation
 Using "I" statements rather than placing blame
 Saying "no" calmly
 Maintaining good eye contact
They are equally skilled at conversation over text in email or chat. Some phrases you might hear from this kind of
communicator are:
 "I get where you're coming from."
  "We are both allowed to express ourselves."
 "Here's what I think…"
 "I respect your opinion."
Assertive communicators are pretty easy to have conversations with. An example of this communication style
would be a customer submitting a detailed feature request but being understanding when you let them know you
won't be building it. They are vocal about their needs but also understanding of other perspectives.
Assertive communicators enjoy and function best with conversation partners who are willing to openly and
honestly discuss problems with them. Conversely, if you waste their time, speak disrespectfully to them, or
interrupt, they will get frustrated like most other communicators.
It takes all kinds
While it may feel like there are certain types of communicators that you would prefer to speak with in the inbox, it's
essential to recognize that everyone is just bringing their own experience to their conversations. If you run into an
aggressive communicator, instead of letting yourself get caught up, treat them with calmness and respect. With
passive communicators, give them the time and space to work through their trouble. Once you recognize each
type of communicator's signs, you equip yourself with the tools needed to have meaningful, fulfilling conversations
with them.
There's no such thing as a bad communicator, just people that communicate differently from you. Remember that
the next time you're gritting your teeth, writing up a response to a particularly trying customer—maybe they're
doing the same thing on the other end! Learn about the different styles and work to start recognizing them in your
day-to-day. That way, you're one step closer to quickly responding in a way that feels good for both of you.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Interpersonal skills involve the ability to communicate and build relationships with others. Often called ‘people
skills’, they tend to incorporate both your innate personality traits and how you’ve learned to handle certain social
situations. Effective interpersonal skills can help you during the job interview process and can have a positive
impact on your career advancement.

What are interpersonal skills?

Interpersonal skills are traits you rely on when you interact and communicate with others. They cover a variety of
scenarios where communication and cooperation are essential.
Some examples of interpersonal skills include:

 Active listening
 Teamwork
 Responsibility
 Dependability
 Leadership
 Motivation
 Flexibility
 Patience
 Empathy

In a work environment, strong interpersonal skills are an asset that can help you navigate complexity, change and
day-to-day tasks.
Why are interpersonal skills important?
Strong interpersonal skills can help you during the job interview process as interviewers look for applicants who
can work well with others. They will also help you succeed in almost any job by helping you understand other
people and adjusting your approach to work together effectively. For example, while a software engineer may
spend the majority of her time working on code independently, she may need to collaborate with other
programmers to effectively bring a product to market.
This is especially true as more companies implement collaborative agile frameworks to get work done. Employers
will be looking for workers who can both perform technical tasks with excellence and communicate well with
colleagues.
Examples of interpersonal skills
Unlike technical or ‘hard’ skills, interpersonal skills are ‘soft’ skills that are easily transferable across industries and
positions. Employers value interpersonal skills because they contribute to positive work environments and help
maintain an efficient workflow.
Here is a list of interpersonal skills for you to identify the ones you may possess that are valuable to employers.
Active listening
Active listening means listening to others with the purpose of gathering information and engaging with the speaker.
Active listeners avoid distracting behaviours while in conversation with others. This can mean putting away or
closing laptops or mobile devices while listening and asking and answering questions when prompted.
DependabilityDependable people can be relied on in any given situation. This can include anything from being
punctual to keeping promises. Employers highly value dependable workers and trust them with important tasks
and duties.
Empathy
A worker’s ‘emotional intelligence’ is how well they understand the needs and feelings of others. Employers may
hire empathetic or compassionate employees to create a positive, high-functioning workplace.
Leadership
Leadership is an important interpersonal skill that involves effective decision making. Effective leaders
incorporate many other interpersonal skills like empathy and patience to make decisions. Leadership skills can be
used by both managers and individual contributors. In any role, employers value people who take ownership to
reach common goals.
Teamwork
The ability to work together as a team is extremely valuable in every workplace. Teamwork involves many other
interpersonal skills like communication, active listening, flexibility and responsibility. Those who are good ‘team
players’ are often given important tasks in the workplace and may be seen as good candidates for promotions.

Jobs that require interpersonal skills

Any job you apply for will require interpersonal skills of some kind. Here are some jobs that rely on strong
interpersonal skills more than others.
Teachers
Teachers need strong interpersonal skills in order to work collaboratively with each other, administrators, students
and parents. An empathic and patient teacher can help students learn and grow effectively in their education.
Administrative Assistants
Administrative assistants need to be highly dependable among other interpersonal skills. Administrative assistants
also come in contact with customers or clients on a regular basis, making interpersonal skills a necessary function
of the job.
Nurses
Comfort and care for patients is a key skill for nurses. Interpersonal skills of all kinds are integral in this industry,
especially empathy and patience.
Marketing Managers
Marketing requires several technical and soft skills. Interpersonal communication skills are an important part of
marketing and marketing management as marketing professionals not only work collaboratively in developing
marketing campaigns but also with clients and sales teams.

Customer Service Agents

Customer service requires a high level of people skills. Those employed in customer service spend most of their
work hours engaged with customers who may be frustrated, confused or angry. Communication skills are
necessary, especially patience, empathy and active listening.

How to improve interpersonal skills? While interpersonal skills can seem easy to practice as you interact with
others on a daily basis, making a deliberate plan can help you quickly improve. Consider the following ways to
improve your interpersonal skills.

1. Attend workshops or online classes. There are several workshops, online classes and videos on ways you
can practice building interpersonal skills. While many are free, some are available at a cost.
2. Seek opportunities to build relationships. If you work from home or do not otherwise have many
opportunities to build interpersonal skills, you might consider joining a group. This could be related to your
work—networking or industry-specific groups—or simply a group that shares a similar interest or hobby.
3. Be thoughtful about ways your interactions could improve. Take time to review the interactions you have
had and consider ways you could have interacted more effectively. This might be certain words you said,
ways you reacted or body language you used.
4. Ask trusted friends or colleagues for constructive criticism. It is helpful to get a third-party perspective about
your skill level and specific ways you can improve. Ask friends or trusted colleagues to provide constructive
criticism regarding your interpersonal skills.
 5. Observe other positive interpersonal interactions. It can also be helpful to learn by observing others use
their interpersonal skills. Observe positive interactions of those around you and apply the qualities you
admire to your own relationships.
6. Seek mentorship. Asking someone you trust, admire and respect to counsel you on improving
interpersonal skills and advancing in your career can be an extremely effective way to learn.

Setting goals for yourself can also provide structure, making your learning more efficient by understanding when
and how you have made adequate improvements.

How to highlight interpersonal skills when applying for jobs?

During the job application and interview phase, you can highlight your interpersonal skills on your resume and your
cover letter. After you are hired, you should continue to maintain your skills and develop new ones.
Including interpersonal skills on a resume
On your resume, include a few key interpersonal skills under the ‘skills’ section. Generally, the best skills to put on
a resume are those that you are confident will be verified by any of the references you list on your job application.
Review the job posting to understand which of your skills are most relevant to the job you’re applying for and which
you should prioritise on your resume.
Your resume skills section may look like this.
Technical skills: POS Systems, Excel, HTML, Digital Phone Systems
Additional skills: Effective Team Player, Highly Communicative and Cooperative, Active Listener, Innovative
Researcher
You can also provide examples of your interpersonal skills in the ‘experience’ section of your resume. Do this by
including concrete examples of how you worked with others and the results you achieved. For example,
collaborated with designers, copywriters and strategists on a rebranding initiative that resulted in a 30 percent
increase in website visits.
Including interpersonal skills on a cover letter
For your cover letter, you may want to focus on one strong, relevant interpersonal skill. This can help the employer
get a good idea about an area you see as one of your strengths. You may also want to briefly explain how that skill
can benefit the employer and create a good work relationship.

An example section highlighting your skills in a cover letter could look like the following.
With my previous employer, I was often called upon to help form collaborative teams. My managers pointed to my
ability to listen and understand my colleagues’ strengths to best determine how to assign effective roles._
Interpersonal skills in a job interview and on the job
Your interpersonal skills will be necessary both during the job interview and on the job.

During your job interview, the hiring manager may be looking to see how actively you listen, whether you maintain
eye contact and if you are courteous and respectful. The job interview is also a good opportunity to show
dependability. Arriving early for your interview, for example, shows you are serious about the interview and respect
the interviewer’s time.

Once you successfully get a job, you will continue to rely on interpersonal skills. By demonstrating that you are
dependable, taking the initiative to lead and having a positive impact on your colleagues, you can develop a strong
reputation as a collaborative teammate.

Interpersonal communication skills are increasingly valued by employers in every industry. Regardless of what
type of career you are looking to enter, your ability to work well with your colleagues and employer may make a
good impression and result in positive career growth.

What Is Interpersonal Communication?

Interpersonal communication is the process of exchange of information, ideas and feelings between two or more
people through verbal or non-verbal methods.
It often includes face-to-face exchange of information, in a form of voice, facial expressions, body language and
gestures. The level of one’s interpersonal communication skills is measured through the effectiveness of
transferring messages to others.
Commonly used interpersonal communication within an organization include daily internal employee
communication, client meetings, employee performance reviews and project discussions. In addition, online
conversations today make a large portion of employees’ interpersonal communication in the workplace.
The Importance of Interpersonal Communication in the Workplace
On a scale from 1 to 5, managers rate the importance of having good interpersonal skills at 4.37, just below the
‘ability to work in teams.
There are many reasons why they are so valued; even though most workplace business is now conducted
through online communication channels, it is still necessary to possess verbal skills in order to work
effectively with your colleagues and bosses.

Therefore, interpersonal skills are crucial for business success. Let’s now take a look into why interpersonal
communication is crucial for your career development and productivity in the workplace.

1. Problem solving
Interpersonal communication skills are necessary because they allow people to discuss problems and weigh
the pros and cons of alternatives before coming up with the final solution.
For example, brainstorming exercises are situations in which interpersonal communication comes into play as it is
very important that everyone feels respected and free to share their voice, ideas and views.

2. Alignment with business goals

Poor communication between employers and employees can harm the business in many ways. When
managers and leaders are unable to clearly communicate tasks, workers can quickly become frustrated and
disconnected with the business goals.
Moreover, many employees say that their managers don’t give them clear directions and goals for their work.
herefore, managers should be able to, with proper online and offline communication as well as the right internal
communication tools, continuously align employees with the business strategy.

3. Trust
According to the American Psychological Association, a quarter of employees in the US do not trust their
employers, and only about 50% of them believe that their bosses are open with them.

Lack of trust and transparency are some of the most common causes of poor workplace communication.
Interpersonal communication skills are crucial for improving trust and workplace communication, and all
employees, especially business leaders, should therefore improve communication with their employees.

4. Change management
Good interpersonal communication is very important during change management efforts within organizations.
Effective employee communication helps employees better understand the change, align with it and collaboratively
work towards implementing the change successfully.

5. Company culture
Interpersonal relationships, especially when executed well, are important for an organizational culture to thrive.
When employees possess good interpersonal communication skills, organizational culture becomes more synergic
and positive. With bad interpersonal relationships, on the other hand, negativity, confusion, and
conflicts become inevitable.
This ultimately ruins the work environment, reduces employee productivity, and adversely affects the company's
bottom line.

6. Employee recognition
Good interpersonal communication drives more employee recognition. When employees have good
interpersonal relationships with each other and their managers, they are more likely to recognize each others’
good work and give constructive feedback.

7. Workplace miscommunication
Managers who maintain professionalism, open workplace communication and a positive attitude are more likely to
be seen as approachable by their employees.
When employees feel like they can speak openly with decision-makers, workplace miscommunication, gossip and
rumors are much less likely to happen.
8. Personal relationships
Interpersonal skills are extremely important for creating and maintaining meaningful personal relationships in the
workplace.
People with good interpersonal communication skills can, therefore, build healthy relationships with their
colleagues and work much better as a team.

9. Effective management and leadership

The ability to foster interpersonal relationships, establish trust and communicate clearly are all crucial skills for
an effective lead
When a manager has poor interpersonal communication skills, they can expect to irritate and confuse employees.
In fact, there is a greater need for managers to work on their interpersonal skills than there is for the average
employee.

10. Employee success

Good interpersonal communication skills are also necessary for managers to help their employees do their jobs
successfully. Leaders need to be able to pass on the right skills to the employees that will enable them to perform
their tasks and achieve business goals.
Moreover, they should be the ones to teach their employees interpersonal communication skills.

11. Conflict management

Conflict is normal in the workplace, and we can’t always expect from our employees to resolve conflicts in a
calm and timely manner. When conflicts like this arise, interpersonal communication becomes crucial for
resolving them.
Conflict management cannot happen without effective interpersonal communication. In fact, all conflict
management strategies that use communication to soften situations in stressful environments are much more
successful.
12. Career development
As many employers are looking for workers with good communication skills, continuous improvements of
interpersonal communication skills can bring career progressions for many employees.
Moreover, in a survey conducted by Workforce Solutions Group, it was revealed that more than 60% of
employers say that applicants are not demonstrating sufficient communication and interpersonal skills to be
considered for jobs.
In addition, the increasing prevalence of communication technologies means that employees and communicators
now have to adapt to the new employee communication trends.
13. Remote work
This year, we have all witnessed the importance of communication in the workplace. With the emergence of
remote work, interpersonal communication among peers, colleagues, managers and leaders has been disrupted.
Yet, it is more important than ever before.
In order to keep their cultures open and transparent, employers need to continue to drive engaging workplace
conversations even when employees are physically dispersed.
14. Crisis management
In addition to remote work, many employers will remember 2020 as the year of crisis management. One of the
characteristics of companies that manage crisis more successfully, is the ability to drive interpersonal
communication within the workplace.
When employees are connected and have the ability to collaborate efficiently, it is much easier for organizations to
communicate the impact of the crisis on both personal and company-wide levels.

Interpersonal Communication and Remote Work

The fact that remote work is becoming the new normal for many organization, also rises many questions
around how to adapt workplace communications to this new situation.

Even though interpersonal communication is often considered as an in-person communication, we all know that
remote work is completely reshaping the way our employees communicate.
In order to adapt to this new trend, employers are now looking for new ways to keep their workforce connected,
engaged and well informed. Also, as many employees are now experiencing extensive information overload,
employers need to understand that, when it comes to internal communications, one size does not fit all.
They need to have a very good understanding about how internal communications channels are used, and they
need to have the knowledge around how to make communication more personalized based on employees'
locations, languages spoken, titles and responsibilities and well as employees interests.
Many are, therefore, implementing new, modern employee communication solutions that serve as a central
place for keeping remote, blue collar as well as in-office employees together, as well as for driving meaningful,
two-way company conversations on a daily basis.

6 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

In communication theory, there are six key components of interpersonal communication.
The communicators
Term communicator refers to both the sender of the information as well as the receiver. In interpersonal
communication, there are at least two communicators involved in the conversation.
The message
One of the most important parts of interpersonal communication is the message. Message can be conveyed in
many ways: speech, body language, tone of voice, gestures and other indicators..
Noise
Noise refers to the gap between the message that is received and what it sent. Examples of noise include jargon,
language barriers, inattention and more. Noise is the problem that many companies face in the workplace, and the
reason why internal communicators are struggling to get the necessary employees' attention.
Feedback
Feedback is the response of the receiver. In other words, it’s the message sent back to the sender. Feedback is
important because it allows the sender to know whether the message has been received and interpreted correctly.
Context
Whether a message is received and interpreted correctly depends mostly on context. Therefore, interpersonal
communication is contextual. Context is about the environmental factors that influence the outcomes of
communication.
These include time and place, as well as factors like family relationships, gender, culture, personal interest and the
environment
Channel
Finally, this interpersonal communication element refers to how the communication occurs. A message is sent and
received through a specific channel, or medium.
Besides face-to-face communication, some of the most common communication channels in the workplace
include, emails and intranets. Identifying and understanding the performance of those communication channels is
extremely important for employers.

As the communication ecosystem in the workplace is becoming extremely complex, and communication channels
such as email are becoming more and more inefficient, companies are now looking for ways to consolidate all
those channels into a single communication platform.

10 Must-Have Interpersonal Communication Skills

Research published in the Business Communication Quarterly journal explains that hard skills are the
technical expertise needed for a job, while soft skills are interpersonal qualities, such as people skills.
Employers across the world are becoming more aware of the importance of soft skills, with 77% of
employers saying that soft skills are just as important as hard skills.

These can often be harder to identify and measure, but are just as important for career progression, personal
and team morale as well as business success.

The research above outlines 10 key soft skills identified as crucial by business executives. These include:

1. Communication – oral, speaking capability, written, presenting, listening

2. Courtesy – manners, etiquette, business etiquette, gracious, says please and thank you, respectful
3. Flexibility – adaptability, willing to change, lifelong learner, accepts new things, adjusts, teachable
4. Integrity – honest, ethical, high morals, has personal values
5. Interpersonal skills – nice, personable, sense of humour, friendly, empathetic, positive
6. Attitude – optimistic, enthusiastic, encouraging, happy, confident
7. Professionalism – businesslike, poised
8. Responsibility – accountable, reliable, gets the job done, resourceful, self-disciplined, common sense
9. Teamwork – gets along with others, agreeable, supportive, helpful, collaborative
10. Work Ethic – hard working, loyal, initiative, self-motivated, on time

The Lack of Interpersonal Communication Skills in the Workplace

As mentioned earlier, communication skills are the most demanded skills that employers look for in their
employees.

When there is a lack of interpersonal communication in the workplace, people feel disconnected and left out,
they don't feel like they can freely share their voice and express their needs, wants and concerns.
This can be a big problem especially among dispersed non-wired and remote employees in global organizations.
Even when employees don't have the opportunity to have in-person conversations, they should always be able to
reach their peers a matter of seconds.
On the other side, employers and internal communicators should be able to send personalized, timely and relevant
messages to the entire organization and drive more engagement with internal content.

Skill set Map of a Modern Internal Communication Department

In this blog, we have discussed the importance of developing interpersonal communication skills in the workplace.
However, successful communicators, including leaders and internal communications departments, must possess
more skills and knowledge to be able to engage, connect and keep employees informed.
Today, internal communications professionals make one of the most important strategic business partners, and
their role in keeping workplaces engaged, safe, informed and productive has been rising over the past few years.
More specifically, communication professionals don't only need to posses good interpersonal communication
skills, but they also need new knowledge in the areas of:
 Business
 Technology
 Communication
 People
 Research and Analytics
 We have recently developed a map of skills modern IC departments should have.

Make Internal Communications More Strategic with Smarp

Internal Communication should be considered as one of the most important strategic partners in today’s world
where workplace trends are continuously changing.
In order to keep your employees informed, motivated, connected and productive, organizations need to
adjust their internal communication strategy based on new trends and their employees’ preferences.

Smarp, our employee communication solution enables leaders, managers and internal comms professionals to:

 Reach the right employee at the right time with the right messages
 Keep remote and deskless employees connected with the rest of the workplace
 Provide easy mobile-access to all the company’s important information
 Encourage employee-generated content
 Encourage external content sharing and brand ambassadorship
 Connect various internal communication channels such as email, intranet, document sharing and private
messaging solutions
 Create personalized news feeds for employees based on their roles, interests, locations and preferences

Developing Interpersonal Communication Skills at Work

Develop Interpersonal Skills at Work – It is rightly said that a smart business person is not just a businessman;
he is a smart communicator too. He knows how to interact with other people and how to handle and solve all the
issues by interacting.
Interpersonal skills are not only important, but they also show your ability to use every possible thing as a scope
and resource. Let’s know why are these interpersonal skills important, and how can you develop them?

Why are interpersonal skills important?

Know the rule and as a matter of fact, it is true that a person, who has deep interpersonal skills and who is able to
make use of it both individually and in the groups, is way ahead when it comes to professional and personal lives.
With advancing technology, the world has become a compact place, and we have lost the good communicational
skills, but the employers have known the importance of the interpersonal skills.
They look for employees with advanced interpersonal skills because, with these skills, an employee would be in a
position to communicate efficiently with team mates, colleagues other staff members and most importantly clients.
At the whole level, these skills are very vital in deciding one’s career graph. Therefore, developing these skills is
important if you want to be a leader in near future.

How to develop interpersonal skills?

Here are some ways in which you can develop interpersonal skills:

1. Have a positive attitude:

One of the major components of good interpersonal skill is the positive attitude. This is one component, which can
display a whole lot of maturity in your talks.
It is also stated that if you display a positive attitude during work, then you are showing respect for your work and
the organization for which you are working.
Portraying a positive attitude is being cheerful, smiling while interacting with team mates and colleagues. If you are
greeting people cheerfully at your workplace, it is also considered as a positive gesture.
Also, appreciating the work of your colleagues, it is considered as an essential part of the positive attitude.

2. earn easy ways to problem-solving:

There are several people, who work hard day and night to take the organization at the great level of success. It is
also noted that the occurrence of conflicts or conflict of ideology or ideas is a common occurrence in a workplace.
If you are also a part of such environment, you may tend to think about how fast you solve the problem or conflict,
but the problem is this may not be the right way to think.
The best way is thinking of the ways to resolve the problems as it reduces the time, and you can solve it much
effectively. Once you are done evaluating the ways to solve the problem, you must proceed further and apply all
the solutions to the problem to solve it.
Set up the objectives and implement proper strategies. Once you have implemented the plan, monitor its success.
3. Master good communication skills:
Perhaps the most important aspect of interpersonal skills. To convey your message effectively and to do so
without creating any conflict in the best manner possible will do the job. There are, basically, two types of
interpersonal skills namely verbal and nonverbal communicational skills. The very basic aspect of communicating
effectively is listening properly. You need to listen very thoughtfully. “A good communicator is always a good and
thoughtful listener,” a very old saying nails it right. Before giving your opinion if you have listened thoughtfully, you
will know what you are saying and what the conversation is all about.
The very general idea about this aspect of interpersonal skill is that you may not avoid it at any cost because it is
necessary for any profession.
If you learn the art of communication properly, then you are avoiding the conflicts, and you also increase your
productivity with effective communication. Be it verbal or non-verbal communication, both the communications are
important.

 Verbal Communication: Verbal communication encompasses any form of communication, which involves
words, be it spoken or written. The conversations, which we, generally, have with our co-workers, clients
or bosses at the lunch, in a meeting. Verbal communication is a major aspect of the communication when
it comes to interpersonal skills. You should not just only communicate, but you should also know the
importance of communicating verbally very effectively and learn the art of conveying your message
properly because to convey what you mean in the best possible manner is the best thing you can do to
your professional as well as personal life.
  Non-verbal Communication: It exists parallel along with the verbal communication. These two are the
very powerful tools, and together they can change the whole lot of conception and perceptions. Non-verbal
communication according to fact includes almost 60% of the total communication, which you have with
anyone. Non-verbal communication includes many things like your body language, your face expressions,
your posture and the way you make gestures while communicating. The sound of your voice and the tone
in which you are speaking also tell a lot about your mode. So, you should also keep in mind these aspects.
The clothes you wear and the way you carry yourself is also a part of non-verbal communication. Non-
verbal communication includes following things:
 Eye contact
 The sound of voice and tone
 Dressing sense
 Body language
 Posture
Add Inclusiveness to your work dictionary:
You are working and not helping any secret services of your country, so instead of doing it all your way, learn to
include all the persons, who are willing to work with you.
Talking and listening to the views of others is a great deal, you never know which idea may find its feet in your
work and take it to the next level. Teamwork is always better than a work done individually.
If you co-operate, you get the co-operation back, and you must ask the inputs and opinions of your team mates
and colleagues at your workplace. A social harmony is required not only in the society, which you live in but also at
the workplace where you work.
You must push and opt for social inclusiveness before starting any project. This environment will help your cause,
and it will only help you in both short and long term.
Learn some managing tactics:
The work environment is not very different from other things, which you do in day-to-day life. Management is the
very important attribute of the work environment and culture.
There are certain things, which may offend or provoke you while you are on duty, then should you react? Of
course, no. So managing self and your emotions are the must for a healthy work environment.
Learn to control your frustrations and emotions effectively. Once you have mastered the art of self-management,
you may learn to hide all the negative aspects very easily. If there are adverse conditions, you will have to hide
these things to avoid any negative impact.
Start taking responsibilities:
The one of the most vital interpersonal skills is taking responsibility and accountability. The two interpersonal skills
are very important for overall performance and productivity.
If you have these two attributes, then you can do all the things with ease. You are trusted, your co-workers will
love you, and they will bank on you. The one very important point of being accountable is that it helps in reducing
tensions and conflicts between colleagues.
Take this example, accepting your mistake and promising it that you will keep these things in mind in future will
solve all the problems because the blame game will only ruin productivity and your credibility, which may harm
your future prospects.
Don’t ditch your etiquette’s:
Oh! Well, this is not the thing you will have to learn separately because you have been learning them since your
junior KG. If you have good etiquettes, undoubtedly, you are going to be the star of your office or workplace.
Different societies across the globe judge people according to the manners they have so do the employers. With
the world being so compact, this thing may not be denied that etiquette’s have become the must-have part of
interpersonal skills along with the other components and attributes. Especially in business to business interaction,
it is very important.
Develop social and general awareness about things:
The best part of an intelligent worker is that he is aware both socially and culturally. Here, culturally means the
workplace culture you are part of. If you are aware, then you are surely identifying the possibilities and
opportunities.
In a hurry to get success, in your projects, you may tend to avoid people, which are very negative. If you have this
quality of being socially aware, then you are surely going to identify all the possible problems and solve them with
ease.
Also, in a bid to be socially aware, don’t ignore the other attributes of knowing more than what you should know.
Try to learn from every activity and social things happening around you to enhance your productivity.

Don’t Complain:
We see people complaining about their work and office very often. Some people complain about their grumpy boss
while others find their colleagues very unhelpful. This attitude of yours does not harm others as much as it harms
you.
To develop interpersonal skills, appreciate more and complain less. Thank your colleagues for whatever little help
they render to you and smile often to them. People love to associate and discuss stuff with a cheerful person.
It is one gesture that does not cost anything but makes the work environment very positive. More smiling faces
and less frowning faces can light up your entire workplace.

Become a bit more appreciative:

The best way to give your interpersonal skills a new high is to be a bit more appreciative towards the people who
work around you. This has two positive results.
First, when you appreciate a helping hand someone lends you or a work someone has finished excellently, you
are taken to be someone, who actually identifies the hard work, welcomes their contributions and praises them for
it.
This way, if you need any help further in near future, they will gladly render it to you. Second, you add up to the
positivity around you and by saying just a few words of appreciation, you add to the confidence of another person
as well as boost your own interpersonal skills.

Apart from these main points, here are few more things that can be very beneficial in helping you develop
interpersonal skills:

 Be an Ardent Listener
A lot of people would love to interact with you if you would just show interest in listening to what they have to say.
When someone is talking, try to be very attentive and really interested in what they have to say or express.
If they feel that you are actually interested, they might also like to come up to you with their problems and might
want to know your views regarding something, which would further boost your interpersonal skills.
 Pay Attention to Others
Whether it is your workplace or just a get together at home, the most important thing that connects people to you is
when they see that you care and are, actually, interested in knowing what has been going on with them.
For instance, when you console someone in their bad times, it automatically lights up a green light in their mind in
front of your name. Be attentive and know the goods and the wrongs going on with the people around you to add
to your brownie points.
 Try to Solve Conflicts
 It is obvious that with a workplace that hosts so many people, there will be gossips, conflicts, and fights.
To develop your interpersonal skills further, you need to be more of an angel than a devil.
 Try to sort things out in the office in case of an argument and try to keep people on a good note with each
other. The major thing to avoid is gossips as it can create a negative image of you in front of people.
 Stay away from gossips as much as you can and never entertain anyone, who is involved in it either.
 There are several changes in the world going on right now. Corporate leaders are acting more strongly
and hiring persons, who can boost the productivity of their organizations.
 When it comes to the productivity, it happens to be these interpersonal skills, which become the norm as if
you have, for example, a very good communicational skill, then you can win a deal for your company with
the help of this skill.
 There are several other benefits too as not only professional but, to some extent, these skills may help you
in enhancing your personal lives.
 First Image source: pixabay.com

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

What Are Intrapersonal Skills?

Intrapersonal skills are all about self-awareness and controlling your own internal attitudes and inner processes.
Your intrapersonal skills form the foundation on which you build your relationships with others because they help
you more easily navigate your interpersonal relationships.

So, interpersonal vs. intrapersonal skills, which one is more important? Your intrapersonal communication skills
and interpersonal skills are deeply connected. Both contribute to your emotional intelligence and your ability to
communicate your needs, goals, and ideas to others in an effective way. Your interpersonal skills are essential for
collaboration, leadership, and influence – but you can’t project those qualities until you develop good intrapersonal
skills.
Some of the most important intrapersonal skills include:

 Analytical Thinking
 Delegation
 Productivity
 Resilience
 Resourcefulness 
 Strategic Thinking
 Vision

These are soft skills that aren’t learned in a classroom. Instead, they’re a product of introspection and self-
reflection combined with a constant revision of the way you project yourself to the world. Like your technical skills,
however, intrapersonal skills are an essential part of your professional tools.

Why Are Strong Intrapersonal Skills Vital for Your Career?

When you have strong intrapersonal skills, you take personal responsibility for your own feelings and emotions.
This mindset is also known as intrapersonal intelligence. You learn how to focus your attention, set priorities and
goals, and engage in purposeful thinking and problem-solving. When something goes differently than you expect,
you know how to respond with a thoughtful, intentional strategy to achieve a positive outcome.

It’s easy to understand why teams and companies want people who have the internal strength to approach every
challenge or setback as an opportunity for growth. Their growth mindset enables them to stay flexible, open to new
information, and willing to look for creative solutions to their obstacles. Their motivation comes from within and is
naturally infectious to others.

Exemplary Examples of Intrapersonal Skills

Many of the world’s most charismatic leaders can communicate their visions and influence others simply because
they have highly-developed intrapersonal skills and a profound emotional intelligence. From tech giants
like Microsoft to agile startups like Simple Habit, interpersonal communication plays a key role in scaling success.
Successful people see challenges as opportunities to gain new information and grow. Some high-profile people
you may recognize include:

Empathy: Success didn’t come immediately to Gaby

Roman. She had a great idea for an app, but no technical skills to create one, which led her to realize that a lot of
great ideas by non-tech people were going to waste. Her search for a solution led to the founding of Coaching No-
Code Apps. Through empathy and resourcefulness, Roman overcame barriers in the business. She changed how
she looked at herself and how she presented her ideas to others.
Resilience: Mary Barra, the first female CEO of an automobile manufacture, Barra never set out to get to the top
of General Motors. Instead, she focused on simply doing her best work. Through her hard work and resilience, she
ultimately rose to the top of a typically male-dominated industry.

If I could offer some advice to my younger self, this idea of embracing new and different opportunities would be a
good place to start.

-Barra shares her advice to young professionals in a

Vision: Musk is working to revolutionize transportation technology – both here on Earth and in space. His drive
and ability to communicate his unique vision of the future has propelled him to the top of the list when it comes to
who people see as the most influential in tech today.

How Can You Improve Your Intrapersonal Skills?

The guiding force of your intrapersonal skills is awareness – awareness of your innermost beliefs and

the goals that drive you and awareness of how you are perceived by others.

Yet, it can be incredibly difficult to figure out how you’re seen by others because they don’t tell you. Without that
kind of information, your internal concept of yourself may not match what you project to your peers.

Fortunately, you can get the feedback you need simply by asking! People will usually share their thoughts and
impressions if they’re given a chance to do so. Regular, consistent feedback can help you adjust the way that you
convey yourself in the workplace so that your inner strengths are clearly visible to others.

Regular feedback can help you embrace a growth mindset and overcome both the internal and external limitations
that are holding you back.

Why Is Continuous Feedback Vital?

Personal growth isn’t achieved overnight. A single performance review only tells you how you were perceived
within a specific timeframe. Once you adjust your way of communicating and interacting with others based on that
review, you need more feedback to determine if the changes you made helped (or hurt). You can work hard at
being more self-aware and conscious of how you project yourself to others, but you need continuous feedback to
gauge how much progress you’re making.

Interpersonal vs. Intrapersonal: What’s the Difference?

In a nutshell, your interpersonal skills help you collaborate and work with others, while your intrapersonal skills
help you recognize your own strengths and weaknesses. Both are soft skills that contribute greatly to your
personal growth, the ability to set and achieve your goals, and your overall success in both your personal and
professional lives.
Interpersonal vs. Intrapersonal Skills (Credit: A Learning A Day)

What Are Interpersonal Skills and Why Are They Important?

Good interpersonal skills boil down to your power to communicate effectively, work collaboratively, and create
worthwhile relationships with friends, peers, and clients. Good interpersonal skills can, therefore, ease your way
both personally and professionally.

Without good interpersonal skills, you may find it difficult to fit in anywhere or ‘read a room,” and you can
inadvertently damage your working environment or create friction that impairs your creativity, productivity, and
value to your team or company.

Good interpersonal skills boil down to your power to communicate effectively, work collaboratively, and create
worthwhile relationships.

Professionals with strong interpersonal skills know how to work with other people. They’re conscious of everything
from their body language to their tone of voice, not just the message they’re delivering through their words. Some
of the top interpersonal skills you need in a collaborative environment include:

 Empathy: Your ability to connect with other people’s feelings and thoughts can help you bond with your
colleagues, boost morale, and inspire loyalty.
 Inclusiveness: An important part of team building, inclusiveness builds a culture of growth and encourages
creative thinking. It helps others feel safe expressing their ideas.
 Influence: Your ability to get others to listen to you and make positive changes can ensure a better
working environment and help you achieve greater results.
 Responsiveness: When you respond to requests for information or concerns promptly and clearly, you
ease the frustrations of others and show that you value their time, thoughts, and energy.
What Are Intrapersonal Skills and Why Are They Important?

Your intrapersonal skills are all about the internal dialogue you have with yourself. Good intrapersonal
communication skills help you manage your emotions effectively, set goals, self-motivate, cope with distractions,
strategize and adjust your approach to any given situation as needed. Some of the most important intrapersonal
skills in a collaborative work environment include:

 Productivity: Your ability to handle your workload and produce above-average results stems from your
internal strengths and core motivation.
 Resilience: When you bounce back from disappointments and setbacks with ease, you showcase your
inner positivity and power.
 Resourcefulness: Knowing how to optimize what you have inspires creativity and helps you generate new
ideas.

How Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skills Work Together for Career and Life Success

Intrapersonal skills are a requirement for consistently good interpersonal skills. After all, if you don’t understand
your own needs, you can’t easily recognize the needs of others. If you haven’t taken care of yourself, it can be
impossible to put the focus on others. Your intrapersonal skills, such as self-awareness, resilience, and positivity,
allow you to better contribute to your team or company.

The confidence you build through intrapersonal communication conveys a sense to others that you have yourself
together. People generally trust and enjoy working with other people that seem to be full of positivity and strength,
so strong intrapersonal skills tend to inspire even stronger trust and collaboration.

Essentially, your intrapersonal skills involve self-awareness and an internal dialogue with yourself that informs your
interpersonal skills and the interactions you have with those around you. Together, they form the emotional
intelligence that can set you apart from everyone else in your field.

How to Build Intrapersonal Skills

What they are

While you may not spend a lot of time considering your intrapersonal skills, they come into play pretty regularly. In
fact, you probably use these skills in most areas of your life.

Intrapersonal (“within the self”) skills are the internal abilities and behaviors that help you manage emotions, cope
with challenges, and learn new information.

These skills, which relate to emotional intelligence, include things like:

 self-confidence

 resilience

 self-discipline
  persistence
 openness to new ideas
 the ability to overcome distractions
 time management

Why they’re important

You may have noticed these skills all have something to do with your ability to self-regulate.

People with strong self-regulation abilities often have an easier time:

 managing behavior and emotions

 weathering challenges

 working toward goals in spite of distractions

 Unlike interpersonal skills like active listening, intrapersonal skills may have less of an immediate impact
on your interactions with others. But they’re still essential.

 Don’t worry if these skills don’t come to you naturally. It’s absolutely possible to cultivate intrapersonal
intelligence. The 10 tips below can help.

Make (and keep) a schedule

Do responsibilities and to-do lists overwhelm you?

Maybe you frequently forget about commitments or let chores you dislike pile up because you never feel like doing
them.

It’s hard to get started when you have no idea where to begin. You keep putting things off, but of course that
leaves you with less time to handle all those (potentially unpleasant) tasks.

If you tend to stray off task when you have a lot to do, try creating a schedule that includes work commitments and
appointments along with social activities, household chores, and self-care, like exercise and relaxation.

This can help because:

 having reminders of everything you need to complete can help keep you on track despite distractions

 scheduling enjoyable activities reminds you there’s more to look forward to than that mountain of laundry
  After a few weeks, you might notice a change in how you manage your time— even without the help of a
schedule.

 Redirect your natural talents

 Very few people are naturally good at everything, and that’s OK! But you probably have some specific
strengths, even if you don’t recognize them yet.

 Maybe you have a knack for patience with small children or rude co-workers, but you’re less patient with
yourself when you make mistakes.

 Or perhaps you’re a fantastic problem-solver at work but have a hard time addressing difficulties in your
personal life.

 It’s common to direct emotional skills outward in ways that benefit others and fail to apply those same
skills to your own experiences.

 This can make it seem like you lack those skills, when really you just find it easier to help other people. But
you deserve that same support.

 Start practicing these strengths by considering what you’d do for someone else in your situation. 

 If you’d encourage a friend to stick with something challenging, for example, direct that persistence toward
yourself instead of giving up.

Give meditation a try

Meditation can help you learn to mindfully recognize and accept what you’re thinking and feeling without getting
trapped in negative thought spirals or self-judgment.

It’s a go-to practice for many people looking to increase emotional awareness.

Its key benefits include:

 relaxation

 stress reliefTrusted Source

 improved sleepTrusted Source

Maybe these effects don’t directly help you reconnect with yourself. But they can contribute to improved physical
and emotional wellness.
Feeling mentally and physically strong can help boost your internal resolve, making it easier to work through tough
situations.

Meditation also has other benefits more relevant to increased self-awareness:

 It can help you focus your attention more effectively, which may lead to improved concentrationTrusted
Source in all areas of life.

 Increased mindfulness may factor intoTrusted Source your willingness to consider new ways to solve
problems.

Make time for self-reflection

Self-reflection might seem like a pretty big undertaking. And yes, it can cover a lot of ground.

But it really just involves thinking over your actions, choices, and the things important in your life, including
personal values and loved ones.

When you self-reflect, you might pay attention to what habits work well for you and where you experience
challenges.

Maybe you:

 avoid friends instead of leaning on them when struggling

 procrastinate on tasks at work when you don’t understand them

 The process can also help reinforce your knowledge of the people and things that really matter.

 This gives you the chance to explore new ways to achieve or hold on to those things.

 For example, your friends mean a lot to you, so you decide you need to find a coping method that doesn’t
involve shutting them out.

 Keep a journal

 Journaling can help you connect with yourself on a deep emotional level by providing a tangible record of
thoughts and feelings to look back on later.

 Your journal is a written record of you. It provides a great space to keep track of important
goals, emotions, and your overall daily experience.

 It also helps you pinpoint things you want to address, like low self-confidence or lack of motivation.
  Keeping a journal can also demonstrate growth over time.

 When you doubt your internal abilities or feel as if you haven’t accomplished much, glancing back through
months or years past can show you where your skills shone through.

 Maybe you handled a crisis well or had the resilience to bounce back from a painful breakup, for example.

 Cultivate compassion

 Increasing compassion for others can help you get more in tune with your own emotional experience and
help your self-compassion flourish.

 Compassion doesn’t always come easily. It’s often especially difficult to have compassion for people who
treat others badly and demonstrate unkind, uncaring behavior.

 But the saying “Put yourself in their shoes” is always a good place to start. Considering another person’s
perspective often provides insight on why they might act in a certain way.

 Performing a random act of kindness can also help promote positive feelings toward others and yourself.

 It also helps to remember everyone makes mistakes.

If you feel shame or guilt about something you regret doing, remember we all do things we wish we could erase.
Life doesn’t grant do-overs, but you can always try again.

The second (or third) time around, you’ll have more knowledge and experience, increasing your chances of getting
it right.

Compassion and other self-awareness skills make it easier to:

 recognize where you went wrong

 accept that underlying factors and personal difficulties often make it tough to make the best choice in
every situation

 believe that most people (including yourself) are trying to do the best they can with what they have

Practice positive self-talk

The way you talk to yourself and think about yourself can have a big impact on your internal experience.
Negative thought patterns and harsh self-criticism may seem like a good way to motivate yourself and hold
yourself accountable for mistakes, but more often than not, these have the opposite effect.

Instead of mentally chewing yourself out when you mess up, try taking a look at where you succeeded instead.
What went right for you?

It’s still wise to note where you might have room to grow. But praising yourself for strengths and achievements can
help you approach these weaker points with more confidence and determination.

Doing so can help it become easier to try again later.

Take chances

Trying something new can be scary. It often seems safer to stick with what you know already works.

But sometimes a little risk can pay off, whether you’re:

 trying to help a relationship thrive

 launching into a new career

 picking up a new hobby

Following the same routines can hold you back and keep you from exploring alternatives that could fulfill your
needs even more effectively.

Risk-taking that ends in success can boost self-confidence and motivate you to keep trying new things.

But taking chances that don’t work out can lead to progress.

You’re still building traits like resilience and persistence, since making it through setbacks shows you it’s always
possible to keep going and try again.

Consider your goals

Goals say a lot about who you are as a person and what drives you. They help inform your choices and shape
your life.

It’s important to have goals, both for the immediate and more distant future.

Success with smaller goals, like breaking an unwanted habit or reading a book every month, can empower you to
make broader goals that require long-term effort, such as reducing your carbon footprint or becoming a completely
honest person.
 Realistic goals take into account your limitations and personal strengths.

Recognizing your past accomplishments furthers self-awareness while also bolstering your courage to take bigger
steps with future goals.

Thinking about the person you want to become can help you continue setting goals to achieve those dreams.

Talk to a therapist

It’s not always easy to expand emotional intelligence on your own, especially if you only have a vague idea of the
traits you want to strengthen.

With the help of a therapist, you can often increase self-awareness as you identify challenges or areas of concern
that pop up in your thoughts and habits.

A therapist can also help you link specific patterns back to intrapersonal skills and offer guidance on areas worthy
of further exploration.

For example, if you struggle to forgive yourself for mistakes you’ve made, a therapist can help you relate this to
inner self-compassion and teach skills to boost self-kindness.

Positive Self-Talk: How Talking to Yourself Is a Good Thing

 Benefits of self-t

 Self-talk is your internal dialogue. It’s influenced by your subconscious mind, and it reveals your thoughts,
beliefs, questions, and ideas.

 Self-talk can be both negative and positive. It can be encouraging, and it can be distressing. Much of your
self-talk depends on your personality. If you’re an optimist, your self-talk may be more hopeful and
positive. The opposite is generally true if you tend to be a pessimist.

 Positive thinking and optimism can be effective stress management tools. Indeed, having a more positive
outlook on life can provide you with some health benefits. For example, one 2010 study shows optimists
have a better quality of life.

 If you believe your self-talk is too negative, or if you want to emphasize positive self-talk, you can learn to
shift that inner dialogue. It can help you be a more positive person, and it may improve your health.
Why is it good for you?

Self-talk can enhance your performance and general well-being. For example, research shows self-talk can help
athletes with performance. It may help them with endurance or to power through a set of heavy weights.

Furthermore, positive self-talk and a more optimistic outlook can have other health benefits, including:

 increased vitality

 greater life satisfaction

 improved immune function

 reduced pain

 better cardiovascular health

 better physical well-being

 reduced risk for death

 less stress and distress

It’s not clear why optimists and individuals with more positive self-talk experience these benefits. However,
research suggests people with positive self-talk may have mental skills that allow them to solve problems, think
differently, and be more efficient at coping with hardships or challenges. This can reduce the harmful effects of
stress and anxiety.

How does it work?

Before you can learn to practice more self-talk, you must first identify negative thinking. This type of thinking and
self-talk generally falls into four categories:

 Personalizing. You blame yourself for everything.

 Magnifying. You focus on the negative aspects of a situation, ignoring any and all of the positive.

 Catastrophizing. You expect the worst, and you rarely let logic or reason persuade you otherwise.

 Polarizing. You see the world in black and white, or good and bad. There’s nothing in between and no
middle ground for processing and categorizing life events.
When you begin to recognize your types of negative thinking, you can work to turn them into positive thinking. This
task requires practice and time and doesn’t develop overnight. The good news is that is can be done. A 2012
study shows even small children can learn to correct negative self-talk.
What are some examples?

These scenarios are examples of when and how you can turn negative self-talk into positive self-talk. Again, it
takes practice. Recognizing some of your own negative self-talk in these scenarios may help you develop skills to
flip the thought when it occurs.

Negative: I’ll disappoint everyone if I change my mind.

Positive: I have the power to change my mind. Others will understand.

Negative: I failed and embarrassed myself.

Positive: I’m proud of myself for even trying. That took courage.

Negative: I’m overweight and out of shape. I might as well not bother.

Positive: I am capable and strong, and I want to get healthier for me.

Negative: I let everyone on my team down when I didn’t score.

Positive: Sports are a team event. We win and lose together.

Negative: I’ve never done this before and I’ll be bad at it.

Positive: This is a wonderful opportunity for me to learn from others and grow.

Negative: There’s just no way this will work.

Positive: I can and will give it my all to make it work.

How do I use this on a daily basis?

Positive self-talk takes practice if it’s not your natural instinct. If you’re generally more pessimistic, you can learn to
shift your inner dialogue to be more encouraging and uplifting.

However, forming a new habit takes time and effort. Over time, your thoughts can shift. Positive self-talk can
become your norm. These tips can help:

 Identify negative self-talk traps. Certain scenarios may increase your self-doubt and lead to more
negative self-talk. Work events, for example, may be particularly hard. Pinpointing when you experience
the most negative self-talk can help you anticipate and prepare.
  Check in with your feelings. Stop during events or bad days and evaluate your self-talk. Is it becoming
negative? How can you turn it around?

 Find the humor. Laughter can help relieve stress and tension. When you need a boost for positive self-
talk, find ways to laugh, such as watching funny animal videos or a comedian.

 Surround yourself with positive people. Whether or not you notice it, you can absorb the outlook and
emotions of people around you. This includes negative and positive, so choose positive people when you
can.

 Give yourself positive affirmations. Sometimes, seeing positive words or inspiring images can be
enough to redirect your thoughts. Post small reminders in your office, in your home, and anywhere you
spend a significant amount of time.

When should I seek support?

Positive self-talk can help you improve your outlook on life. It can also have lasting positive health benefits,
including improved well-being and a better quality of life. However, self-talk is a habit made over a lifetime.

If you tend to have negative self-talk and err on the side of pessimism, you can learn to change it. It takes time and
practice, but you can develop uplifting positive self-talk.

If you find you’re not successful on your own, talk with a therapist. Mental health experts can help you pinpoint sou

rces of negative self-talk and learn to flip the switch. Ask your health care provider for a referral to a therapist, or
ask a friend or family member for a suggestion.

If you don’t have personal references, you can search the database of sites
like PsychCentral or WhereToFindCare.com. Smartphone apps like Talkspace and LARKR provide virtual
connections to trained and licensed therapists through chat or live video streams.

The Importance of Intrapersonal Communication and How to Improve Your Skills

Intrapersonal communication skills are the foundation of emotional intelligence. They allow us to understand our
own emotions and those around us. They help us navigate relationships, manage stress, and make decisions that
align with our wants.
But how do we develop these skills? And why is it essential for everyone?

This blog post will discuss the importance of intrapersonal communication, a brief overview of interpersonal
communications, and how to improve your skills today!

Intrapersonal communication definition

Intrapersonal communication can be defined as a person’s ability to communicate with themselves, including self-
talk, acts of imagination, or visualization. Even recall and memory are part of intrapersonal communication.
 What is intrapersonal communication?
Intrapersonal communication provides a way to examine our thoughts and feelings. It is often used for clarifying
ideas, analyzing situations, or contemplating something else that has happened in the past.

Intrapersonal communication is the conversation you have with yourself, either verbalized and written or
only thought. For example, when we try to solve a complex problem in our minds or think about what breakfast
would be like for us tomorrow morning, this could also be considered intrapersonal communications.
Understanding the inner workings of your thoughts and feelings is essential for leadership. This self-awareness will
help you better communicate, listen to others’ needs, negotiate effectively with people in different situations.
Being tuned in to yourself and understanding others’ emotions benefit any team or

group dynamic because it creates a deeper level of communication that allows greater collaboration between
members working together towards common goals.

Intrapersonal communication generally appears to result from an inclination to regard our mental
processes that precede and accompany our communicative acts as if they were yet another sort of communication
process.
takes place only inside our heads.

Interpersonal communication is the form of communication that occurs between two or more people. For example,
exchanging thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and beliefs through verbal and nonverbal messages is interpersonal
communication.
Related: The Importance of Interpersonal Communication Skills

What are the types of Intrapersonal Communication?

Intrapersonal communication can be split into three major categories: self-concept or self-awareness, perceptions,
and expectation. All of these are very important, even if they happen in your mind.
Here are three types that fall under the category of intrapersonal communication:

1. Self Concept
It is essential to understand that your self-concept, or how you view yourself concerning others, can influence how
you interact with them. Beliefs, values, and attitudes are all parts that make up this vital aspect of interpersonal
communication.
Your attitudes towards different topics are typically connected to your core values. These attitudes, in turn, come
from the set of rules or ideals based on your personal perspective-your beliefs about what is right and wrong, good
and bad, etc.; a belief system that stems from those things we value most highly.

The self plays a central role in the context of business communication, where are some questions related to it:
 How do you describe yourself?
 Do your career path, job responsibilities, goals, and aspirations align with what you recognize to be your
talents?
 How do you represent “self” through speaking (e.g., articulation and presentation), in writing, and on your
résumé?
These are all important as you navigate the relationships and climate present in any organization.

2. Perception
The way you perceive your self-concept filters the world. What you believe, value, and think about yourself can
change how people see themselves concerning others with different beliefs or ideas.

We judge people based on their actions and project our own biases onto them without realizing that’s happening.
As a result, communication is complicated because interpreting what is going on can significantly affect
communication.
 Your perception of the outside world is rooted in your self-concept. One of the things feeds off another. That is why
they are intertwined and work together. They create a sense of harmony in your understanding and outside the
world around you.

3. Expectations
The expectations you have of your future and the future of others are usually derived from personal
communication with yourself, which is a prediction based on perceptions created by where people were raised or
what society they belong to.

These predictions can be projections of learned relationships within the family or interactions influenced by their
culture.

What are some examples of intrapersonal communication?

Intrapersonal communication skills are essential to being successful in life. They can be learned by making a
conscious effort and practicing them regularly. Examples of these include:
 Self-esteem
 Openmindedness
 Self-confidence
 Self-discipline
 Self-motivation
 Working independently
 Being a self-starter
 These are just a few examples from an extensive list that includes other essential aspects like patience or
persistence.

 What are the skills intrapersonal people have?

Intrapersonal communication skills are all about self-awareness and controlling your internal attitudes and inner
processes. Your intrapersonal skills form the foundation to navigate your interpersonal relationships more easily.

Some of the skills highly intrapersonal people have are:

 Vision
 Strategic Thinking
 Productivity
 Resilience
 Delegation
 Analytical Thinking
 In addition, intrapersonal communication skills are an essential part of a valuable intangible “soft skill” that
we all can learn to cultivate and bring with us wherever we go.

 How can I improve my intrapersonal communication?

 The three most essential components to developing and improving intrapersonal skills are self-awareness,
self-regulation, and motivation.
 Self-awareness starts with using personal assessment tools that monitor reactions to understand what is
happening inside your head. Knowing the appropriate response to a reaction or who might have caused it
is crucial.

 Self-regulation is necessary for a variety of reasons. Though we may not know the exact reasoning behind
our reactions, it’s best to have guidelines in place so that you can decide to act without taking time to think
about their motives.

 To embrace a successful mindset, you need motivation from within. Changing your thoughts and
behaviors can create new self-concepts that will help you on the path to success.

A leader seeking to improve leadership skills must first learn to regulate their adverse reactions. Those who begin
mastering self-regulation show higher integrity, reliability, and adaptability – all competencies that
 great leaders possess because they understand the role is greater than delegating tasks. But even this isn’t
enough; there has to be a motivating factor that generates sufficient internal drive for these long-term changes.

What are some ways to improve interpersonal skills?

There are many ways to improve interpersonal skills, such as:

Learn to Listen: Learn how to listen and be engaged in what the other person says. People will feel much more
critical and respected when they know that their opinions are valued.
Be a Good Conversationalist:
 Practice engaging in enjoyable, meaningful conversations with others. This skill will help significantly in
your networking and job interviews.
 Ask questions about the other person and listen and understand their answers.
 Try not to talk more than you listen!
Practice Empathy: Put yourself in the other person’s shoes by thinking about how you would feel if you were on
the other side of the interaction. The point is not to judge or make assumptions of the person but to understand
where they’re coming from.

How does intentional intrapersonal communication work?

Intentional intrapersonal communication is a way to communicate with oneself. It can be an effective way to
generate creative ideas.

An example of intentional intrapersonal communication is writing down ideas in your head or drawing pictures or
diagrams. This type of communication helps the creator think about the idea while generating new thoughts and
ideas while thinking about it. This technique can be helpful for problem-solving, brainstorming, connecting
thoughts, and more!

What are the advantages of intrapersonal communication?

Being skilled in intrapersonal communication can be advantageous for you, as it could provide multiple benefits.
For instance, the following are some of them:

Visualization: By visualizing and seeing problems from different perspectives, you can make more intelligent
decisions with your intrapersonal communication. You know the importance of additional information and how it
affects a situation. This is because, through visualization, you have an idea of what to do next!
Becoming aware of your own emotions: Being in tune with your emotions is key to understanding
communication. For example, if you’re feeling down or angry, your negative emotions will be contagious, which
could lead to unfortunate consequences for intrapersonal communication and interpersonal communication. On
the other
hand, if you are in a good mood, then it’ll boost up everyone else’s spirits too! Therefore, it is essential to stay
aware of what type of emotional state you are experiencing.

Understanding others’ perspectives: The ability to understand another person is crucial. It’s not always easy,
but it can be done by putting yourself in their shoes and considering what they might experience or feel like. The
more you practice your intrapersonal communication skills, the better off you’ll be when interacting with others!
Decision Making: If you’re capable of thinking through and weighing the pros and cons, it’ll make decision-making
easier. You might be more likely to understand both potential consequences if different decisions are made and
what could happen by not taking any action at all.
Intrapersonal communication serves a variety of social purposes. Internal voice, or speaking to oneself, can aid in
achieving and maintaining social adjustment.

Like the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps us interact socially and
improve our well-being.
What are the disadvantages of intrapersonal communication?
Intrapersonal communication skills are the foundation of emotion and our ability to make informed
decisions. Thisincludes an individual’s internal thought process, rationalization, and reasoning. One
disadvantage is that the conversation is one-way since there is no feedback. As a result, it could lead to
incorrect assumptions or misunderstandings.

Final Thoughts
In a world of emotional intelligence, it’s essential to understand your own emotions and those of others.
Intrapersonal communication is the foundation for this skill set, as they allow us to think through our
feelings beforewe act on them in ways that might hurt someone else or ourselves.
These skills help us navigate relationships with friends and family members more effectively, manage
stress levelsby understanding what is bothering us without overreacting emotionally, and make
decisions aligned with what wewant out of life instead of just reacting impulsively. So how can you
develop intrapersonal communication? The answer lies within each person’s self-talk.

LINKS TO OPEN MCQ QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS ON MODULE 1

CLICK ALL THE LINKS BELOW TO STUDY MORE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

GO TO GOOGLE ....TYPE -

MCQ WITH ANSWERS ON FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION :

1) https://www.examveda.com/management/practice-mcq-question-on-communication-skills/
 2) https://www.eguardian.co.in/mcq-on-communication-with-answers/

MCQ WITH ANSWERS ON BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION :

1) https://www.sanfoundry.com/professional-communication-questions-answers-
barriers- communication/

MCQ WITH ANSWERS ON COMMUNICATION STYLES

1) https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=3dq-
communication-style- quiz_2cs
2) https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5d80f2a3f94f0c001a18c63a/communicatio
n-styles- all

MCQ WITH ANSWERS ON INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILL

1) https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5da5e435477a07001a3fd3d9/interpersonal-skills
2) https://iasexamportal.com/online-course/igp/csat-paper-
ii/interpersonal- communication-skills/mcq-2

MCQ WITH ANSWERS ON INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILL AND INTER PERSONAL

1) https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5c65888add090a001bb51e13/interpersonal-and-
intrapersonal- communication
2) https://mcqs.club/business-management-mcqs/intrapersonal-and-interpersonal-skills-mcqs/
3) https://www.eguardian.co.in/interpersonal-skills-including-communication-skills-mcq-pdf/
 NOTES ON MODULE 2
PHONETICS

Introduction to phonetics
Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that examines sounds in a language.
Phonetics describes these sounds using the symbols of the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
The IPA uses a single symbol to describe each sound in a
Read lesson
language. If a letter in a word is silent, there will be
no IPA symbol used in the transcription. * en español
* en français
The IPA can be helpful for studying a language,
especially languages that use letters that are silent or
have multiple pronunciations. Languages like Arabic and
Spanish are consistant in their spelling and
pronunciation – each letter represents a single sound which rarely varies. English
is different. It has many letters with two or more sounds and many letters that are
silent.

This website uses the IPA to demonstrate how certain words are pronounced. To
learn specifics about English phonetics and pronunciation, go to the lessons
below.

 Phonetics ~ Vowels
 Phonetics ~ Consonants
 Voiced / Unvoiced Consonants

Introduction to Phonetics
 1. What is phonetics? The (scientific?) study of speech. But why do we
want to study speech?
 2. The Primacy of Speech: speech is the primary way in which linguistic
information is communicated between people. There are only two ways of
linguistic communication that are natural (biological, independent of
culture?): speech and sign (among the congenitally deaf and in some hunter-
gatherer societies). Of these, speech is more widespread.
 3. Naturalness of speech
 1 In history: for most of human history, writing did not exist. Writing is a
comparatively recent social invention.
  2 In world society: languages with established writing systems are
numerically a small minority. Most languages are unwritten (or were until
this century).
 3 In human development: children without disabilities acquire speech as a
natural human function, e.g. like walking or eating. It does not require
explicit instruction, is biologically pre-programmed, and is achieved to an
equal degree of mastery by everyone (though some become more eloquent
in what they have to say than others!)
 4 In the development of literary languages: a literary language is a
socially established forms of what was, at an earlier stage, merely one
spoken dialect among many.
 5 In quantity of activity: most linguistic activity is in the spoken medium.
Indeed, even among literate people, writing is a relatively rare activity.
 4. The scope of the subject. The subject of phonetics covers all aspects of
speech production, transmission, and reception, including:
 1 Planning: How people plan how they are going to control their organs of
speech in order to say what they want to say. Usually studied by
neurological and psychological methods, such as observation of brain-
injured patients, subjects in psycholinguistic-style experiments, and imaging
of brain function ("brain scanning").
 2 Articulatory phonetics: the organs of speech, the ways in which they
may move and be coordinated with each other, and the possibilities for
speech that this permits. These aspects can be observed to a certain extent
by proprioception, assisted by training, as well as physiological and
experimental studies.
 3 Acoustic phonetics: how air is set in motion, made to vibrate and how
speech waves are transmitted between speakers. In transmission, speech
acoustics may be studied in incredible detail just by careful listening, or with
instruments, such as the microphone, and a small computer.
 4 Auditory phonetics and speech perception. Primarily based on
psychological experiments and some physiological studies.

Phonetics – the study of the sounds that form human language – can be divided into two categories. The first
type of phonetics, articulatory phonetics, examines the speech organs and processes by which humans
produce sounds; the focus is on the speaker of language. The second typeof phonetics, acoustic phonetics,
focuses on the sound that is produced when a person speaks; the aim of acoustic phonetics is to understand
theacoustic properties of speech, and how that speech is perceived by the listener’s ears.

Articulatory Phonetics

The first type of phonetics, articulatory phonetics, examines the sounds of human language at the source of their
production. It looks at how a personforms his words. Particular parts of the human body, referred to as “organs
of speech,” are used to articulate words. The organs of speech include the voice box, the lungs, the oral cavity,
the nasal cavity, the pharyngeal cavity, the tongue, the teeth, the glottis, the lips and the inner surfaces of the
mouth. The airflow needed to produce sound comes from the lungs, and is passed through the mouth and or
nose, with the glottis, tongue, and teeth being used to alter the airflow to create different sounds.
Place of Articulation and Voicing

In articulatory phonetics, linguists look at the place of articulation of various sounds; the place of articulation
refers to where the expelled air blocked, thus creating particular sounds. For example, the teeth are a placeof
articulation; when a person places his tongue against his teeth to make aparticular consonant sound, this is
referred to as a “dental stop.” Articulatory phonetics also refers to voicing; sounds that do not use the vocal
chords are voiceless, while sounds that use the vocal chords are voiced. For example, when a person forms a
“t,” he is not using his vocal chords, so this is referred to as a “voiceless dental stop.” But when he useshis
vocal chords to make noise while forming a “d,” this is called a “voiced dental stop.”

Acoustic Phonetics

While articulatory phonetics focuses on the speech organs used to producethe sounds of human language,
acoustic phonetics focuses on the sound properties of human speech. Acoustic phonetics also looks at audio
perception of speech, examining how different sounds are perceived by listeners. In the study of acoustic
phonetics, a phonetician looks at the frequency that a sound produces, the amplitude spectrum of the sound, and
the duration of the sound. These factors are used to describe the sound acoustically.

Phonetic Representation

Most linguistics use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent all the sounds of human language. The
IPA has a particular written symbol torepresent every sound, and every variation of sound, that occurs in
languages across the globe. The IPA is a useful tool for linguists and students of language, because a linguist
who knows the IPA can read the transcription of any language and be able to reproduce the words correctly,even
if they are from a language he has never learned or heard before.

The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is a collection of characters that can be used
to transcribe any human voice sound, from any language, in a way that all linguists and
language enthusiastsworldwide can understand, regardless of their mother language or
cultural background. Because the IPA includes symbolic representations of English and
non-English speech sounds, trying to decipher its extensive body of characters can be a
challenge for someone who just wants to transcribe an English word. To transcribe

an American English word successfully and with limited confusion,

your best bet is to find and use an IPA symbol chart that only includes
speech sounds from American English.

Step 1
Briefly study an American English IPA chart, and become comfortable with its symbols and their
associated pronunciations. People new to the IPA are sometimes confused at first, because certain
symbols don't always make the sounds you'd expect based on what you've learned about the English
alphabet in the past. Certain sounds in English that we consider two-letter sounds (such as the "sh"
sound in "shell," for example) are represented by just one character in the IPA. Take the time to learn
and getcomfortable with the different sounds and their symbols.

Use antimoon.com's IPA chart for this exercise, linked in the Resources section.

Step 2

Slowly pronounce the word that you want to transcribe out loud to yourself. Ask yourself what
sounds you hear. Try to write the word outusing IPA notation, without referring to your IPA chart.

Step 3

Look back to your IPA chart and pronounce the word again. Double-checkany symbols that you're
not sure about against the chart, and correct any mistakes.

With a little bit more time and patience, you can learn the vocabulary of phonetic transcription that
will help you identify when you're using the right sound. If you look at the University of Arizona's
"Sounds of StandardAmerican English," for example, you'll notice that sounds are categorized as
either "voiced" or "unvoiced." A voiced sound uses the vocal cords in its pronunciation, while an
unvoiced sound does not. Pronounce the sounds "p" and "b" right after each other for an illustration
of this concept.You'll notice that "p" is unvoiced (you don't use your vocal cords when producing the
sound), while "b" is voiced.

The place of articulation on the University of Arizona's chart describes where you place your tongue,
teeth and lips to make a sound. For example, you make a bilabial sound by bringing your lips together.
For labial dental sounds, you place your top teeth upon your lower lip. You make the glottalsound in
English (represented by a question-mark-like character) by bringing your vocal cords together to
abruptly stop the flow of air. To hear this sound, say "uh-oh." You can hear the glottal stop between
the first andsecond word of this common phrase.

The manner of articulation describes how you move air to make a specific speech sound. For
example, when you pronounce a stop, you release a short puff of built-up air. When you pronounce a
fricative, you make the sound by obstructing a continuous flow of air, holding parts of your mouth
together (tongue, teeth, lips, etc.) to form a tiny space that you push air through.

If you don't speak American English (i.e., you speak British English, English in another accent or a
different language altogether), you won't find all of the speech sounds you need in the American
English IPA chart.

Search your language and IPA using Google to find the appropriate chart for your language.

Imagine being unable to verbally respond to a verbal greeting. Thinking about the ability to speak as
an important part of your day may not cross your mind. If that speech ability was taken away, you
might find yourself unable to communicate not only basic speech but also emotional responses like
fear, confusion or anxiety. Although you may not give your speech organs much thought, they are
integrally tied to how you function. From the lungs to the mouth, the organs of speech and their
function in sound production and speech play important roles in many aspects of your life.

Breathing and Speaking Connections

Looking at the speech mechanism and organs of speech begins with the vital lungs. The lungs are
located in the chest cavity and expand and contract to push air out of the mouth. Simple airflow is not
enough to produce speech. The airflow must be modified by other speech organs to be more than just
respiration. When you exhale, air moves out of your lungs through your windpipe or trachea. At the
top ofthe trachea is one of the other primary organs of speech: the larynx or voice box.

Vibrations of the Larynx

Three more parts of the speech mechanism and organs of speech are the larynx, epiglottis and
vocal folds. The larynx is covered by a flap of skincalled the epiglottis. The epiglottis blocks the
trachea to keep food from going into your lungs when you swallow. Across the larynx are two thin
bands of tissue called the vocal folds or vocal cords. Depending on how the folds are positioned,
air coming through the trachea makes them vibrate and buzz. These vibrations are called a
"voiced" or soft sound.
Placing finger tips over the Adam's apple or larynx at the front of your neck while humming
makes it possible to feel the vocal fold vibration

Articulators of Speech

The inside of your mouth is also called the oral cavity and controls the shape of words. At the back of
the oral cavity on the roof of the mouth is the soft palate or velum. When you pronounce oral sounds,
such as "cat" or "bag," the velum is located in the up position to block air flow through the nasal
cavity. When you pronounce nasal sounds, such as "can" or "mat," the velum drops down to allow air
to pass through the nasal cavity. In front of the velum is the hard palate. Your tongue presses or taps
againstthe hard palate when you pronounce certain words, such as "tiptoe." Developmental or
physical issues related to speech organs that are articulators of speech can result in a need for speech
therap
Teeth, Tongue and Lips

Say "Thank you." Feel how your tongue presses against the inside of your front teeth. The convex
area directly behind your teeth is known as the teeth ridge. For the purpose of linguistics, the tongue is
divided into three regions: the blade, front and back. The tip of the tongue, which touches theteeth
ridge, is called the blade. The middle of the tongue, which lines up with the hard palate, is called the
front of the tongue. Finally, beneath the soft palate is the back of the tongue. The final speech organ is
the most visible and obvious: the lips. Your lips influence the shape of the sounds leaving the oral
cavity. Each of these organs of speech and their definitionsis important to the process of speech,
articulation and expressions through sounds.

So what is Phonetics?
Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds that make up the words of alanguage. Every language
has its own characteristics and there are sounds in English that you might not use in your Language,
and soundsin your language that we might not use in English and one of the more difficult things
about English is the spelling and pronunciation. This introduction to phonetics will look at the
difference between the written spelling and the actual pronunciation. We only have 26 letters in the
alphabet but modern English uses about 44 different sounds. So when you look at word, it can be
difficult to know, from the spelling, how to pronounce it because the same letters can be pronounced
differently in different words.

Introduction to Phonetics: Look at these examples.

 Busy
 Word
 Queue
 Laughter
 Comb
 Chaos
All of these words and many more can be difficult to pronounce becausespelling in
English is not phonetic and it’s often inconsistent. So in our introduction to phonetics
we look at how to get around this by looking at the actual sounds that make up a
word and not how it is spelt. In
the Phonetic Chart, there are three sections.
 Single Vowel Sounds in Green.
 Diphthongs in Red.
 Consonant pairs and Single Consonants in Blue.
We have made additional videos about each section of the chart, as wel las a video
called Phonetic Chart Explained.

Introduction to Phonetics: Pronunciation is Physical.

The key to good pronunciation is to understand that making the sounds of speech is a
physical thing. If you are not accustomed to speaking English it won’t feel natural for you to
use your mouth and your tongue inthe way that you need to. So if you want to improve your
pronunciation, think about these questions;
 Where does each sound comes from?
  Is the jaw open or closed?
 What shape is the mouth?
 Where should the tongue be?
 Does air come out of my mouth when i say the sound?
 Is it voiced?
Incorrect pronunciation is almost always the result of trying to produce the sound in a way
that is physically incorrect. If we look at those difficult to pronounce words again. We can
spell them out using the phonetic symbols to see exactly how they are pronounced.
 “Busy”- here we can see that the “u” does not make the sound wemight expect.
Instead it makes an /ɪ/ sound. It is not “boozy” or “buzzy”, it’s “busy”.
 “Word” – the “o” here, together with the “r”, is pronounced /ɜ:/ andthat’s confusing
because that sound if often spelt with “e-r”.
 “Queue”- This word has a lot more letters than you might expectand most of
them are silent.
 “Laughter”- You might expect there to be an “r” in Laughter but there isn’t, also the
“f” sound is represented by the letters “gh”, thisis a very unusual spelling and causes
a lot of confusion.
 “Comb”- This word has a “b” at the end but we do not pronounce it.
 “Chaos”- This is spelt with a “Ch” and “Ch” is more commonly pronounced /tʃ/
like in Church, but in Chaos it is /k/ like in cat.
So you can see how there are many inconsistencies in English between spelling and
pronunciation. So phonetics gives us a way to write
words as they are pronounced. We have also made a video summarising the most
common pronunciation problems that people have. If you are having problems and want to
improve why don’t you have a look, you will probably find something that will help you. We
talkabout:
 Minimal Pairs which are when two sounds are often confused, like
/l/ and /r/.
 Consonant Clusters this is when there are several consonants together without
any vowels and that produces a sound that canbe difficult to produce. Like “Bl” in
“Blend” and “sh” in “Splash”
 Homophones are pairs or groups of words that are pronounced in the same way but
different spelling. Like “too”, the adverb, and “two” the number.
 Heteronyms are pairs or groups of words that have the same spelling but a
different pronunciations. Like “Excuse” the verb and“Excuse” the noun.

Sound Segments
• Knowing a language includes knowing the sounds of that language •Phonetics is the
study of speech sounds

• We are able to segment a continuous stream of speech into distinctparts and

recognize the parts in other words

• Everyone who knows a language knows how to segment sentencesinto words and
words into sounds

Identity of Speech Sounds

• Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignore non linguistic differences in speech

(such as individual pitch levels, rates of speed, coughs)

• We are capable of making sounds that are not speech sounds in English but are in
other languages – The click tsk that signals disapproval in English is a speech sound in
languages such as Xhosa and Zulu where it is combined with other sounds just like t or k
is in English

What is Phonetics?

the study of speech sounds .

1 ) acoustic (the physics of sound)

2 )auditory (how the ear processes sound)
3 ) articulatory (how we produce speech sounds)

Articulatory Phonetics

We will examine the following questions:

How can we accurately transcribe speech sounds? What speech organs
are involved in speech production?
How do we manipulate the flow of air to produce sounds?

Why do we need a Phonetic Alphabet ?

Linguists use a phonetic transcription system to record speech sounds.

In this class, we will use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Why not just use the Roman alphabet?

ENGLISH

{c} hci [k]cat {e} Late , Science

cord
cup

{a} ball { h} hour ,blah,

sand
make

{t} tall stop

later
patience
train

{ea} health, wealth , stealth

{ck} back ,bucket , cracked

English Vowel Letters : a,e,i,o,u

English Vowel Sounds : Beat, bit , bought , bet , boot
Bull , but , bulemic , bog, bird

ow , bout , bide , bike ,boyBate , boat

About IPA - International Phonetic Alphabet

Contains symbols to represent all sounds from all languages

1-to-1 correspondence between sounds and symbolsIncludes
diacritics to indicate tone, stress, etc.
Many symbols from or based on Latin and Greek alphabetsNot the only
phonetic alphabet in use .

TRANSCRIPTIONS

`ways' [weIz] `Sprite' [spôAIt] `that' [Dæt]

`achieve' [@tSiv] `energetic' [Enô"
dZER@k] `spelling' [spElIN]
`use' [jus] `cowboy' [khAUbOI] `pudding' [phURIN]

FREE VARIATIONS

In some instances, there can be some variation in the pronunciation.

`cat' [khæt] or [khæt^] or [khæP]

Some English sounds are aspirated in certainenvironments.

TRANSCRIPTIONS

`pet' [phEt] `tea' [thi] `cat' [kh_t]

`bet' [bEt] `deep' [dip] `gift' [gIft]
`spot' [spAt] `stuck' [st2k] `scar' [skAô]
`whip' [wIp] `sat' [s_t] `beak' [bik]
QUESTIONS
Which sounds in English can be aspirated? What do these
sounds have in common?
In which phonetic environment(s) are these soundsaspirated?

What we spell with {t}, {tt}, {d}, {dd} is often not [t] or [d],but rather the flap
[r]

Question
In which phonetic environment(s) does the flap appear?

TRANSCRIPTION NOTES :

Phonetic transcriptions are written in square brackets [ ]. Transcribe words

based on sound, not spelling.
Don't use a schwa ([@]) in stressed syllables.
Upper- and lowercase letters are not interchangeable. Some
morphemes, like past tense -ed, are not alwayspronounced the same.
When a syllable lacks a vowel, be sure to use a syllablemarker
(e.g. `kitten' [khIPn])

HOW CONSONANTS ARE ARTICULATED

The articulation of consonants involves the complete orpartial

constriction of air flow within the vocal tract.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS

place of articulation (place of airow obstruction)

2 manner of articulation (manner of airow obstruction) 3 voicing
(vibration/nonvibration of vocal cords)
PLACES OF ARTICULATION
PLACES OF ARTICULTION USED IN ENGLISH

1) bilabial
2) labiodental
3) interdental
4) alveolar
5) postalveolar
6) palatal
7) velar
8) Glottal
FOR C & F & D SEC CONTINUE FROM THIS MANNERS OF
ARTICULATION USED IN ENGLISH

1) plosive (= stop)2)
fricative
3) a_ricate
4) ap *(add this row to your book's chart!)5 )nasal
6) liquid (lateral and retroex)
7) glide
VOICING PARAMETERS USED IN ENGLISH

1 voiced (vibration)
2 voiceless (no vibration)
HOW VOWELS ARE ARTICULATED

Vowels are produced with a relatively open vocal tract,lacking

any signi_cant constriction.

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ENGLISH VOWEL

height
2 tongue advancement
3 tenseness
ADDITIONAL VOWEL FEATURES

lip rounding
Refers to the relative heightof the
relevant part of the tongue

Vowels may be:

1 high
2 mid
3 low

TONGUE ADVANCEMENT

Refers to relative advancement of the tongue bodyVowels may be:

1 front
2 central
3 back

TENSENESS

Refers to relative tenseness of the lip and/or tonguemuscles

Vowels may be:
1) tense
2) lax
LIP ROUNDING

Refers to whether the lips are rounded or unroundedVowels may be:

1 rounded
2 unrounded
English has rounded and unrounded vowels, but liprounding is
not a distinguishing feature in English.

MONOPTHONGS

Monophthongs are simple vowel sounds.

Excluding [e] and [o], American English contains the following
monophthongs:
DIPHTHONGS

Monophthongs are complex vowel sounds, transitioningfrom

one vowel to another.
American English contains the following diphthongs:

A NOTE ON OTHER LANGUAGES

The set of distinctions listed above is not comprehensive. The distinctions

found in English are not relevant in all languages. For example,
Spanish and Korean have no tenseness distinction forvowels
Japanese and Korean have no labiodental consonants Other languages may
have distinctions that English lacks.
For
example,
lip rounding is distinctive for vowels in French and German
Vietnamese contains implosive consonants
Khoisan languages (spoken in southern Africa) containclicks

Chinese and Thai contain tonesIPA

CHART

:
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language

Sound Segments

• Knowing a language includes knowing the sounds ofthat

language
• Phonetics is the study of speech sounds
• We are able to segment a continuous stream ofspeech
into distinct parts and recognize the parts in other words
• Everyone who knows a language knows how tosegment
sentences into words and words into sounds .

Identity of Speech Sounds

• Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignorenonlinguistic

differences in speech (such as individual pitch levels, rates of speed,
coughs)
• We are capable of making sounds that are notspeech sounds in
English but are in other languages

– The click tsk that signals disapproval in English is aspeech sound in

languages such as Xhosa and Zulu where it is combined with other sounds just
like t or kis in English
Identity of Speech Sounds

• The science of phonetics aims to describe all thesounds of all the world’s
languages
– Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physicalproperties of the
sounds of language
– Auditory phonetics: focuses on how listeners
perceive the sounds of language
– Articulatory phonetics: focuses on how the vocaltract produces the
sounds of language .
The Phonetic Alphabet

• Spelling, or orthography, does not consistentlyrepresent the

sounds of language

• Some problems with ordinary spelling:

– 1. The same sound may be represented by manyletters or combination

of letters:
he people key
believe seize machineCaesar
seas
see amoeba

– 2. The same letter may represent a variety of sounds:

father villagebadly
made many

3. A combination of letters may represent asingle sound

shoot character Thomaseither physics
rough coat deal

– 4. A single letter may represent a combinationof sounds

Xerox
Some letters in a word may not bepronounced at all
autumn sword resign
pterodactyl lamb corpspsychology
write knot

– 5. There may be no letter to represent asound that occurs in a

word
cute
use

The Phonetic Alphabet

• In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was

invented in order to have a system in which there was a oneto-
one correspondence between each
sound in language and each phoneticsymbol
• Someone who knows the IPA knows howto pronounce any
word in any language .

The Phonetic Alphabet

• Dialectal and individual differences affectpronunciation, but the

sounds of English are:

The Phonetic Alphabet

• Using IPA symbols, we can now representthe

pronunciation of words
unambig
Articulatory Phonetics

• Most speech sounds are produced by pushing airthrough the vocal cords
– Glottis = the opening between the vocal cords
– Larynx = ‘voice box’

– Pharynx = tubular part of the throat above the larynx

– Oral cavity = mouth
– Nasal cavity = nose and the passages connecting itto the throat
and sinuses

Consonants: Place of Articulation

• Consonants are sounds produced with somerestriction or closure
in the vocal tract
• Consonants are classified based in part onwhere in the vocal
tract the airflow is being restricted (the place of articulation)
• The major places of articulation are:
bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, palatal,velar, uvular, and glottal .

Consonants: Place of Articulation

Consonants: Place of Articulation
• Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]
– Produced by bringing both lips together
• Labiodentals: [f] [v]
– Produced by touching the bottom lip to the
Upper teeth .
• Interdentals [θ] [d]
– Produced by putting the tip of the tongue betweenThe
teeth .

Consonants: Place of Articulation

• Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]

– All of these are produced by raising the tongue to the
alveolar
ridge in some way
• [t, d, n]: produced by the tip of the tongue touching thealveolar
ridge (or just in front of it)
• [s, z]: produced with the sides of the front of the tongue raisedbut
the tip lowered to allow air to escape
• [l]: the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remainsdown
so air can escape over the sides of the tongue (thus [l] is a
lateral
sound)
• [r]: air escapes through the central part of the mouth; eitherthe tip
of the tongue is curled back behind the alveolar ridge or the topof
the tongue is bunched up behind the alveolar ridge
 Consonants: Place of Articulation
• Palatals: [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ][ʝ]
– Produced by raising the front part of theTongue to the palate .
• Velars: [k] [g] [ŋ]
– Produced by raising the back of the tongueTo the soft palate or
velum .
• Uvulars: [ʀ] [q] [ɢ]
– Produced by raising the back of the tongueTo the
uvula
• Glottals: [h] [Ɂ]
– Produced by restricting the airflow throughThe open glottis ([h]) or
by stopping the
Air completely at the glottis (a glottal stop: [Ɂ])

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• The manner of articulation is the way the airstream is affected as it
flows from the lungsand out of the mouth and nose
• Voiceless sounds are those produced with the
vocal cords apart so the air flows freely through the glottis
• Voiced sounds are those produced when thevocal cords are together and
vibrate as air passes through .

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• The voiced/voiceless distinction is important in English because it helps us

distinguish words like:
rope/robe fine/vine seal/zeal
[rop]/[rob] [faɪn]/[vaɪn] [sil]/[zil]

• But some voiceless sounds can

Be further distnguished as aspiratedOr unaspirated
Aspirated unaspirated

pool [phul] spool [spul]Tale

[thel] Stale [stel] Kale

[khel] Scale [skel]

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Oral sounds are those produced with the velumraised

to prevent air from escaping out the nose
• Nasal sounds are those produced with thevelum
lowered to allow air to escape out the nose
• So far we have three ways of classifying soundsbased
on phonetic features: by voicing, by place of
articulation, and by nasalization
– [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound
– [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Stops: [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [ŋ][ʧ] [ʤ] [Ɂ]
– Produced by completely stoppingThe air flow in
the oral cavity

For a fraction of a second

• All other sounds are continuants, Meaning that
the airflow is continuousThrough the oral cavity .

• catives: [f] [v] [θ] [d] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [x] [ɣ] [h]
– Produced by severely obstructing The airflow so as to
cause friction .

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Affricates: [ʧ] [ʤ]

– Produced by a stop closure that isreleased With a
lot of friction .
• Liquids: [l] [r]
– Produced by causing some obstruc0onOf the airstream in the
mouth, but

Not enough to cause any real friction .

• Glides: [j] [w]
– Produced with very little obstruc0onOf the
airstream and are always Followed by a vowel .

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Approximants: [w] [j] [r] [l]
– Sometimes liquids and glides are put together
Into one category because the articulators approximateA frictional closeness
but do not actually cause friction .
• Trills and flaps: [r]* [ɾ] – Trills are producedby
rapidly vibrating an articulator
– Flaps are produced by a flick of the tongue
Against the alveolar ridge .

• Clicks: – Produced by moving air in the mouthBetween various

articulators – The disapproving Sound tsk in English is a consonant in
Zulu
And some other southern African languages
– The lateral click used to encourage aHorse in English
is a consonant in Xhosa .
Vowels • Vowels are classified by
How high or low the tongue is, if theTongue is in the front or
back of
The mouth, and whether or notThe lips are rounded

• High vowels: [i] [ɪ] [u] [ʊ]

• Mid vowels: [e] [ɛ] [o] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ]

• Low vowels: [a] [a]

• Front vowels: [i] [ɪ] [e] [ɛ] [a]

• Central vowels: [ə] [ʌ]

• Back vowels: [u] [ɔ] [o] [a] [a]

VOWELS

Vowels

• Round vowels: [u] [ʊ] [o] [ɔ]

– Produced by rounding the lips – English has Only back round vowels,
but other languages Such as French and Swedish have front round
Vowels .
• Diphthongs: [aɪ] [aʊ] [ɔɪ] –A sequence of
Two vowel sounds (as opposed to the monophthongs
We have looked at so far)

• Nasalization: – Vowels can also be pronouncedWith a lowered

velum, allowing air to pass throughThe nose – In English, speakers
nasalize vowels Before a nasal sound, such as in the words
beam,bean, and bingo
– The nasalization is represented by a diacritic,
An extra mark placed with the symbol: bean [ bin ]

Vowels

• Tense vowels:
– Are produced with greater tension in theTongue
– May occur at the end ofwords
• Lax vowels:

– Are produced with lesstongue

tension
– May not occur at the endof
words

Vowels

Major Phonetic Classes

• Non continuants: the airstream is totally obstructed inthe oral cavity

– Stops and affricates
• Continuants: the airstream flows continuously out ofthe
mouth
– All other consonants and vowels .

• Obstruents: the airstream has partial or fullobstruction

– Non-nasal stops, fricatives, and affricates

• Sonorants: air resonates in the nasal or oral cavities

– Vowels, nasal stops, liquids, and glides
Major Phonetic Classes: Consonantal

• Consonantal: there is some restric0on of theairflow

during articulation
– All consonants except glides
• Consonantal sounds can be further subdivided:

– Labials: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [w] [ʍ]

• Articulated with the lips

– Coronals: [θ] [d] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z]

[ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ] [l] [r]

• Ar0culated by raising the tongue blade

ajor Phonetic Classes

• Consonantal categories cont.:

– Anteriors: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [θ] [d] [t]

[d] [n] [s] [z]
• Produced in the front part of the mouth(from the alveolar
area forward)
– Sibilants: [s] [z] ] [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ]
• Produced with a lot of friction that causes A hissing sound,
which is a mixture Of high--
‐ frequency sounds

• Syllabic Sounds:

Sounds that can func0on as the Core of a syllable

– Vowels, liquids, and nasalsDazzle ( daezl)
Rhythm ( ridm )

Prosodic Features
• Prosodic, or suprasegmental features of sounds,Such as length, stress and
pitch, are features
Above the segmental values such as place andManner of articulation
• Length:in some languages, such as Japanese,The length of a
consonant or a vowel can

Change the meaning of a word:

– biru [biru] “building”
Biiru [biːru] “beer”
– saki [saki] “ahead”
Sakki [sakːi] “before

Prosodic Features

• Stress: stressed syllables are louder, slightlyhigher in pitch, and

somewhat longer than unstressed syllables

– The noun digest has the stress on the first syllable

– The verb digest has the stress on the second syllable

– English is a stress-timed language, meaning that atleast one syllable is

stressed in an English word .

• French functions differently, so when English speakers learn French they put stress on
certain syllables which contributes to their foreign accent .

Tone and Intonation

•meaning
Tone languages : are languages That use pitch tocontrast The
of words
• For example, in Thai, the string of
Sounds [naː] can be said with 5 different pitchesAnd can thus
have 5different meanings:

Intonation languages (like English) have varied pitch contour across an

utterance,but pitch is not used to distinguish words

– However, intonation may affect the meaning of awhole sentence:

• John is here said with falling intonation is astatement

• John is here said with rising intonation is a
question .

Phonetics of Signed Languages

• Signs can be broken down into segmental features similar to the
phonetic features of speech sounds (such as place and manner of
articulation)
– And just like spoken languages, signed languages of the world vary in these features

– Signs are formed by three major features:

• 1. The configuration of the hand (handshape)
• 2. The movement of the hand and arm towards oraway from the body
• 3. The location of the hand in signing space .

Phonetics of Signed Languages

• The configuration of the hand (handshape)

• The movement of the hand and arm
• The location of the hand in signing space

Vowels and consonants

What are Vowels and Consonants?

The English Language is created through the different combinations of 44 sounds
(phonemes), 20 vowels and 24 consonants. In our written language we refer to the letters of
the alphabet as being consonant or vowel letters depending on which type of sound they
are representing.

Vowel sounds allow the air to flow freely, causing the chin to drop noticeably, whilst
consonant sounds are produced by restricting the air flow.

Vowel sounds are usually (in the UK Education System) split into two main categories based
on sound quality:

 ‘Short’ vowel sounds, due to the short duration of the sound being made. The
sound cannot be held onto without becoming distorted
 ‘Long’ vowel sounds, due to the length of their pronunciation. These can often be
held without distorting their sound.
 The letters of the alphabet that we normally associate as being the vowelletters
are: a, e, i, o and u. The letter ‘y’ is sometimes referred to as an honorary vowel
as it is used to replace one of the other vowel letters in words such as: fly or my.

 All words in the English language have at least one vowel sound in them so the
written version must have at least one vowel letter in it.

 Consonant sounds are made (produced) when the air flow is being restricted in
some way, for example, changes in tongue position resultingin the mouth not
opening as wide. This means that the jaw doesn’t drop noticeably, which is
different to vowel sounds.

 The letters of the alphabet that usually represent the consonant sounds are:b, c, d, f,
g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z.

Vowels and Consonants inEnglish!

Pronunciation Guidelines Related toconsonants and vowels

7 Secret Pronunciation Rules Your Teacher NeverTaught You :)

Reading and pronouncing words correctly can be a big challenge in English. Why does an
"E" sometimes sound like an "eh" and sometimelike "ee"? SO MANY students struggle with
pronunciation, even after years of practice.

Don't despair! There is hope! :) I found this article super helpful when teaching and I've
shared it with many of my intermediate/advanced English students. There are examples and
explanations provided in the article. Make sure you're familiar with long and short vowel
sounds beforeyou read it! :)

Pronunciation Rules, Summarized:

1. A Vowel Followed by a Single Consonant at the End of a Word IsPronounced as a
Short Vowel.
2. A Vowel Followed by Two Consonants at the End of a Word IsPronounced as
a Short Vowel.
3. If a Vowel Is the Final Letter in a Word, It Is Pronounced as a LongVowel.
4. If an E Appears at the End of a Word, It Is Silent. The Preceding Vowel(Separated from
the E by One or More Consonants) Will Be Pronouncedas a Long Vowel.
5. If Two Vowels Appear next to Each Other in One Syllable, the SecondVowel Is Silent and
the First Vowel Is Pronounced as a Long Vowel.
6. If One Consonant Follows a Vowel in the Middle of a Word, It IsPronounced as
the First Sound in the Next Syllable.
7. If One Consonant Follows a Vowel in the Middle of a Word, It IsPronounced as
the First Sound in the Next Syllable.

Common Rules for Vowel Pronunciation in

English Language
English Letters ‘a‘, ‘e‘, ‘i‘, ‘o‘, ‘u‘ are commonly known as vowels. The reason they are
called vowels is because, you can pronounce it without obstructing the air to flow through
the mouth. In all vowels, the flow of air is unobstructed at the time of pronouncing. On the
other hand, Consonant sounds are made by releasing air and needs the assistance of the
tongue, lips or teeth.

Vowel sounds : are basically divided into two categories:

• Long Vowels
• Short Vowels

Long Vowel – A long vowel is pronounced in the same way as the name ofthe letter.
Examples:
use (long ‘u’)
eat (long ‘e’)
ape (long ‘a’)
ice (long ‘i’)
oak (long ‘o’)

Short Vowel – A short vowel refers to the sounds when the vowel occurs individually
between consonants. It uses the placement of consonants to force a short vowel sound.
Examples:
cat (short ‘a’)
gem (short ‘e’)
big (short ‘i’)
dog (short ‘o’)
cut (short ‘u’)

Note – Apart from the aforementioned methods, the English language also has a large
number of words that are not pronounced the way they are spelled. These are called
non-phonetic words and needs to be memorized individually.

Most Followed Rules for Vowel Pronunciation

Vowel sounds and Syllables have a direct impact on the pronunciation. Syllables are
naturally occurring sound units that create the rhythm of pronunciation. Words are split
into syllables; Each syllable has one vowelsound; and Syllables can have more than
one letter.

1) A Vowel is followed by a Consonant at the end of a word is pronounced as a short

vowel. It means when a word or syllable ends with a consonant andthere is only one vowel,
the sound made is of a short vowel.
Examples: bed, mat, lot, cat, fish

2) When a word ends with the vowel “e”, then it remains silent while pronouncing
the word (do not read out loud), and the vowel that comesbefore it, is a long vowel.
Examples: fake, bake, file, make, rope

3) When two vowels appear next to each other in a Syllable, the second vowel is
generally short and the first vowel is pronounced as a long vowel. Examples: boat, beat,
leaf, pain, grow, true, beat, train, load

4) If a Vowel is followed by two Consonants at the end of a word, it ispronounced

as a short vowel.
Examples – bark, want, hand, wish
5) When a Vowel is a final letter in a Word (comes last), it is pronounced as a Long Vowel.
Examples – pi, go, lo, be, he

Note – Since English is a non-phonetic language, these rules don’t work all the time.
There are certain exceptions when the rules are not followed. The only way to memorize
those is to practice.
SPELLING RULES

Basic spelling rules

 Short-Vowel Rule: When one-syllable words have a vowel inthe middle, the vowel
usually has a short sound.
Examples: cat, dog, man, hat, mom, dad, got. If the letter afterthe vowel is f, l, or s, this
letter is often doubled.
Examples: staff, ball, pass.
 Two-Vowels Together: When two vowels are next to each other, the first vowel is
usually long (the sound is the same asthe sound of the letter) and the second vowel
is silent. Examples: meat, seat, plain, rain, goat, road, lie, pie.
 Vowel-Consonant-e Pattern: When a short word, or the last
syllable of a longer word, ends in this pattern vowel- consonant-e, then the first
vowel is usually long and the e issilent. Examples: place, cake, mice, vote, mute.
 Y as a long I: The letter y makes the long sound of i when itcomes at the end of
a short word that has no other vowel. Examples: cry, try, my, fly, by, hi.
 Y as a long E: When y or ey ends a word in an unaccented
syllable, the y has the long sound of e. Examples: money, honey,
many, key, funny.
 I before E: Write i before e when the sound is long e except after the letter c.
Examples: relieve, relief, reprieve. When thereis a c preceding, then it
is ei : receipt, receive, ceiling, deceive, conceive.
 E before I: Write e before i when the sound is long a. Examples: weight, freight,
reign. Another way to remember thisis: “I before e except after c, or when sounding
like a as
in neighbor and weigh.” When the ie/ei combination is notpronounced ee, it is
usually spelled ei.
 Oi or Oy: Use oi in the middle of a word and use oy at the endof a word. Examples:
boil, soil, toil, boy, toy.
 Ou or Ow: Use ou in the middle of a word and use ow at theend of words other
than those that end in n or d.
 Examples: mouse, house, found, mount, borrow, row, throw, crow.
 Double Consonants: When b, d, g, m, n, or p appear after a short vowel in a word
with two syllables, double the consonant.Examples: rabbit, manner, dagger, banner,
drummer.
 The ch sound: At the beginning of a word, use ch. At the end of a word, use tch.
When the ch sound is followed by ure or ion,use t. Examples: choose, champ, watch,
catch, picture, rapture.

Suffix and inflection rules

 Words ending with a silent e: Drop the e before adding asuffix which begins
with a vowel: state, stating; like, liking.
 Keep the e when the suffix begins with a
consonant: state, statement; use, useful.
 When y is the last letter in a word and the y is preceded by a consonant, change
the y to i before adding any suffix except those beginning with y: beauty, beautiful; fry,
fries; lady, ladies.
 When forming the plural of a word which ends with a y that is preceded by a
vowel, add s: toy, toys; monkey, monkeys.
 When a one-syllable word ends in a consonant precededby one vowel, double
the final consonant before adding a suffix which begins with a vowel. This is also
called the 1-1-1rule, i.e., one syllable, one consonant, one vowel!
Example: bat, batted, batting, batter.
 When a multi-syllable word ends in a consonant precededby one vowel, and
the final syllable is accented, the same rule holds true—double the final
consonant.
Examples: control, controlled; begin, beginning.
 When the final syllable does not have the end-accent, it is preferred, and in some
cases required, that you NOT double the consonant. Examples: focus, focused;
worship, worshiped.

The Top Ten Spelling Rules

1. RULE :- IE and EI
Achieve , believe , piece - "i before e “the "i before e except after c"
rule
Ex: - receive , receipt , ceiling ,deceive , preconceiveAs a basic rule this is great
but what about ancient, efficient , science , sufficientWe have a longer version of the
rule:
" i before e except after a long c but not when c is a"sh" sound and not when sounded
like 'a' as in neighbour or weigh" ,leisure, neighbour/neighbor
( i before e rule) believe, achieve, (except after c),receive, ceiling (but not when c is
sounded like sh)ancient, proficient
not when sounded like 'a' ) eight, beige
But there are exceptions always exceptions so watchout for them.

2. Changing "y" to "ies"

You might not know the spelling rule but you might know the spelling pattern - most
people do.
When the word ends in a vowel + y just add ‘s’key → keys
delay → delays trolley →
trolleys
(because we can't have three vowels in a row delaies x
)
If the word has a consonant before the ‘y’:take off the ‘y’ and add ‘ies’
baby → babies company →
companiesdifficulty → difficulties

3. Adding -es to words ending in -s, -ss, -z -ch -sh -xThis was added centuries ago to
stop the plural 's' clashing with these letters and it softens the 's' soundto a 'z' sound
bus→ buses
business → businesseswatch → watches
box → boxes quiz →
quizzes

4. 1:1:1 doubling up rule

put - putting, big-bigger, quiz - quizzes, swim -swimming...
When a word has one syllable + 1 vowel next to 1 consonant we double up the final
consonant with avowel suffix:
sit - sitter, big - biggest, tap - tapping, shop - shopper/shopping, fat - fatten,
fattening, fatter,fattest...
This happens in longer words when the stress is on thefinal syllable:
begin (beGIN) - beginner, beginningrefer (reFER) - referring,
referred
occur (ocCUR) - occurring, occurred, occurrence
5. Drop the ‘e’ rule
We usually drop the final silent "e" when we add vowelsuffix endings, for example:
write + ing → writing hope + ed = hoped
excite + able = excitablejoke - joker
large - largishclose - closing
sense + ible = sensible opposite + ion = opposition
imagine + ation = imagination
We keep the 'e' if the word ends in –CE or –GE to keepa soft sound, with able/ous
courage + ous = courageous outrage + ous =
outrageous notice + able = noticeable manage +
able = manageable

6. Changing the "y" to "i" when adding suffix endings. If a word ends in a consonant + Y,
the Y changes to i (unless adding endings with "i" -ing -ish, which alreadybegins with an i)
beauty+ful > beauti+ful =beautiful, beautify,beautician
happy + ness = - happiness, happily, happier, happiestangry + er = angrier, angriest,
angrily,
pretty: prettier, prettiest but prettyishready: readily readiness
dry: dried, BUT drying, dryish defy: defies, defied, but
defying apply: applies, applied but applying

7. "-f" to "-ves" or "-s"

Most words ending in "-f" or "-fe" change their pluralsto "-ves"
calf - calves half -
halves knife - knives
leaf - leaves loaf -
loaves life - lives wife -
wives shelf - shelves
thief - thieves
yourself - yourselves
Some words can have both endings -ves or -s:scarf - scarfs/scarves
dwarf - dwarfs/dwarveswharf -
wharfs/wharves
handkerchief - handkerchiefs/handkerchieves
Words ending in -ff you just add -s to make the plural.cliff - cliffs
toff - toffs scuff -
scuffssniff – sniffs
Some words ending in -f add -s:
Nouns which end in two vowels plus -f usually formplurals in the normal way, with just
an -s
chief - chiefs spoof -
spoofsroof - roofs chief
- chiefs oaf - oafs
EXCEPTIONS: thief - thieves, leaf – leaves

8. Words ending in -ful

The suffix –FUL is always spelt with one L, for example:grate + ful = grateful
faith + ful = faithful hope + ful =
hopefulcareful
helpful
useful
grateful
beautiful (notice the"y" becomes "i")

9. Adding -ly
When we add -ly to words ending in -ful then we havedouble letters
gratefully
faithfully
hopefully
We also add -ly to words ending in 'e'love + ly = lovely
like + ly = likelylive + ly =
lively
complete + ly = completelydefinite + ly =
definitely
BUT not truly (true + ly) This is a common misspelledword.
We change the end 'e' to 'y' in these -le wordsgentle > gently
idle > idly subtle > subtly

10. When we add "all" to the beginning of words wedrop the l

all + so = also
all + most = almostalthough
always
almighty
already
alright (all right as two words is used in more formal English)
altogether (Note that altogether and all together do notmean the same thing. Altogether
means ‘in total’, as inthere are six bedrooms altogether, whereas all together means ‘all in
one place’ or ‘all at once’, as in itwas good to have a group of friends all together; they came
in all together.)

Words often Misspelt

These are the 32 most commonly misspelled words, saygrammar experts.

Spelling seems like such a minor thing. And don’t we all have the spell-check feature in
our computers? But it’s actually one of the most problematic issues we deal with in the
business world. Bad spelling can put a dent in your professional reputation.

According to one survey, 43% of hiring managers automatically chuck a candidate’s

resume if it has spelling errors. Another showed that 79% of recruiters and human
resource managers said
spelling and grammatical mistakes were the biggest “deal breakers”in job hunting.

Here are some of the most commonly misspelled words in American English, along with
their common misspellings, and tipson how to get them right the first time:

1. accommodate
Common misspellings: acommodate, accomodate

To spell this correctly, just remember that there are two sets ofdouble letters — “cc”
and “mm.”

2. acknowledgment
Common misspelling: acknowledgement

Even though you might be corrected if you slap that “e” in between the “g” and the “m,” the
spelling is still right! With the “e” is the typical British spelling, without the “e” is American. So
unless you’relooking for a job across the pond, stick with “acknowledgment.”

3. acquire
Common misspelling: aquire

People often forget to include the “c,” but there’s an old memory trick to get around that
oversight: “I c that you want to acquire that.”

4. apparent
Common misspellings: apparant, aparent, apparrent, aparrent
Apparently a lot of people find this tough to spell. One tip is to think of an app (spelled with
two “p” letters) to help you become a
better parent.

5. calendar
Common misspelling: calender

To most people, that “ar” as an ending looks weird, so they naturallywant to write it as “er.”
The reason for the “ar”? Calendar comes from the Latin word kalendarium, and we English
speakers choppedoff the “ium.”

6. colleague
Common misspellings: collaegue, collegue, coleague

Just think that you’ll become a major league speller when you spell “colleague” correctly —
and remember, it’s with two “l’s.”

7. conscientious
Common misspelling: consciencious

This one has a “t” and not a “c” near the end, even though it comes from the word
conscience. One mnemonic: If you’re conscientious, you don’t only dot your “i’s,” you also
cross your “t’s” (so put a “t” inthis word)!

8. consensus
Common misspelling: concensus

It’s tempting to spell this with a “c” because we know the word “census.” But census has
nothing to do with consensus. In fact, it
actually comes straight from the Latin word consensus (meaningagreement or common
feeling).

9. entrepreneur
Common misspellings: entrepeneur , entreprenur , entreperneur

Entrepreneur consistently appears on lists of the most commonly misspelled business

words. The problem? It’s a French word, so itsspelling doesn’t fit standard English rules.
Most people drop the “r” in the “pre” or transpose it, so it’s “perneur.” Your best bet is just to
memorize the spelling.
 10. experience

Common misspelling: experiance

The problem here is that the “ance” and “ence” endings both usually mean the same thing,
and can sound similar. The differences in spelling usually depend on the original Latin root
word and how it came into English. We say skip the rules and just memorize the difference
(or seek assistance).

Other “ance” and “ence” words that are commonly misspelled:

 guidance (not guidence)

 occurrence (not occurrance

 perseverance (not perseverence)

 reference (not referance)

 perseverance (not perseverence)

11. fulfill

Common misspelling: fulfil

Fulfill is used a lot if you’re in sales, so it pays to spell it correctly. Technically, both
spellings — “fulfill” and “fulfil” — are
correct. Here in the U.S., though, it’s best to go with the first. In the U.K., it’s the other way
around. (But wherever you are, never forgetthat first “l.”)

12. indispensable

Common misspelling: indispensible

This is an “able” — and not an “ible” — ending word. There are some general rules about
when to use which, but the problem withthose rules is that there’s a lot of overlap. For
example, one rule says that if the root word ends in “e,” you usually drop the “e” and add
“able” … but there are a number of “ible” ending words where you do the same thing! Your
best bet? Memorize the correct spelling!

13. led

Common misspelling: lead

This consistently ranks at the top for most misspelled words on resumes. So let’s get it
straight: the past tense of “to lead” is writtenand pronounced “led.” But a lot of people
instead write “lead,” probably because they’re thinking of the mineral lead.
14. laid off

Common misspelling: layed off

The past tense is “laid.” There is no such word (at least nowadays)as “layed.”

15. liaison

Common misspelling: liasion

This word often trips people up because the spelling is so non- standard for English —
which makes sense, since it’s a French word. It’s easy to put the vowels in the wrong
order to make it look“right” to our eyes (or to completely miss that second “i”)!

16. license

Common misspellings: licence, lisence

The “c” and the “s” are what can make license tough to spell. People often switch them
around, or replace one with the other. In American English, it’s always “license.” But in
British English, it’s spelled “licence” when it’s a noun, and “license” when it’s a verb.

17. maintenance

Common misspellings: maintainance, maintnance

It’s tempting to take “maintain” and just attach the suffix “ance.”There’s a “ten” in there
instead of a “tain.” Just memorize this sentence: “I have to do it ten times for proper
maintenance.”

18. necessary

Common misspellings: neccessary, necessery

A word we all see and use frequently, but that throws many of us off when it comes to
spelling. Typically the dilemma is which consonant
is doubled — the “s”?” The “c”? Or both? The right answer is justthe “s.”

19. occasion

Common misspelling: occassion

Let’s take this occasion to say that there’s only one “s” in this word. The reason is that the
“sion” is actually a form of a “tion” ending, as in action. There’s no double “t” there, no
double “s” here.

20. occurred

Common misspelling: occured

Always two “r” letters! According to English pronunciation rules, withone “r,” it would be
pronounced as “oh-cured” which means … nothing!

21. pastime

Common misspelling: pasttime

Unlike some other compound words consisting of two words ending and beginning with the
same letter (see “underrate” below), pastimedoesn’t have two “t’s.”

22. privilege

Common misspellings: privelege, priviledge

Only one “e” and no “d,” even though it sounds like it needs it. For this spelling, blame the
Romans. That last part “lege” is a form of the word lex, or law (with no “d” either).

23. publicly

Common misspelling: publically

The most commonly misspelled word, according to the Oxford Dictionary. One reason is
that this word violates a general spellingrule in English: for words ending in “ic,” you should
add “ally” (e.g.,logically). There’s one only major exception to this rule — and yep,you
guessed it: “Public,” which adds an “ly.”

24. receive

Common misspelling: recieve

This is also on Oxford Dictionary’s top 10 most misspelled words, but it really shouldn’t
be. We all learned “i before e, except after c” when we were kids — and that’s definitely a
“c” in there!

25. recommend

Common misspellings: recomend, reccommend

Here’s another case where double letters confuse people. They often think there are two
sets of double letters instead of just one, ornone at all. Just keep in mind that this word
combines “commend” with the prefix “re” — and it’ll spell itself.

26. referred

Common misspelling: refered

Remember this general rule: When adding an “ed” at the end, if youstress the last syllable of
a word with a vowel and a consonant (in this case, an “e” and an “r”), the consonant should
be doubled. If not, then don’t (e.g., offer and offered).

27. relevant

Common misspellings: relevent, revelant

Many people put an “e” in instead of the (correct) “a,” or they transpose the “v” and the “l,”
coming up with a new — and incorrect
— word.

28. separate

Common misspelling: seperate

Even spelling nerds sometimes have to stop for a second with this one. In fact, a study
done in Great Britain found it was the number one most commonly misspelled word (it also ranks
as the top misspelled word in Google searches). But you’ll always get it right ifyou remember that the
“r” separates two “a’s.”

29. successful
Common misspellings: succesful, successfull, sucessful
It’s the combos of repeated consonants that can make spelling successful, well, unsuccessful. Just
know that it has the doubles inthe middle (two “s’s” and two “c’s”), but only one consonant at the
beginning and one at the end.

30. underrate
Common misspelling: underate
Yet another compound word in which you should double the consonants that end the first word and
start the second. If you spellit with only one “r,” you’ve come up with a neologism (a new word) that
could mean having eaten less than expected.
31. until
Common misspelling: untill
Even though we know the word “till” is a word and “til” isn’t, there isonly one “l” in until.

32. withhold
Common misspelling: withold
Here we are with the compound word/double consonants issue again. But it’s “with” and “hold”
combined, not “with” and “old” or“wit” and “hold,” so you need the two “h’s” in there.

 100 Most Commonly Misspelled

Words
Commonly Misspelled Words A-B

The first two letters of the alphabet have quite a few of the hardest words to
spell. From acceptable to bellwether and several words in between, there are
quite a few challenging words that start with "a" and "b." Apply the helpful tips
below and follow key spelling rules to boost your ability to properly spell some
of the toughest terms to get right.

 acceptab - The pronounced /êbl/ can be spelled - or - .

le suffix as ible able
For this word, think about an acceptance speech for an award, as this
can help you remember to add a second "a."
 accidentally - If an -ly adverb comes from an -al adjective
("accidental" in this case), then the -al has to be in the spelling.
That rule, along
with doubling the "c" will put you on the right track.
 accommodate - Remember that this word is large enough to
accommodate two sets of double consonants. Double both the
"c" and
the "m" in this term.
  acquir - The "c" in "acquire" is silent, so it is often omitted in
e spelling.
To help get it right, remember that you should "see" (sounds like "c")
something before you acquire it.
 acquit - The challenge with spelling acquit is the same as with
acquire. Remind yourself that acquit is related to accusations of
criminal activities to help remember to include a "c."
 a lot - A lot is actually two words, but it's often misspelled as a
single word (alot). In actuality, alot is not a word. Hopefully, you
won't have to allot a lot of time remembering not to write alot.
 amateur - This word ends with the French suffix -eur (the
equivalent of English -er), though it is pronounced like words that
end in "ure." Remind yourself that amateurs need not be mature.
 apparent - It's apparent that you must pay the rent, so remember
this word always has "rent" in it, but you don't want to pay double.
In other words, double the "p,' not the "r."
 argument - Let's not argue about the loss of this verb's silent "e"
before the suffix -ment. This is based on the rules for suffixes.
Don't keep the silent "e" of the root word "argue."
 atheist - To remember how to spell atheist, remember that it
combines the prefix a- (not) + God + the suffix -ist (one who
believes). Put together, they spell the word for one who doesn't
believe in God.
 believe - The word believe follows the general rule that "i" usually
comes before "e" except after "c." (You might be surprised to
learn that this rule has more exceptions than words it applies to!)
 bellwether - This term isn't about the weather, so don't spell it that
way. A wether is a gelded ram that leads the herd. He wears a bell
to alert the
sheep to his presence and others to the herd's presence.

Hard Words to Spell From C-D

Words that are challenging to spell don't stop with the first few letters of the
alphabet. From calendar to dumbbell, the letters "c" and "d" pose some tough
spelling challenges to consider.

 calend - To correctly spell calendar, remember that this word has

ar one
"e" sandwiched between two a's. The last vowel is an "a."
categor - In this word, the "y" is pronounced with a long "e" sound,
y but
don't spell it that way. It's not spelled catastrophe, even though the
end sounds are similar, because the middle vowel is an "e."
 cemetery - Don't let the suffix of the word cemetery bury you
with a spelling error (pun intended). Cemetery ends in -ery.
There's nary an - ary in it.
 changeable - The verb change keeps its "e" when able is
added to the end. The spelling of this word indicates that the "g"
is soft, not hard.
 collectible - Where do you keep a collection? In your home.
Use the word "in" as a reminder that this word's final syllable
ends with an "i."
 column - A silent final "n" is not uncommon in English,
especially after "m." Some buildings need columns to be
structurally sound, so think about the "n" in need when spelling
this word.
 committed - If you're committed to correct spelling, think about
double consonants to help you remember that you'll need to
double the final "t" from "commit" before adding the -ed suffix.
 conscience - Don't let misspelling this word weigh on your
conscience. While the /ch/ sound spelled as "sc" is a bit unusual,
it's a consonant blend that is correct here.
 conscientious - Work on your spelling conscientiously! For this
word, remember that conscientious has the /ch/ sound spelled
two different ways: "sc" and 'ti."
 conscious - Try to be conscious of the "sc" spelling of the /ch/
sound and the fact that there are three vowels in this word's last
syllable. Keep the order straight by thinking of "i-o-u."
 consensus - Don't get tricked into spelling the end of this word
like "census." The census does not require a consensus, since
the two terms actually are not related in meaning.
 daiquiri - These fruity concoctions are named for a village in
Cuba with the same name. As with many proper nouns, no
specific rule applies. Remember that "i" appears in this word
three times, to help avoid leaving one out.
 definitely - Also related to the rules of suffixes, the silent "e"
remains with the word definite when an -ly is added to the end.
 discipline - This commonly used word has an unusual spelling.
Think of how this word is broken into syllables: dis-ci-pline.
Remember that the "sc" sound actually comes from two different
syllables. That should help
keep you from leaving out one of the letters.
  drunkenne - To help you remember that drunkenness has two n's
ss and
two s's, remember that having too much to drink could cause one to
see double!
 dumbbell - The "b" in dumb is silent. When dumb and bell are
combined to form a compound noun, all of the letters remain.
That's why there are
two b's.

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Hard to Spell Words From E-H

The more you explore the alphabet, the more hard words to spell you'll find.
From embarrass to humorous, plenty of words that start with letters between "e"
and "h" are ever-so-difficult to spell properly.

embarras - Spelling this word won't be a cause for embarrassment

s if
you remember that it's large enough for a double "r" and a double "s."
 equipment - This word is misspelled "equiptment" a lot.
However, the only "t" in this word is at the end, so be sure not to
add one in the middle.
 exhilarate - Remembering the "h" is silent when you spell this
word will lift your spirits high, with no "h" required. The other tricky
part of this word is the fact that there are two a's.
 exceed - This word is often misspelled with -cede at the end
instead of - ceed. Think of the double-digit speed limit you
shouldn't exceed! This should help you remember the side-by-
side e's.
 existence - People often replace one or both of the e's in this
word with an "a." Remember that there is no "a" in existence.
 experience - It's fairly common for people to substitute an "a" for
the last "e" in the word experience. Remind yourself that there are
three e's in this word.
 fiery - This one is tough. The base word is fire, but when using it
as an adjective, the "r" and "e" change places before a "y" is
added to the end.
 foreign - The word foreign violates the i-before-e rule. Remember
that something foreign is different from the norm, which is also the
case with how this word is spelled.
 gauge - To gauge the positioning of the "a" and "u" in this
word, remember that these two vowels appear in
alphabetical order.
 grateful - Remember that grateful is based on the word
gratitude, not the word great, so it should be spelled accordingly.
 Keep "great" out of
"grateful."
  guarante - This word isn't spelled like "warranty," even though
e these
words sound alike and can be used as synonyms for each other.
 harass - This word is too small for two sets of double letters, just
double the "s" on the end.
 height - English reaches the height (not heigth!) of absurdity
when it spells "height" and "width" so differently. Remember that
height is the opposite of width, so it does not end with "th."
 hierarchy - The i-before-e rule works fine here. Remind
yourself that "hierarchy" is all about proper order, so it makes
sense to stick to the rule when you're spelling this word.
 humorous - People often leave out the second "o," incorrectly
believing that only the "u" is needed rather than the "ou"
diphthong. Think of it like this: The "r" is so weak here, it needs an
"o" on both sides to hold it
up.

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Difficult Words to Spell I-L

Ignorance of correct spelling doesn't give you a license to turn in work that's rife
with spelling mistakes. Instead, take the time to learn how to spell these
challenging words throughout the alphabet, including ones that begin with the
letters between "i" and "l."

 ignoran - Don't show your ignorance by spelling this word - !

ce with ence
Remember that the vowels in ignorance are consistent with ignorant
and ignoramus. There's no "e" in these terms.
 immediate - Do you need something now? Then you need to
spell this word with two m's for the proper emphasis!
 independent - Remember that there are no a's in the word
independent. Instead, there are three e's. Please be
independent but not in your spelling of this word. It ends on -
ent.
 indispensable - Knowing this word ends on -able is an
indispensable spelling skill. Remember your indispensable
assistant (starts with "a") makes you able (starts with "a") to
function.
 inoculate - This word is often misspelled with a double "n." This
one sounds like a shot in the eye. Remind yourself that one "n" in
the eye is (more than) enough. Nobody needs two!
 intelligence - Using two i's in this word and ending it with -ence
rather
than -ance are marks of, of course, intelligence. There are no a's in
this term.
  its/it' - Keeping the spelling of these words straight is a matter of
s
remembering the difference between its and it's. Both are correct
spellings of different words. "It's" is a contraction of "it is." while "its"
shows possession or ownership.
 jewelry - Jewelry is made by a jeweler, but don't just add on a "y"
to that word. Instead, the last "e" flees the scene (like a jewel thief!)
when "y" is added to the end.
 judgment - Judges make judgments. The "e" should be dropped
when - ment is added to the word "judge." In British English,
though, either spelling (with or without the "e" at the end of judge)
is correct.
 kernel - There is more than a kernel of truth to the claim that all
the vowels in this word are e's. There are no o's in this word.
Save those for popcorn!
 leisure - This term is another violator of the i-before-e rule.
Remember that if you go to Hawaii for some rest and relaxation
(i.e., leisure), you'll be greeted with a lei.
 liaison - This French word is throwing a bit of an orthographical
curve. Remember that the "a" is sandwiched between two i's and
the /z/ sound is really an "s."
 library - The library may be as fun as a berry patch, but that's
not how it's spelled. There is no such word as liberry. There is
only one "r." It should be pronounced and enunciated clearly.
 license - Remember that there's only one "s" in license, so the
other soft
/s/ sound has to be a "c." Fortunately, these letters
appear alphabetically in this word.

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Common Misspellings M-O

There are even more often misspelled words that begin with the letters "m"
through "o." Make an effort to own your responsibility for spelling these words
correctly rather than being overly reliant on the spell check function on your
computer or mobile device.

maintenan - The main tenants of this word are "main" and

ce "tenance"
even though the term comes from the verb to maintain. It has exactly
 two e's, though people often wrongly use a third "e" instead of the
second "a."
 maneuve - This one combines the French words
r
French main andoeuvr , which together mean handwork. In English, the
spelling adjusts slightly.
e Main is shortened to man and ouevr is
shortened to euver. That's where the spelling of maneuver e comes from.
 mediev - The medieval orthography of English lays traps for you:
everything
al about the Middle Ages is Medieval or, as the British would
write, mediaeval. In both situations, there is an additional vowel before
the second "e."
 mement - Why is something that reminds you of a moment is spelled
memento
o rather than momento? The word mement is actually aLati
wor that means remember. Remind yourself o that there are more n
d in memento than any other vowel.
e's
 millenniu - This word is large enough to hold two sets of double
consonants,
m double "l" and double "n." Plus, remember that it began in a
year with double o's at the end.
 miniatur - Since that "a" is seldom pronounced, it's easy to leave it out
of
e spelling. Remind yourself that this one has four distinct syllables, two
of which are solo vowels: min-i-a-ture.
 minuscu - Since something minuscule is smaller than a miniature, it's a
minus,
le not a mini. See? That's why this word has a "u" before the "s."
 mischievo - This mischievous word holds two traps: an "i" before the
us rather than a - or or even -ious ending.
 "e,"
missp and - What
- is more embarrassing
us than misspelling the name of the
an
problem
ell ous
(spelling)? Just remember that mis + spell. The s's are in
it is separate syllables so they both stay. -
 neighbo - The word neighbor invokes a silent "gh," as well as the /ei/
sound
r as a rule. This is fraught with error potential. It is one of the
designated exceptions to the "i" before "e" rule, so the "e" comes before
the "i." As far as the "g" goes, remind yourself to try to be a good
neighbor.
 noticeabl - The "e" is noticeably retained in this word to indicate the
"c"
e is soft, which means that it's pronounced like /s/. Without the "e,"
the "c" would be hard and have the /k/ sound, as with the word
applicable.
 occasiona - Writers occasionally tire of doubling so many consonants
(or
lly just forget). Remember that the word "occasionally" refers to
something that occurs more than once as a reminder to double the "c"
and the "l."
  occurren - Remember not only the occurrence of two pairs of
ce double
consonants in this word but also note that the suffix - , not - .
is ence ance

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Hard Words to Spell From P-R

Yes, there are even more challenging spelling words that begin with the
letters"p" through "r." When you start considering the most commonly
misspelled words, you'll pretty soon realize that there are quite a few. After all,
when it rains, it pours!

 pastim - Since a pastime is something you do to pass the time,

e you
would expect a double "s" here. However, you aren't talking about the
passing of time or how time passes, which would include two s's. A
pastime is an activity, which is an enjoyable way to spend time.
Knowing the different meanings should help.
 perseverance - All it takes is perseverance and you can be a
perfect speller. The suffix is -ance, ruining an almost perfect
run of e's. The correct spelling is maxed out at four e's already,
so don't take it up to five by using an "e" where the "a" belongs.
 personnel - It's not personal that personnel has two n's and one
"l." It's business, which is the context in which this word is used.
Personal is an entirely different word. When you're referring to the
people who work for a business, use two l's and an "e." There's
no "a" in personnel.
 playwright - Since playwrights write plays, they should be "play-
writes," right? Wrong. In Old English, a play writer was called a
play worker.
Wright is from an old form of the word work. This term is a
basic compound word that combines play and wright into a single
term.
 possession - Possession possesses more s's than a hissing
snake. Remember that there are two occurrences of double s's in
this word for a total of four.
 precede - What follows, succeeds, so what goes before should do
what? Nothing confuses English spelling more than common
sense. We "succeed" after the fact but "precede" before. This
term is of Latin origin, combining pre and cedere. It means to go
before.
 principal - The words principle and principal sound the same but
are spelled differently. When you're referring to someone who is in
charge (such as a school principal) or at the top (such as a
 principal dancer), use principal with an "a". They're at the top of
their occupation, so their final
vowel is at the top of the alphabet.
 privileg - According to the pronunciation of this word, that middle
e
vowel could be anything. Remember that this word has two i's
followed by two e's.
 pronunciation - Nouns often differ from the verbs they're derived
from, which is true in this case. Here, the second "o" has been
dropped from the root word pronounce, as well as the "e."
 publicly - Let's publicly declare the rule (again)! If an adverb
comes from an adjective ending in -al, include that ending in the
adverb. If not, as in here, don't add an -al.
 questionnaire - The French are doing it to us again. Don't
question it, just double up on the n's and don't forget the silent
"e" on the end.
 receipt - This is another example of the "i" before "e" rule. Plus,
to further complicate things, this word has a silent "p." Think of
patiently waiting for a receipt to print in the store.
 recommend - Think of this word as the equivalent of
commending. It's formed by combining re- + commend. That
would be (re)commendable. Any time commend is used as part of
a word, it includes two m's and one "c."
 referred - Final consonants are often doubled before -ed is
added (remit, remitted). This rule applies to accented syllables
ending with "l" or "r," as is the case with referred, as well as the
term rebelled. There would be an exception if the word contained
a diphthong, such as with the word prevailed.
 reference - Refer to the aforementioned word and remember to
add - ence to the end of the term. In this case. Notice that the "r"
is not doubled in this case.
 relevant - The relevant factor here is that the word is not
"revelant," "revelent," or even "relevent." It's all about "l" before "v"
and the suffix - ant.
 rhyme - Actually, "rime" was the correct spelling until 1650, but it
is not correct now. After that time, the spelling was changed to
rhyme. Remember that it begins the same way as the word
rhythm.
 rhythm - This one was borrowed from Greek (and conveniently
never returned). As a result, it's spelled the way words that are
borrowed from
are spelled.

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Challenging Words to Spell S-Z

Even at the very end of the alphabet, there are sure some real zingers. Words
that are difficult to spell persist all the way through the alphabet, to the very last
letter.

 schedu - If perfecting your spelling is on your schedule, remember

le the
/sc/ sound is spelled the same way as the beginning of the word
"school." Think about your school schedule and remind yourself to
use the same three consonants at the beginning of both words.
 separate - How do you separate the e's from the a's in this word?
Simply remember that "e" is the first vowel in the article and the
last. In other words, the e's surround the a's.
 sergeant - The "a" in this word has been marched to the back of
the line, so it's in the last syllable. Remember that, along with the
fact that "e" is used in both syllables. You'll be able to write to or
about your sergeant without fear of a spelling error.
 supersede - This word supersedes all others in perversity. This is
the only English word based on the stem -sede. Supersede
combinessupethe Latin
and words , meaning to sit above.
seder
 r e - They're all pronounced the same but their
spelling is different. The key to choosing the right word and
their/they're/ther
spelling
e it properly is to know the difference between these three
words. "Their" is possessive. "They're" is the contraction of "they
are" Everywhere else, the word "there" is used.
 threshold - This one can push you over the threshold. It looks
like a compound of "thresh" and "hold" but it isn't. Two h's in
the word are enough. The letter "h" does not appear side-by-
side in this word.
 twelfth - Even if you omit the "f" in your pronunciation of this
word (which you shouldn't, as this is a pronunciation error), it's
always retained in the spelling. When in doubt, you could
always opt to write 12th instead.
 tyranny - If you are still resisting the tyranny of English
orthography at this point, you must face the problem of the "y"
inside this word. It refers to a tyrant and whose problem is
tyranny. Don't forget to double up on the n's before adding the
"y."
 until - Don't add an extra "l" to until. This word needs only one. It
would
be wrong to add more; there are no double letters in this term.
  vacuu - People tend to misspell this word by using two c's and
m one "u,"
or two of both of these letters. Both are incorrect. To spell vacuum
correctly, remember that "u" is the only double letter in the term.
 weather - Whether you like the weather or not, you have to
have the "a" after the "e" when you put it in writing. Of course,
that's if you're referring to the weather conditions. The word
whether serves an entirely different purpose.
 weird - This word is an exception to the rule about "i" I before
"e" except after "c." Remember that this word is an exception,
though of course exceptions aren't so weird in the English
language! It's full of
exceptions to the rule.

SILENT & NON SILENT LETTERS

Words with Silent Letter A

 Artistically
 Logically
 Musically
 Physically
 Critically
Words with Silent Letter B
 Aplomb
 Bomb
 Climb
 Comb
 Coulomb
 Crumb
 Debt
 Doubt
 Dumb
 Jamb
 Lamb
  Limb
 Numb
 Plumber
 Subtle
 Succumb
 Thumb
 Tomb
 Womb
Words with Silent Letter C
 Abscess
 Ascend
 Ascent
 Conscience
 Conscious
 Crescent
 Descend
 Disciple
 Evanesce
 Fascinate
 Fluorescent
 Muscle
 Obscene
 Resuscitate
 Scenario
 Scene
 Scent
 Science
 Scissors
 Transcend
Words with Silent Letter D
 Badge
 Edge
 Handkerchief
  Handsome
 Hedge
 Sandwich
 Wedge
 Wednesday
Words with Silent Letter E
 Age
 Breathe
 Bridge
 Change
 Clothes
 Gene
 Hate
 Like
 Love
 Please
 Vegetable
Words with Silent Letter G
 Align
 Assign
 Benign
 Campaign
 Champagne
 Cologne
 Consign
 Design
 Feign
 Foreign
 Gnarl
 Gnarly
 Gnome
 Reign
 Resign
  Sign
Words with Silent Letter H
 Ache
 Anchor
 Archaeology
 Architect
 Chaos
 Character
 Charisma
 Chemical
 Chlorine
 Choir
 Chord
 Choreograph
 Chrome
 Echo
 Ghost
 Honest
 Hour
 Mechanic
 Monarchy
 Orchestra
 Psychic
 Rhythm
 Scheme
 School
 Stomach
 Tech
 What
 When
 Where
 Whether
 Which
 While
  White
 Why
Words with Silent Letter I
 Business
 Parliament
Words with Silent Letter K
 Knack
 Knead
 Knee
 Kneel
 Knew
 Knickers
 Knife
 Knight
 Knitting
 Knob
 Knock
 Knot
 Know
 Knowledge
 Knuckle
Words with Silent Letter L
 Almond
 Balm
 Calf
 Calm
 Chalk
 Could
 Folk
 Half
 Palm
 Salmon
  Should
 Talk
 Walk
 Would
 Yolk
Words with Silent Letter N
 Autumn
 Column
 Damn
 Hymn
Words with Silent Letter P
 Coup
 Cupboad
 Pneumonia
 Pseudo
 Psychiatrist
 Psychic
 Psychology
 Psychotherapy
 Psychotic
 Raspberry
 Receipt
Pin
Words with Silent Letter S
 Aisle
 Island
 Patios
Words with Silent Letter T
 Apostle
 Bristle
 Bustle
 Butcher
 Castle
 Christmas
 Fasten
 Glisten
 Hustle
 Listen
 Match
 Moisten
 Mortgage
 Nestle
 Often
 Rustle
 Scratch
 Soften
 Thistle
 Watch
 Whistle
 Witch
 Wrestle
Words with Silent Letter U
 Baguette
 Biscuit
  Building
 Circuit
 Disguise
 Guard
 Guess
 Guest
 Guild
 Guile
 Guilt
 Guitar
 Rogue
 Silhouette
 Tongue
 Vogue
Words with Silent Letter W
 Answer
 Awry
 Playwright
 Sword
 Two
 Whole
 Wrack
 Wrap
 Wrapper
 Wrath
 Wreath
 Wreck
 Wreckage
 Wren
 Wrench
 Wrestling
 Wretched
 Wriggle
 Wring
  Wrinkle
 Wrist
 Wrong
 Wrote
SYLLABLE

Notes on Syllable

What is a syllable?
 A syllable is the sound of a vowel (A, E, I, O, U) that is created when pronouncing
the letters A, E, I, O, U, or Y.

 The letter "Y" is a vowel only if it creates an A, E, I, O, or U sound.

o examples: fry, try, cry, & dry

 The number of times that you hear the sound of a vowel is the number of syllables
in a word.

 When two (or more) vowels are next to each other, the number of syllables
depends on the number of vowel sounds.

o examples: free (1 syllable), eat (1 syllable), & bio (2 syllables)

 If a vowel is silent, it is not counted as a syllable.

o example: fire (1 syllable)

 Does the word end with "le" or "les?" This is a syllable if the letter before the "le"
is a consonant.
 Syllable Examples
Fre
e

 1 syllable: free
 pronounced: free
 Listen: how to pronounce free


Eat

 1 syllable: eat
 pronounced: eet
 Listen: how to pronounce eat
Eating

 2 syllables: eat-ing
 pronounced: eet-ing
 Listen: how to pronounce eating
Bio

 2 syllables: bi-o
 pronounced: bi-oh
 Listen: how to pronounce bio
Fire

 1 syllable: fire
 pronounced: f-eye-r
 Listen: how to pronounce fire
Cake

 1 syllable: cake
 pronounced: kay-k
 Listen: how to pronounce cake
Cheese

 1 syllable: cheese
 pronounced: chees
 Listen: how to pronounce cheese
Chicken

 2 syllables: chick-en
 pronounced: chik-in
 Listen: how to pronounce chicken
Checked

 1 syllable: checked
 pronounced: chek-d
 Listen: how to pronounce checked
Batted

 2 syllables: bat-ted
 pronounced: bat-ed
 Listen: how to pronounce batted
Worrying

 3 syllables: wor-ry-ing
 pronounced: wah-ree-ing
 Listen: how to pronounce worrying

Why Syllables Are Important

 Syllables are the building blocks of words

 Long words can be broken into syllables (small speech sounds)

 Knowing how to divide words into syllables can help:

o improve reading skills
o pronounce new, hard words & names
o pronounce vowels
o spell words correctly
Examples:

 Breaking “environmental” into syllables can help you read & pronounce it:
 o en-vi-ron-men-tal
o Listen: how to pronounce environmental
 Syllable Division Rules can help:
o spelling words you know how to say
 the past tense of “to bat” is batted (two t’s)
 Listen (batted): how to pronounce batted
 the past tense of “to bate” is bated (one t)
 Listen (bated): how to pronounce bated
o pronouncing vowel sounds

5 Ways to Count Syllables

(Syllable Rules Below)

1. The "Listen Method" Rules

a. Say the word.
b. How many times do you hear A, E, I, O, or U as a separate sound?
c. This is the number of syllables.
2. The "Chin Method" Rules
a. Put your hand under your chin.
b. Say the word.
c. How many times does your chin touch your hand?
d. This is the number of syllables.
3. The "Clap Method" Rules
a. Clapping may help you find syllables.
b. Say the word.
c. Clap each time you hear A, E, I, O, or U as a separate sound.
d. The number of claps is the number of syllables.
4. The "Robot Speak Method" Rules
a. Make believe you are a robot from the year 2000.
b. Say a word as this robot.
c. Pay attention to the pauses you make.
 d. How many parts did you break your word into?
Example:
1. robot = "ro" *pause* "bot"... 2 syllables
2. Listen: pronouncing robot sound
e. This is the number of syllables.
5. The "Written Method" Rules
a. Count the number of vowels (A, E, I, O, U) in the word.
1. Add 1 every time the letter 'y' makes the sound of a vowel
(A, E, I, O, U).
2. Subtract 1 for each silent vowel (like the silent 'e' at the end of a word).
6. Subtract 1 for each diphthong or triphthong in the word.
a. Diphthong: when 2 vowels make only 1 sound (au, oy, oo)
b. Triphthong: when 3 vowels make only 1 sound (iou)
7. Does the word end with "le" or "les?" Add 1 only if the letter before the "le" is
a consonant.
8. The number you get is the number of syllables in your word.

Examples
Take

 1 syllable: take
 pronounced: tay-k
 Listen: how to pronounce take
Bee
 1 syllable: bee
 pronounced: bee
 Listen: how to pronounce bee
Taking

 2 syllables: tak-ing
 pronounced: tay-king
 Listen: how to pronounce taking
Redo
 2 syllables: re-do
 pronounced: ree-doo
 Listen: how to pronounce redo
Dusted

 2 syllables: dust-ed
 pronounced: dus-ted
 Listen: how to pronounce fire
Worrying

 3 syllables: wor-ry-ing
 pronounced: wah-ree-ing
 Listen: how to pronounce worrying

Syllable Division Rules

1. Separate prefixes and suffixes from root words.
o examples: pre-view, work-ing, re-do, end-less, & out-ing
2. Are two (or more) consonants next to each other?
o Divide between the 1st and 2nd consonants.
 examples: buf-fet, des-sert, ob-ject, ber-ry, & pil-grim
o Never split 2 consonants that make only 1 sound when pronounced together and
aren't the same letter (i.e., 'ff').
 examples: th, sh, ph, th, ch, & wh
3. Is the consonant surrounded by vowels?
o Does the vowel have a long sound? (Like the 'i' in line)
 Divide before the consonant.
 examples: ba-by, re-sult, i-vy, fro-zen, & Cu-pid
o Does the vowel have a short sound? (Like the 'i' in mill)
 Divide after the consonant.
 examples: met-al, riv-er, mod-el, val-ue, & rav-age
4. Does the word end with 'ckle'?
o Divide right before the 'le.'
o examples: tack-le, freck-le, tick-le, & buck-le
 5. Does the word end with 'le' (not 'ckle')?
o Is the letter before the 'le' a consonant?
 Divide 1 letter before the 'le.'
 examples: ap-ple, rum-ble, fa-ble, & ta-ble
o Is the letter before the 'le' a vowel?
 Do nothing.
 examples: ale, scale, sale, file, & tile

Examples
 little: lit - tle
 petal: pet - al
 turtle: tur - tle
 ankle: an - kle
 riddle: rid - dle
 arrow: ar - row
 nickel: nick - el
 cotton: cot - ton
 student: stu - dent
 teacher: teach - er
 children: chil - dren
 pottery: pot - ter - y
 learning: learn - ing
 textbook: text - book
 watching: watch - ing
 screaming: scream - ing
 misbehaving: mis - be - hav - ing

What is a vowel?
 A vowel is a letter that represents the sound of an A, E, I, O, or U.
 o examples: cat, met, hit, dog, & hug

 The letter "Y" can be a vowel only if it creates an A, E, I, O, or U sound.

o examples: fry, try, cry, & dry

 The opposite of a vowel is a consonant.

 A vowel that makes a unique vowel sound is a syllable.

 A vowel that is silent or doesn't make a unique vowel sound is not a syllable.

o examples: kite, bite, lite, fire, & ate

Vowel Examples
All vowels are highlighted below, in red:

 free
 eat
 eating
 bio
 fire
 cake
 cheese

What is a consonant?
 A consonant is a letter that is not A, E, I, O, or U.

o examples: at, man, how, phone, & school

 The letter "Y" can be a consonant only if it does not create an A, E, I, O, or U

sound.
 o examples: yes, yellow, you, & yell

 The opposite of a consonant is a vowel.

 Consonants are not syllables.

 Consonants can be combined with a vowel to make a syllable.

o examples: he, she, it, then, & here

Cite This Source

Consonant Examples
All consonants are highlighted below, in red:

 dot
 cat
 sitting
 bite
 bitten
 mittens
 sweet
 love

What is a prefix?
 One or more letters that are placed in front of a word to form a new word with a
similar meaning.

o examples: redo, preview, unhappy, iPhone, & abnormal

 A prefix is usually not a word by itself.

 What is a root word?
 The base word which is combined with a suffix and/or prefix to form a a new
word.

 The word which is left when all prefixes and suffixes are removed.

o examples: rechecked, preboarding, unchanged, untouched, & unanswered

What is a suffix?
 One or more letters that are placed at the end of a word to form a new word with
a similar meaning.

o examples: ended, dryer, dancer, talking, & sleeping

 A suffix is usually not a word by itself.

 Words can have more than one suffix.

o examples: cheerfulness, carefully, grudgingly, & annoyances

What is a diphthong?
 Two vowels that make only one vowel sound, the sound of an A, E, I, O, or U.

o examples: email, fail, spoil, hail, & boil

A diphthong is only one syllable because it makes only one vowel sound.

Diphthong Examples
All diphthongs are highlighted below, in red:

 see
 tea
 free
 eat
 meat
 feet
 teeth
 school
 cheese
 mouse

What is a triphthong?
 Three vowels that make only one vowel sound, the sound of an A, E, I, O, or U.

o examples: beautiful, anxious, & precious

A triphthon is only one syllable because it makes only one vowel sound.

Triphthong Examples
All diphthongs are highlighted below, in red:

 beauty
 beautiful
 cautious
 chateau
 infectious
 precious
 malicious
 suspicious

 Syllable Types
 Every word is made from syllables. The English language has 6 syllable types:
Open, Closed, R-controlled, Vowel Team, Silent-e, and C-le.
 Open Syllable

 An open syllable has only one vowel.

 The vowel has a long sound (like the 'i' in line).

 The vowel is the last letter of the syllable.

 Open syllables have no more than one consonant between the open syllable and
the next vowel.

 examples: ba-by, fe-male, i-vy, fro-zen, & Cu-pid

Closed Syllable

 A closed syllable has only one vowel.

 The vowel has a short sound (like the 'i' in mill).

 If the word is only 2 letters, it must end with a consonant.

o examples: in, on, of, at, & it

o listen: how to pronounce in

 If the word is 3+ letters, a closed syllable has 1 consonant before and 1 (or
more) consonants after the vowel.

o examples: cat, catch, net, nest, web, man, roll, & bark

 If a word has 2 closed syllables next to each other, there will be

two consonants between the vowels.

o examples: win-ter, sum-mer, com-mon, & tem-per

 R-Controlled Syllable

 A vowel, diphthong, or triphthong that has an "r" or a "re" ("r" with a silent "e")
after it.

o examples: deer, whis-per, worth, care, & fire

o listen: how to pronounce deer

 R-controlled vowels are usually pronounced in a different way because they are
"controlled" by the r.

o er, ur, & ir vowels sound like the er in "her"

 examples: per, fur, her, birth, shirt, & hurt

 listen: how to pronounce per

o some ar vowels sound like the ar in "far"

 examples: par, far, car, & star

 listen: how to pronounce par

o other ar vowels sound like the ar in "share"

 examples: pair, hare, hair, & stare

 listen: how to pronounce pair

 or vowels sound like the or in "for"

o examples: or, for, floor, & door

o listen: how to pronounce or

 Vowel Team Syllable

 A group of 2 to 4 letters, usually vowels, which make a single vowel sound.

 If a vowel team is made of 2 vowels, usually only the first vowel is pronounced.

o examples: rain, fail, suit, & clean

o listen: how to pronounce rain

 A vowel team can create a long or short vowel sound.

o examples: toast, look, saw, feel, wear, & bread

o listen: how to pronounce toast

 If a vowel team syllable has a consonant in it, the vowel is usually pronounced
differently from normal vowels.

o examples: walk, loud, sound, though, te-di-ous, tight, & straw

o listen: how to pronounce walk

 Fun fact: Vowels teams are usually old words whose pronunciation changed
over long periods of time. They're only learned through practice and
recognition.

Silent-e (VCe) Syllable

 The silent-e syllable is also called VCe, which stands for Vowel-Consonant-e.

o It consists of a vowel, followed by a consonant, followed by an "e" that is silent.

 It's usually the last syllable in a root word.

 The vowel has a long sound (like the 'i' in line).

 examples: take, cake, theme, line, tone, tune, & ex-ile
C-le Syllable
 The C-le syllable is also called the Consonant-le.

o It consists of a consonant followed by an "le."

 It's usually the last syllable in a root word.

 Does the word end with 'ckle'?

o Divide right before the 'le.'

o examples: tack-le, freck-le, tick-le, & buck-le

o listen: how to pronounce tackle

 Does the word end with 'le' (not 'ckle')?

o Is the letter before the 'le' a consonant?

 Divide 1 letter before the 'le.'

 examples: ap-ple, rum-ble, fa-ble, & ta-ble

 Is the letter before the 'le' a vowel?

o Do nothing.

o examples: ale, scale, sale, file, & tile

Sample List of Words Divided into

Syllables
# of Syllables Word Syllabification

1 House House

2 Preppy Prep/py

2 Letters Let/ters

2 Player Play/er

2 Mainstream Main/stream

2 Project Pro/ject

2 Autumn Au/tumn

2 Kicking Kick/ing

2 Loving Lov/ing

2 Nonsense Non/sense

2 Mother Moth/er

2 Boyfriend Boy/friend

2 Market Mar/ket

3 Swimmingly Swim/ming/ly

3 Overly O/ver/ly

4 Coincidence Co/in/ci/dence

4 Profitable Prof/it/a/ble

4 American A/mer/i/can

4 Superficial Su/per/fi/cial

5 Humiliated Hu/mil/i/at/ed

6 Autobiography Au/to/bi/og/ra/phy

LIST OF MULTISYLLABLE WORDS

Compound Two Syllable 3 Syllable 4 Syllable Words

words Words Words

Birthday Teacher Butterfly Alligator

Airplane Rabbit Elephant Helicopter
Fireman Paper Computer Caterpillar
Football Cartoon Umbrella Watermelon
Pancake Hamster Fingerpaint Macoroni
Popcorn Table Hamburger
Bathtub Pencil Dinosaur
Skateboard Candy Bicycle
Cupcake Slipper Basketball
Spaceship Window Broccoli
Cowboy Apple Ladybug
Snowflake Monkey Dishwasher
Doghouse Rocket Strawberry
Baseball Ketchup Bumblebee
Toothbrush Tiger Potato
Sidewalk Glasses Spaghetti
Bedroom Spider Octopus
Firetruck Zebra Ponytail
Blackbird Doctor Telephone
Playground Magnet Microwave
Earring Garden Grassshopper
Coughdrop Number
Doorbell Napkin
Classroom Pocket
Peanut Necklace
Railroad Zipper
Dollhouse Winter
Flashlight Pumpkin
Jacket

5 Syllable
Words.
accommodation administration anniversary

association capability characteristic

classification communication consideration

constituency determination differentiate

 disability discrimination electricity

evaluation examination flexibility

ideology imagination implementation

individual initiative interpretation

investigation justification laboratory

liability manufacturer modification

negotiation opportunity organisation

organization participation personality

possibility probability productivity

qualification recommendation representation

representative sociology specification

subsidiary university

list
How many syllables in list?
1 syllable

Divide list into syllables: list

Syllable stress: list

How to pronounce list: list

1 syllable

 bill 1 syllable synonym

 lean 1 syllable synonym
  roll 1 syllable synonym
 slant 1 syllable synonym
 tilt 1 syllable synonym

 file 1 syllable synonym

 lurch 1 syllable synonym
 run 1 syllable synonym
 slope 1 syllable synonym

2 syllables
 canon 2 syllable synonym
 incline
 program 2 syllable synonym
 record
 rundown 2 syllable synonym
 table 2 syllable synonym

 detail 2 syllable synonym

 listing 2 syllable synonym
 recite 2 syllable synonym
 roster 2 syllable synonym
 subsume 2 syllable synonym

3 syllables
 catalog 3 syllable synonym
 itemize 3 syllable synonym
 prospectus 3 syllable synonym
 specify 3 syllable synonym

 database 3 syllable synonym

 make a list
 register 3 syllable synonym

4 syllables
  directory 4 syllable synonym
 inventory 4 syllable synonym

 enumerate 4 syllable synonym

 keep a record

5 syllables
 enumeration 5 syllable synonym

 particularize 5 syllable synonym

6 syllables

 encyclopedia 6 syllable synonym

 make an inventory

MCQ’S ON SYLLABLES

1) Divide “bouquet” into syllables:

A) bo-uquet b) bouqu-et c) bou-qu-et d) bou-quet

2) How many syllables in effective?

a) 3 b) 2 c) 1 d) 4

3) Choose the word with 2 syllables:

A) Live b) laugh c) love d) study

4) Divide “haiku” into syllables:

a) ha-iku b) haik-u c) hai-ku d) ha-i-ku

 5) How many syllables in technology?
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
6) Choose the word with 1 syllable:
a) Seer b) paste c) ether d) tender
7) How many syllables in mirror?a) 1 b) 2
c) 3 d) 4
8) Choose the word with 1 syllable:

A) budge b) sealer c) tester d) eating

9) How many syllables in amazing?

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

10) Divide “iPhone” into syllables:

a) ip-hone b) iph-one c) iphone d)i-phone

11) Choose the word with 2 syllables:

a) stopped b) dropped c) painted d) chopped

12) How many syllables in trapped?

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

13) Choose the word with 1 syllable:

a) Reader b) freshly c) writing d ) fail

14) Divide “dropped” into syllables:

a) drop-ped b) dro-pped c) dropped d) dropp –ed

15) How many syllables in oil?

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

16) Choose the word with 2 syllables:

a) care b) starange c) lunchroom d) coughed

17) How many syllables in knowledge?

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

18) Divide “flower” into syllables:

a) flow-er b) flo-wer c) flower d) fl-ower

 Strong form and weak form in English conversation
English Words are Stressed when speaking
It is very common to use strong form and weak form when speaking in
English because English is a stress-time language. It means you stress on content
words such as nouns and principal verbs, while structure words such as helping verbs,
conjunctions, prepositions… are not stressed. Using proper strong form and weak
form can help you to speak English more fluently.

For example, take a look at these sentences:

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.
Here are these two sentences with stressed words in bold.

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.
In this case the words ‘can‘ and ‘is from‘ are weak form. The weak form change the
vowel to “ə” sound.

 can in strong form: /kæn/

 can in weak form: /kən/
 from in strong form: /frɔm/
 from in weak form: /frəm/
Below are some function words that you can remember:
 auxiliar verbs am, are, be, been, can, could, do, does, has, had, shall, should, was,
were, would,
 prepositions at, for, from, of, to,
 pronouns he, her, him, his, me, she, them, us, we, you,
 conjunctions for, and, but, or, than, that,
 particles to,
 articles a, the, an,

Function words have both strong and weak forms in English

A lot of function words have both strong and weak forms. As a rule, the weak form turns
the vowel to be muted. For example, take a look at these sentences:

Word Strong form Weak form

/ði/
/ðə/
– when stands before the vowels
The – when stands before the consonants
Ex: They have
Ex: I dislike the man.
bought the apples.
 / bət/
/bʌt/
– mention the difference
But – stress on the contrast
Ex: His girl friend is very beautiful, but is
Ex: I’m but a fool.
not enough intelligent.

/ðæt/ /ðət/

– as a demonstrative pronoun or – as a relative pronoun.

That
adjective
Ex: I think that we should improve quality
Ex: That is Tom’s car. of services a lot.

/dʌz/
/dəz/
– stress on the verb of action
Does – as a helping verb ()
Ex: She does hope for interview
Ex: Does she work as a teacher?
next week.

/him/
/im/
Him Ex: This gift was sent to him not
Ex: I haven’t seen him for ages.
to his wife.

/hə:/ /hə/
Her

Ex: He loves her but not other Ex: Her mother is still young.
girls.

/fɔ:/
/fə/
For Ex: A good job is what I
Ex: I am looking for a job.
looking for.

/æt/ /ət/
At
What are you looking at? I’ll meet you at the office.

How strong form and weak form are used in everyday English
conversation.
The weak form is usually used in everyday English conversation, especially when
speaking fast. But there are many situations you have to speak in strong form for the
followings:

1. Stand at the end of sentence

 What are you looking at (/æt/)? 
 Where are you from (/ frɔm/)?
2. In the contrast situations
 The letter is from him, not to him. /frɔm/ /tu/
 He likes her, but does she like him? /hə:/ /him/
3. Stress on opposite prepositions
 I travel to and from London a lot. /tu/ /frɔm/
4. Stress on the purpose of the meaning.
 You must get the unniversity certificate to have good job in the future. /mʌst/
 You must choose us or them, you cannot have all. /mʌst/
The words that have two syllables or more will have the strong
pronunciation and weak pronunciation. The vowel of the weak pronunciation will be
chaned to /ə/ sound. Let’s see the following examples:

Strong form Weak form

u Butter / ‘bʌtə/ Autumn / ‘ɔ:təm/

e Settlement / ‘setlmənt Violet / ‘vaiələt/

or Mortgage / ‘mɔ:gidʒ/ Forget / fə‘get/

o Potato / pə’teitou/ Carrot / ‘kærət/

ar March /mɑ:t∫/ Particular /pə‘tikjulə/

a Character / ‘kæriktə/ Attend [ə‘tend]

Hope that you have understood the use of strong form and weak form in English
through this simple lesson. If you have any questions, write it in comment below.

Errors in Pronounciation

WHY ARE NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS SO EASY TO RECOGNIZE?

Maybe because of some cultural characteristics, the way
they dress, or because of their joy? While these
definitely may be some characteristics that mark
foreigners abroad, do not forget pronunciation!
When speaking in English, it is necessary to take into
account the many exceptions in pronunciation and to
never take for granted that you have learned all of the
rules. In some cases letters that are written are not
pronounced. In others, the exact same suffix can be
pronounced in different ways.
Below, we present to you some of the most common
pronunciation errors. Read this article and keep it in
mind when you are speaking English, and you will be
able to blend in seamlessly with English-speakers.
THE -ED SUFFIX ON REGULAR VERBS
Regular past tense verbs in English are formed by
adding the suffix “-ed” to the base form of the verb.
Even if all regular verbs are formed the same way, they
are not all pronounced in the same way. Depending on
the syllable that precedes it, the -ed suffix can be
pronounced in three different ways: /id/, /d/, or /t/.
/ID/
This pronunciation is used when “-ed” is preceded by a
“d” or a “t”.
Examples
need → needed
end → ended
start → started
want → wanted
/T/
Regular verbs that end in a voiceless consonant sound
receive this pronunciation. Some voiceless consonants
include: /f/ /k/ /p/ /s/ /t/ /sh/ y /ch/.
Examples
/f/ laugh → laughed
/p/ stop → stopped
/sh/ wash →washed
/k/ like → liked
/s/ miss → missed
/ch/ watch → watched
/D/
When regular verbs end in a voiced consonant sound,
they have this pronunciation. Some voiced consonants
are: /b/ /g/ /v/ /z/ /m/ /n/ /l/ /th/ /r/.
Ejemplos
/b/ grab → grabbed
/g/ beg → begged
/n/ listen → listened
/l/ kill → killed

SILENT LETTERS
In English, there are some consonants that appear in
the spelling of words that are not pronounced. For a
non-native speaker this can be a difficult concept to
grasp, since in many languages, all letters are
pronounced. For example, you have definitely come
across words in English where the “h” is not
pronounced. The same applies to many other consonants.
Let’s look at some examples.
Silent H
As you know, the aspirated “h” in English is always
pronounced. Here is a list of words that begin with a
silent “h”.
hour
honour (UK) / honor (USA)
honest
heir
herbs (USA)
To this list must be added words derived from those
mentioned above, such as hourglassand honesty . From
the grammatical point of view, words that begin with a
silent “h” require the article “an” instead of “a.”
There are also some words that have a silent “h” that
is not in the beginning of the word, such as: ache and
stomach.
Silent P
Again, there is no exact rule. There is simply a list
of words that begin with “p” followed by a consonant
where the “p” is not pronounced. Here are those words:
psychology
psychiatrist
pseudo
pneumonia
pneumatics
Psalms
To this list must be added the word receipt , where the
“p” is not at the beginning of the word, is followed by
a consonant, but is not pronounced.
There are many other silent letters in English and the
only way to recognize them is to memorize them. In
general, these are consonants followed by other
consonants. Here are some
examples: doubt , subtle , assign , design , knife , kn
ight .

Silent B
The combination “mb” is an exception to the way that
most consonant clusters with silent letters work. In
this case, it is the second letter, “b”, that isn’t
pronounced. This rule only applies, however, when the
“mb” occurs at the end of a word. Here are a few
examples:
Comb
Climb
Bomb
Limb

THE STRESS ON DERIVED WORDS

For some nouns or adjectives that were derived from a

verb, the stress passes from a later syllable to the
 first syllable. This should be paid close attention to
since the visual similarity of the words can be
misleading.Examples
implant (v) implant (n)
project (v) project (n)
upgrade (v) upgrade (n)
This article is just a summary of the many mistakes
that can be made in English. The secret to speaking
correctly lies in good preparation. Have you ever
thought about taking an English course online? ABA
English offers 144 video lessons and a similar number
of short films, as well as experienced native teachers
who are ready to answer all of your questions.

THE ENDING “OUGH”

The ending ough is tricky because it may be pronounced
one of four ways, and there’s no rule to help you
determine which it is.
Which words should be pronounced which way has to be
memorized. The four pronunciations are:
1. /o/ In some cases, the “ugh” is silent, and only the
“o” is pronounced. Words that are pronounced like this
include:
 Though
 Dough
 Although
2. /aΥ/ “Ough” may be pronounced the way “ow” is
pronounced in words like “now.” Examples of words that
are pronounced this way include:
 Bough
 Plough
 Drought
3. /Λf/ Sometimes, “ough” is pronounced like “uff.”
This is the case with words like:
 Tough
 Enough
 Rough
4. /ρf/ Finally, some words that include “ough” are
pronounced as though they were spelled “off.” Examples
of this include:
 Cough
 Trough
 THE COMBINATION “AUGHT”
The letter combination “aught” is pronounced /ɔ:t/;
that is, as though it were spelled “awt.” This
combination appears in words such as:
 Taught
 Fraught
 Caught
THE COMBINATION “SCH”
When the letter combination “sch” appears at the
beginning of a word, it is usually pronounced /sk/.
Some common words that include this combination are:
 School
 Schedule
 Schism
EXERCISES
Now it’s time for you to put your new knowledge into
practice. How do you think the following words are
pronounced?
1. Ached
2. Doubted
3. Schemed
4. Recorded
Answers and explanations:
1. /eIkT/ In the word “ached”, the h is silent, and a /k/
sound is pronounced. Since the word ends with a
voiceless consonant, when it becomes past tense the
ending sound is pronounced /T/. The result should sound
like “baked” or “caked” without the beginning
consonant.
2. /daΥt-ID/ In the word “doubted”, the “b” is silent. The
letter “t” is pronounced, however, so you apply the
rule for words ending in “d” or “t” when forming the
past tense.
3. /ski:m-D/ The word “schemed” begins with “sch”, which
is pronounced /sk/. Since the last sound in the word is
 a voiced consonant, /m/, the past tense is
pronouncedby adding the sound /D/.
4. /rekɔ:d-ID/ Since “record” may be a noun or a
verb, thestress must go on the second syllable
to indicate that it is a verb. Since the word
ends in a “d”, when forming the past tense, the
letters “ed” (the sound
/ID/) are added. So “recorded” should sound like “re-
kord-id.”

Common pronounciation Errors in English

We all have a mother tongue which functions as a filter for what sounds we are able to
distinguish. When you learn a foreign language, you have to understand that it uses a
different set of sounds and different orthographic rules than your mother tongue (i.e.
the same letter written in a different language may be pronounced differently). What
learners often do is that they try to approximate the sounds by the ones they are already
familiar with and read words as if they werewritten in their native languages. Here’s a
list of the most common errors of this type:

au in English is pronounced as /ɔː/ (as “aw” in “law”), not as /au/, as inmany other
languages; for example “auto-” is pronounced /ɔːtə/, asin “autobiography”
/ˌɔtəbaɪˈɒgrəfi/ (aw-tə-by-ogg-rə-fee) and “autopsy” /ˈɔːtɒpsi/ (aw-top-see).

ps at the beginning of a word is pronounced just as /s/, such as in

“psychology” /saɪˈkɒlədʒi/ (saai-koll-ə-dzhee) or “pseudonym”
/ˈsjuːdənɪm/ (syoo-də-nim) (UK), /ˈsuːdənɪm/ (soo-də-nim) (US).

eu unlike perhaps all other languages, “eu” in English is pronounced as

/jʊ/ (mostly UK) or /ʊ/ (mostly US), and sometimes also long.
Examples include “Euclid” /jʊˈklɪd/ (yu-klid), “pneumatic”
/njuːˈmætɪk/ (nyoo-mæ-tik), or “neuron” /ˈnjʊərɒn/ (nyu-ə-ron) (thatwas the UK
variant; US pronunciation of the latter two doesn’t contain /j/).

pn at the beginning of a word is pronounced as /n/, e.g. “pneumatic”(see

above), “pneumonia” /njuːˈməʊniə/ (nyoo-moh-nee-ə) (UK),
/nuːˈməʊniə/ (noo-moh-nee-ə) (US).

kn at the beginning of a word is pronounced as /n/, e.g. “know” /nəʊ/(noh), knee

/niː/ (nee), knife /naɪf/ (naayf).

x at the beginning of a word is pronounced as /z/, not as /ks/, for example

“xenophobia” /ˌzɛnəˈfoʊbiə/ (zen-ə-foh-bee-ə) or “Xena”
/ˈziːnə/ (zee-nə) a fictional character).

w is never pronounced as v – many languages don’t have the “w” sound (such as
in the word “wow”), and the speakers stubbornly pronounce English w as v (as
 in “very”). However, the distinction issometimes crucial to be understood, such
as in the words “vest” (apiece of garment) and “west” (one of the cardinal
directions). Just remember that to say “w”, you have to make a narrow “slit”
with your mouth with lips not touching the teeth.

v is never pronounced as w — those who do realize that English has a sound as

in “wow” often use this sound for all English words containing w or v.
However, v is never pronounced as in “wow”, butalways as in “very”, by
making the lower lip touching upper teeth.

ch is often not pronounced as “ch” – in most languages, the pronunciation rules

for the digraph “ch” differ from the English ones.In French it is usually /ʃ/ (which
can still be heard in the English word “chef” /ʃef/; see also my article that lists all
common English words inwhich “ch” is pronounced as “sh”), in German it can
be /x/, as in Scottish Loch Ness /ˌlɒx ˈnes/. In standard English, however, it is
virtually always either /tʃ/ (chat, chalk, chapter) or /k/ (character, chrome,
orchestra), but there’s no reliable rule to decide which one is the correct one,
so it has to be remembered. Note: In some Britishdialects, the pronunciation is
sometimes somewhere between /tʃ/ and /ʃ/.

e is often not pronounced as /ɛ/ (as in get) – “e” in non-stressed syllables is often
pronounced as /ɪ/ (as “i” in “pit”), especially in
words beginning with “de-”, such as “detective” /dɪˈtɛktɪv/ (di-tek-tiv), “delay”
/dɪˈleɪ/ (di-lei), or “delete” /dɪˈliːt/ (di-leet). However,when “de-” is stressed, it
is usually pronounced as /dɛ/, e.g. “decorate” /ˈdɛkəˌreɪt/ (dek-ə-reyt).

th in English is pronounced either as /θ/ or /ð/. The former is pronounced similarly

as /t/ and the latter similarly as /d/, but the tongue touches the back side of
upper teeth, not just the upper palate (the fleshy part behind the teeth,
pronounced /ˈpælət/). They are not pronounced as “s” and “z”! The distinction
can be crucial— there was a funny German commercial for a language school,
in which a young worker at the German Coast Guard receives a distresscall:
“Mayday, mayday … Can you hear us … We are sinking!”, to
which he replies, with a strong German accent: “Hallo … What areyou sinking
about?”

“O” pronounced as in “come”

Another common problem is the pronunciation of the letter “o”. It is usually

pronounced as /əʊ/ (UK) or /oʊ/ (US) in open stressed syllables (e.g. go, vote, hope) or
/ɒ/ (UK) and /ɑ/ (US) in closed stressed syllables (e.g. hot, god, pot) (/ɒ/ sounds like
“o” in most European languages , /ɑ/ sounds as something between “o” and “a” in
“father”).
There is, however, also another, less common pronunciation of “o”, namely /ʌ/. For
example the word “come” is pronounced /kʌm/; the
/ʌ/ is the same sound as in “but” /bʌt/. Below are the most common ones; if you are
not a native speaker, I believe some of them might surprise you. The bold ones are
very commonly pronounced wrong.

among /əˈmʌŋ/;

another /əˈnʌðə/ (UK), /əˈnʌðər/ (US);

brother /ˈbrʌðə/ (UK), /ˈbrʌðər/ (US);
colour /ˈkʌlə/ (UK), color /ˈkʌlər/ (US);
come /kʌm/;
comfortable /ˈkʌmfətəbl/;

company /ˈkʌmpəni/;

cover /ˈkʌvə/ (UK), /ˈkʌvər/

(US);done /dʌn/;
dove (a bird)
/dʌv/;dozen
/ˈdʌzən/;
front /frʌnt/;
glove
/ɡlʌv/;
govern
/ˈɡʌvən/;
honey
/ˈhʌni/;
London
/lʌndən/;
love /lʌv/;
Monday /ˈmʌndeɪ/;
money
/ˈmʌni/;
monk
/mʌŋk/;
monkey
/ˈmʌŋki/;
month
/mʌnθ/;
mother /ˈmʌðə/ (UK), //ˈmʌðər/ (US);
none /nʌn/;
nothing /ˈnʌθɪŋ/;

onion /ˈʌnjən/;

other /ˈʌðə/ (UK), /ˈʌðər/;

oven /ˈʌvən/;

shove (to push forcefully)

/ʃʌv/;some /sʌm/;

son /sʌn/;

stomach
/ˈstʌmək/;ton
/tʌn/;

tongue /tʌŋ/;

won /wʌn/;

wonder /ˈwʌndə/ (UK), /ˈwʌndər/ (US);

Thi

Intonation – purposes of intonation

In speech, intonation is the use of changing (rising and falling)

vocal pitch to convey grammatical information or personalattitude.
Intonation is particularly important in
expressing questions in spoken English. For example, take the sentence, "When
does the meeting start?" The word "start"—including the questionmark—rises
up or comes up in your voice when you utter the word, notes the website
English Pronunciation Roadmap.

The Musicality of Language

Intonation is the melody or music of a language, says David Crystal, author of

"A Little Book of Language." Intonation refers to the way yourvoice rises and
falls as you speak, as in,

5 Common Figures of Speech Explained

"It's raining, isn't it? (or 'innit,' perhaps)"

In this sentence, you're not really asking a question: You're telling the listener
that it's raining, so you give your speech a "telling" melody. The pitch-level of
your voice falls and you sound as if you know what you're talking about, and of
course, you do, so you're making a statement. But now imagine that you don't
know if it's raining, says Crystal. You think there might be a shower outside,
but you're unsure, so you ask someone to check. You use the same words, but
the musicality of your voice makesa different point, as in,

"It's raining, isn't it?"

Now you're asking the person, so you give your speech an "asking"
melody, says Crystal. The pitch-level of your voice rises, and
you sound as if you're asking a question.

Pitch and Chunking

To understand intonation, it's important to comprehend two of its key terms:

pitch and chunking. Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that pitch is,
"the relative highness or lowness of a tone as perceived by the ear, which
depends on the number of vibrations per second produced by the vocal cords."

Everyone has different levels of the pitch in their voice, notes Study.com:

"Though some are more prone to a higher pitch and some to a lower pitch, we
can all change our timbre depending on who we are talking toand why."

Timbre refers to the quality of sound that distinguishes one voice or musical
instrument from another or one vowel sound from another: It isdetermined by
the harmonics of the sound. Pitch, then, refers to the musicality of your voice
and how you use that musicality or timbre to convey meaning.

Chunking—and pausing—meanwhile packages information for the listener,

says the University of Technology (UTS) in Sydney, adding thatspeakers
divide speech into chunks, which may be single words or groups of words to
communicate a thought or idea, or to focus on information the speaker thinks
is important. UTS gives the following example of chunking:

"Does it really matter whether people speak with an accent as long asthey can
be easily understood?"

This sentence breaks into the following "chunks":

"Does it really matter /

whether people speak with an accent /
as long as they can be easily understood?" //

In this example, in each chunk, your pitch would be slightly different tobetter
convey your meaning to the listener. Your voice, essentially, rises and falls in
each "chunk."

Types of Intonation

Another key point about intonation involves the rising and falling of yourvoice.
Just as a musical instrument rises and falls in its tone as an accomplished
player creates a melody to convey a sense of mood, your voice rises and falls in
a similar melodic way to create a sense of meaning. Take this example from an
article by Russell Banks, in an
article called "Adultery," which was published in the April/May 1986issue of
Mother Jones.

"I mean, what the hell? Right?"

The speaker's voice rises and falls in the separate chunks in these twobrief
sentences, as follows;

"I mean /
What
the
hell? /
Right?
" //

As the speaker says the first chunk—"I mean"—the voice falls. Then, during the
 second phrase—"What the heck?"—the voice rises, almost likeclimbing a
melodic ladder with each word. The speaker does this to express outrage. Then,
with one the last word—"Right?"—the speaker's voice climbs even higher,
similar to hitting the elusive high C in music.
This is almost like pushing the sentence to the listener—handing it off if you
will—so that the listener will agree with the speaker. (If the listener does not
agree, an argument is likely to follow.)

And, in the article, the listener does indeed agree with the speaker, by
responding with,

"Yes, right."

The response is spoken with falling intonation, almost as if the listener isgiving
in and accepting the dictate of the speaker. By the end of the word"right," the
responder's voice has dropped so much it's almost as if the person is giving in.

Put another way, intonation is the process of chunking statements (and

responses), to deliver packages of meaning. Generally, the initial statement
(often a question), may rise and fall in tone, but it generally rises at the end, as
the speaker passes off the sentence or question to thelistener. And, just as with
a musical piece that starts quietly, and crescendos in sound and timber, the
tone or sound of the response falls as if the responder is bringing the
discussion to a quiet ending, just as a melody quietly comes to a soft finish at
the end.

NOTES ON MODULE - 3

The 8 parts of speech

NOUNS
A noun is a word that names person, place, concept, or object. Basically, anything
that names a “thing” is a noun, whether you’re talking about a basketball court, San
Francisco, Cleopatra, or self-preservation.
Nouns fall into two categories: common nouns and proper nouns. Common
nouns are general names for things, like planet and game show. Proper nouns are
specific names for individual things, like Jupiter and Jeopardy!
Nouns are everywhere in our writing. But what are all the types of nouns you come
across, and how do you use them?
What is a noun?
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a
sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective.

Types of nouns
Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide variety
of types. Nouns can name a person:
Albert Einstein / the president / my mother /a girl / Nouns can also name a
place:
Mount Vesuvius / Disneyland/ my bedroom
Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things,
such as concepts, activities, or processes. Some might even be hypothetical or
imaginary things.
Shoe / faucet / freedom /The Elder Wand /basketball

Proper nouns vs. common nouns

One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a

common noun.

A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always

capitalized.
Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?
Tina is the name of a specific person.
I would like to visit Old Faithful.
Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.

The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic

noun.
A common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not
capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title.
The girl crossed the river.
Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this
sentence, though we know the action she takes. River is also a common noun in this
sentence.

Types of common nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete
nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns.
A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is
physical or real.
I heard the doorbell.
My keyboard is sticky.
Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.
Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the
senses.
We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.
Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other
way, but we know it exists.
A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.
That pack of lies is disgraceful.
Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb
as if they are one entity – in this case, the singular verb is.
A pride of lions roamed the savanna.
Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Nouns as subjects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The
subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in
that sentence.
Maria is happy.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of to be
(is).

Nouns as objects
Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct
object (a noun that receives the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object
(a noun that is the recipient of a direct object).
Give the books to her.
Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object (who the
books are being given to).

Nouns as subject and object complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the noun
teacher is used as a subject complement.
Mary is a teacher.
Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or seem. A
teacher is what Mary is.
A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence. Verbs that
denote making, naming, or creating are often followed by object complements.

Appositive nouns and nouns as modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun that immediately follows another noun in order to
further define or identify it.
My brother, Michael, is six years old.
Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence, my
brother.
Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.
He is a speed demon.
Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.

Plural nouns
Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural
nouns can be formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are
many exceptions.
cat—cats
These two cats are both black.
Note the plural verb are.
tax—taxes
house—houses

Countable nouns vs. uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be
extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can
be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.
Here is a cat.

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.
Here are some cats.
Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is
impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids
(sand, air). They are always considered to be singular, and can be used with some,
any, a little, and much.
An I.Q. test measures intelligence.
Intelligence is an uncountable noun.
Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.
This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so
homework is an uncountable noun.

Possessive nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have something. You
can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive
with an apostrophe and an s.
The cat’s toy was missing.
The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of -’s at the end of cat.
When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies. This is a
matter of style, however, and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.
I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.
Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.
Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.
My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.
 PRONOUN

What Is A Pronoun? Types And Examples

Pronouns are the words you substitute for specific nouns when the reader or listener
knows which specific noun you’re referring to.
You might say “Jennifer was supposed to be here at eight,” then follow it with
“she’s always late; next time I’ll tell her to be here a half-hour earlier.”
Instead of saying Jennifer’s name three times in a row, you
substituted she and her and your sentences remained grammatically correct.
Pronouns are divided into a range of categories, and we cover them all in our guide to
pronouns:

A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun in a sentence. The noun that is replaced
by a pronoun is called an antecedent. For example, in the sentence I love my dog
because he is a good boy, the word he is a pronoun that replaces the noun dog.
Generally speaking, pronouns allow us to shorten our sentences and make them
sound less repetitive. For example,
 The construction workers are building the office. The construction
workers are making good progress. The construction workers should finish
the project in no time.
 The construction workers are building the office. They are making good
progress. They should finish the project in no time.
You can see that the second set of sentences is both shorter and sounds less repetitive
than the first set of sentences.
Pronoun quick tip
Grammatically, pronouns function much like nouns: they can be used both
as subjects and objects; they refer to people, places, and things; they can be singular
or plural; and they can be modified by adjectives. The “noun” in pronoun will help
you remember that pronouns behave much the same way that nouns do.
Pronoun list

 He
 It
 You
 I
 They
 We
 Who
 Him
 Them
 Whoever
 Anyone
 Something
 Nobody
We use a bunch of different pronouns in our writing and in speech. Listed below are
just some of the pronouns that we use every day:
I
 me
 you
 he
 she
 it
 we
 they
 us
 them
 who
 what
 this
 that
 anyone
 nobody
 something
Pronoun examples
The following examples show how we use pronouns in sentences.

 We looked for Britney at her house, but she wasn’t there.

 I took my car to the mechanic to get it fixed.
 This is the best birthday ever!
 Someone donated $500 to our charity.
 Andy thinks that mayonnaise goes well with anything.

Types of pronouns
There are many different types of pronouns that we use in writing and speech. For
now, we will briefly look at each of these different types. If you want to explore each
one in more detail, we have provided an extensive guide to each type of pronoun in
the links below:
 Possessive pronouns
 Personal pronouns
 Relative pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Interrogative pronouns
 Intensive pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns

Common types of pronouns

Possessive pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses possession, ownership, origin,

relationship, etc.
Possessive pronoun examples
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
Possessive pronouns used in sentences

 That toy on the shelf is mine.

 All of the houses in our neighbourhood look the same, but ours is the only
one with a satellite dish.
 Wendy and Ronald separated the French fries into two piles: the left one
was hers and the right one was his.

Personal pronouns are pronouns that we use to refer to people and, sometimes,
animals. The pronouns it, they, and them can also apply to objects.
Personal pronoun examples

 I, you, she, he, it, we, they, me, us, them

Personal pronouns used in sentences

 I am afraid of mice.
 The toaster gets really hot when it heats bread.
 My cats are friendly, so you can safely pet them.
Relative pronoun

Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Relative pronoun examples
who, whom, which, what, that
Relative pronouns used in sentences

 I need to find a person who can read Swedish.

 She doesn’t want to eat a meal that is too spicy.
 This book, which ends on a cliff-hanger, is really exciting.

Reflexive pronouns

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun used as an object of a verb that refers to the same
person or thing as the subject of the verb.
Reflexive pronoun examples
myself, yourself, itself, herself, himself, ourselves, themselves
Reflexive pronouns used in sentences

 Ken looked at himself in the mirror.

 I like to cheer myself up with desserts.
 The silly clowns made fools of themselves.
Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns refer back to the subject in order to add emphasis. Intensive
pronouns are entical in appearance to reflexive pronouns.
Intensive pronoun examples

 myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, themselves

Intensive pronouns used in sentences

 I built my house myself.

 The children made the cookies themselves.
 Often, the stress of giving a speech is worse than the speech itself.
Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that doesn’t specifically identify who or what it

is referring to.
Indefinite pronoun examples
some, somebody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, everybody
Indefinite pronouns used in sentences

 This note could have been written by anybody.

 Someone ate my lunch.
 The water splashed everywhere.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things.

Demonstrative pronoun examples
rhis, that, these, those
Demonstrative pronouns used in sentences

 This is my favourite shirt.

 I don’t know what that is, but it definitely isn’t friendly.
 I need you to fix these.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to ask questions about unknown people or
things.
Interrogative pronoun examples

 who, whom, what, which, whose

Interrogative pronouns used in sentences

 Who wrote this letter?

 What is an amphibian?
 Which is the correct answer?

Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns express mutual relationships or actions.

Reciprocal pronoun examples

each other, one another

Reciprocal pronouns used in sentences

 My sister and I love each other.

 The members of the team support one another.
 The two fishermen love to compete with each other.

Singular and plural pronouns

Like nouns, pronouns can either be singular or plural.
Singular pronouns
Singular pronouns refer to a single person or thing. Like singular nouns, singular
pronouns must use singular verbs.
Singular pronoun examples

 I, he, she, it, one, this, someone, something, anyone, nobody

Singular pronouns used in sentences
 Melanie is so good at movie trivia that she never gets a single question wrong.
 Somebody is standing next to the window.
 This is the best cake I have ever eaten.

Plural pronouns
Plural pronouns refer to multiple people or things. Plural pronouns must use plural
verbs.
Plural pronoun examples

 we, they, us, them, ourselves, themselves, those, these, many, several, others
Plural pronouns used in sentences

 We go to the gym every day.

 These paintings aren’t as old as those are.
 Several of the ducks know that children like to feed them bread.

How to reach pronoun agreement
When using a pronoun, it must agree in number with its antecedent. This means that a
singular noun can only be replaced by a singular pronoun, and a plural noun can only
be replaced by a plural pronoun. Take a look at the following two examples:

 The basketball rolled until it hit the door.

 The basketball rolled until they hit the door.
Of these two sentences, only the first one makes sense. We are only referring to a
single basketball, so we need to use a singular pronoun like it and not a plural
pronoun like they. When you are unsure about what kind of pronoun you need, think
about what noun is being replaced and use a pronoun that is of the same number.
There are a few things to keep in mind when considering pronoun agreement:
Firstly, the pronouns everyone, everybody, everything, and everywhere are treated as
singular pronouns even though they often refer to multiple people and things. For
example, we would say Everybody was hiding rather than Everybody were hiding.
Secondly, some pronouns can be used as either singular or plural. When we
encounter these pronouns in sentences, we usually rely on context to help us
determine if they are singular or plural. For example,

 You are my best friend. (Based on the singular word friend, we know
that you is a singular pronoun.)
 You are my best friends. (Based on the plural word friends, we know
that you is a plural pronoun.)

How to establish pronoun reference

When using a pronoun, it should be clear who or what the pronoun is referring to.
When reading or listening to a sentence, it should be easy to determine what a
pronoun’s antecedent is. With that in mind, here are some tips to help you out.
1. Use a noun first before replacing it with a pronoun:
❓Unclear: After an exciting race, she narrowly won. She celebrated her victory.
✅Clear: After an exciting race, Dasha narrowly won. She celebrated her victory.
2. Use an appropriate pronoun to refer to a person or a thing. For example, we don’t
use the pronoun it to refer to people, and we don’t use the pronoun someone to refer
to an inanimate object. For animals, we can use the pronoun it when we don’t know
the animal’s sex.
❌Incorrect: The trophy looked like he was brand new.
✅Correct: The trophy looked like it was brand new.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives
Adjectives are the words that describe nouns. Think about your favorite movie. How
would you describe it to a friend who’s never seen it?
You might say the movie was funny, engaging, well-written, or suspenseful. When
you’re describing the movie with these words, you’re using adjectives. An adjective
can go right before the noun it’s describing (I have a black dog), but it doesn’t have
to. Sometimes, adjectives are at the end of a sentence (my dog is black).

What is an adjective?
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of
nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity
of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.

Adjectives modify nouns

Most students learn that adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns.
Adjectives do not modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.
Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.
Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
My cake should have sixteen candles.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot because they come
immediately before the nouns they modify.

But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They can also act as a
complement to linking verbs or the verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to
seem, or to taste that describes a state of being or a sensory experience.
That cow sure is happy.
It smells gross in the locker room.
Driving is faster than walking.
The technical term for an adjective used this way is predicate adjective.

Uses of adjectives

Adjectives tell the reader how much—or how many—of something you’re talking
about, which thing you want passed to you, or which kind of something you want.

Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.

Three and white are modifying flowers.
Often, when adjectives are used together, you should separate them with a comma or
conjunction. See “Coordinate Adjectives” below for more detail.
I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.
My new dog is small and good-tempered.

Degrees of comparison

Adjectives come in three forms: absolute, comparative, and superlative. Absolute

adjectives describe something in its own right.
A cool guy
A messy desk
A mischievous cat
Garrulous squirrels

Comparative adjectives, unsurprisingly, make a comparison between two or more

things. For most one-syllable adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding the
suffix -er (or just -r if the adjective already ends with an e). For two-syllable
adjectives ending in -y, replace -y with -ier. For multi-syllable adjectives, add the
word more.
A cooler guy
A messier desk
A more mischievous cat
More garrulous squirrels

Superlative adjectives indicate that something has the highest degree of the quality
in question. One-syllable adjectives become superlatives by adding the suffix -est (or
just -st for adjectives that already end in e). Two-syllable adjectives ending in -
y replace -y with -iest. Multi-syllable adjectives add the word most. When you use an
article with a superlative adjective, it will almost always be the definite article (the)
rather than a or an. Using a superlative inherently indicates that you are talking about
a specific item or items.

The coolest guy

The messiest desk
The most mischievous cat
The most garrulous squirrels

Co-ordinate adjectives

Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma or the word and. Adjectives

are said to be coordinate if they modify the same noun in a sentence.

This is going to be a long, cold winter.

Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the difference.

But just the fact that two adjectives appear next to each other doesn’t automatically
mean they are coordinate. Sometimes, an adjective and a noun form a single semantic
unit, which is then modified by another adjective. In this case, the adjectives are not
coordinate and should not be separated by a comma.
My cat, Goober, loves sleeping on this tattered woollen sweater.

No one could open the old silver locket.

In some cases, it’s pretty hard to decide whether two adjectives are coordinate or not.
But there are a couple of ways you can test them. Try inserting the word and between
the adjectives to see if the phrase still seems natural. In the first sentence, “this
tattered and woollen sweater” doesn’t sound right because you really aren’t talking
about a sweater that is both tattered and woolen. It’s a woolen sweater that
is tattered. Woolen sweater forms a unit of meaning that is modified by tattered.
Another way to test for coordinate adjectives is to try switching the order of the
adjectives and seeing if the phrase still works. In the second sentence, you wouldn’t
say “No one could open the silver old locket.” You can’t reverse the order of the
adjectives because silver locket is a unit that is modified by old.

Adjectives vs. Adverbs

As mentioned above, many of us learned in school that adjectives modify nouns and
that adverbs modify verbs. But as we’ve seen, adjectives can also act as complements
for linking verbs. This leads to a common type of error: incorrectly substituting an
adverb in place of a predicate adjective. An example you’ve probably heard before is:

Incorrect : I feel badly about what happened.

Because “feel” is a verb, it seems to call for an adverb rather than an adjective. But
“feel” isn’t just any verb; it’s a linking verb. An adverb would describe how you
perform the action of feeling—an adjective describes what you feel. “I feel badly”
means that you are bad at feeling things. If you’re trying to read Braille through thick
leather gloves, then it might make sense for you to say “I feel badly.” But if you’re
trying to say that you are experiencing negative emotions, “I feel bad” is the phrase
you want.

It’s easier to see this distinction with a different linking verb. Consider the difference
between these two sentences:
Goober smells badly.
Goober smells bad.
“Goober smells badly” means that Goober, the poor thing, has a weak sense of smell.
“Goober smells bad” means Goober stinks—poor us.

When nouns become adjectives and adjectives become nouns

One more thing you should know about adjectives is that, sometimes, a word that is
normally used as a noun can function as an adjective, depending on its placement.
For example:
Never try to pet someone’s guide dog without asking permission first.

Guide is a noun. But in this sentence, it modifies dog. It works the other way, too.
Some words that are normally adjectives can function as nouns:
Candice is working on a fundraiser to help the homeless.

In the context of this sentence, homeless is functioning as a noun. It can be hard to

wrap your head around this if you think of adjectives and nouns only as particular
classes of words. But the terms “adjective” and “noun” aren’t just about a word’s
form—they’re also about its function.

Adjective usage advice

We’ll end with a few words about adjectives and style. It’s one thing to know how to
use an adjective; it’s another to know when using one is a good idea. Good writing is
precise and concise. Sometimes, you need an adjective to convey exactly what you
mean.
It’s hard to describe a red sports car without the word “red.” But, often, choosing the
right noun eliminates the need to tack on an adjective. Is it a big house, or is it a
mansion? A large crowd, or a throng? A mixed-breed dog, or a mutt? A dark night, or
just . . . night? Always remember to make every word count in your writing. If you
need an adjective, use it. But if it’s not pulling its weight, delete it.

Types Of Adjectives And How To Use Them

Adjectives are one of the most exciting parts of speech that we have. Without
adjectives, you wouldn’t be able to tell your friends which movies are great and
which are overrated. Adjectives also allow us to describe ourselves as
being amazing, incredible, fantastic, and—of course—humble. Most importantly,
adjectives let us explain the difference between funny memes and bad ones.
Based on these indisputable facts, adjectives are clearly important parts of grammar.
But did you know that there are many different types of adjectives? It’s true! In fact,
there are at least 13—yes, 13!—types of adjectives that we commonly use.

What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. In general, adjectives
usually give us more information about a noun or pronoun by describing it or
providing more information about it. For example, the adjective funny is used to say
something causes fun or laughter.
We are going to look at types of adjectives that we commonly
use in everyday writing and speech. Before we do, though, there are a couple things
we need to address first.
Cummulative and coordinate adjectives
These two terms for adjectives have more to do with good writing practices than
grammatical concepts. The terms cumulative adjectives and coordinate adjectives are
often used in guides or advice covering writing, proper adjective order, or
punctuation. The term coordinate adjectives is used to refer to adjectives that can be
written in any order and are usually

separated by a comma or the word and. For example, the words heavy and huge are
the coordinate adjectives in the sentence He was carrying a huge, heavy stone. The
term cumulative adjectives is used to refer to adjectives that fall under different
categories, often don’t use commas, and follow adjective order as in the adjectives
used in the sentence He was a youngFrench man.

Determiners
Unlike nouns and verbs, the types of adjectives are not as strictly defined. For this
reason, style guides and grammar resources may not consider some of the types of
adjectives you are about to learn about to actually be adjectives at all. In particular, a
style guide may consider words that act as
possessives, demonstratives, interrogatives, and quantifiers to either be their own
parts of speech or a type of word known as determiners, which also often
includes articles. While we will treat these words as adjectives, you shouldn’t be
surprised if you see them referred to as a different part of speech.

Common types of adjectives

We are going to briefly examine 13 different types of adjectives. If you’d like to learn
about each type of adjective in more detail, you can check out all of our amazing
guides to the different kinds of adjectives!

1. Comparative adjectives
2. Superlative adjectives
3. Predicate adjectives
4. Compound adjectives
5. Possessive adjectives
6. Demonstrative adjectives
 7. Proper adjectives
8. Participial adjectives
9. Limiting adjectives
10. Descriptive adjectives
11. Interrogative adjectives
12. Attributive adjectives
13. Distributive adjectives

1. Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used to compare two different people or things to each
other. Some examples of comparative adjectives include words such
as smaller, faster, more expensive, and less reasonable.
Comparative adjective examples
 Whales are larger animals than dolphins.
 We moved to a cheaper apartment.
 The sequel was even more incredible than the first movie

2. Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two people or things by
indicating which one is the most supreme or extreme. Some examples of superlative
adjectives include words such as smartest, loudest, most impressive, and least
valuable.
Superlative adjective examples
 Adrian is the fastest member of our team.
 Out of all of my books, this one is the oldest.
 We are trying to figure out the least confusing way to explain the lesson to
the new students.

3. Predicate adjectives

Predicate adjectives are adjectives that appear in the predicate of a sentence as

a subject complement rather than directly next to the nouns or pronouns that they
modify. Predicate adjectives follow linking verbs in sentences and clauses.

Predicate adjective examples


Andrea is tall.
 Freddy became angry.
 The steak looks delicious.

Understand the difference between subjects and predicates here.

4. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are adjectives that are formed from multiple words, which are
usually connected by hyphens. Some examples of compound adjectives
include never-ending, cross-eyed, and run-of-the-mill.

Compound adjective examples

 She had enough of the double-dealing salesman.
 My happy-go-lucky daughter loved our trip to Disneyland.
 The better-off members of the city live by the river.

5. Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives are often used to express possession or ownership. The most
commonly used possessive adjectives are my, your, its, her, his, our, their,
and whose.

Possessive adjective examples

 My favorite food is pizza.
 Sydney spent the day with her parents.
 Canadians celebrated their team’s victory at the Olympics.

6. Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives are used to express relative position

in space and time. The most commonly used demonstrative adjectives
are this, that, these, and those.
Demonstrative adjective examples

 This watch is cheaper than that one.

 This weekend is going to be really fun.
 Watch out for those prickly rose bushes next to you.

7. Proper adjectives

Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. In general, proper
adjectives are commonly used to say that something is related to a specific person or
place. Proper adjectives include words such as African, Napoleonic,
and Shakespearian.

Proper adjective examples


He was reading a Russian newspaper.
 I think Haitian food is tasty.
 We studied the history of Victorian England in school today.

8. Participial adjectives
Participial adjectives are adjectives that are based on participles, which are words
that usually end in -ed or -ing and derive from verbs. Participial adjectives include
words like amazing, impressed, and fascinating.

Participial adjective examples

 Travis was late for his swimming lessons.

 Please hand me my reading glasses.
 The silly clown cheered up the bored children.

9. Limiting adjectives

Limiting adjectives are adjectives that restrict a noun or pronoun rather than
describe any of its characteristics or qualities. Limiting adjectives overlap with other
types of adjectives such as demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives.
Limiting adjectives include words such as these, your, and some.

Limiting adjective examples

 I bought some eggs at the store.

 She found three pennies under the couch cushions.
 Take a look at that house over there.

10. Descriptive adjectives

Descriptive adjectives are adjectives that describe the characteristics, traits, or

qualities of a noun or pronoun. Most adjectives are descriptive adjectives. Words
such as purple, friendly, and attractive are examples of descriptive adjectives.
Descriptive adjective examples

 A lot of interesting people visit this park.

 She told a scary story.
 The leaves turned orange and red.

11. Interrogative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives are adjectives that are used to ask questions. The
interrogative adjectives are what, which, and whose.

Interrogative adjective examples

 What color is your favorite?
 Which button turns off the lights?
 Whose turn is it to wash the cat?
 12. Attributive adjectives

Attributive adjectives are adjectives that are directly next to the noun and pronoun
that they modify. Usually, attributive adjectives come directly before nouns and
pronouns but they modify. But they can sometimes appear after them.

Attributive adjective examples

 She has beautiful handwriting.

 The hungry gorilla ate the fresh mangoes.
 Keith gave his dad something special for his birthday.

13. Distributive adjectives

Distributive adjectives are used to refer to members of a group individually.

Examples of distributive adjectives include each, every, either, and neither.

Distributive adjective examples

 Each puppy got their own little doghouse.
 Every member of the team scored a goal.
 I’ll be happy if either candidate wins the election.

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VERBS

Verbs
Go! Be amazing! Run as fast as you can! Win the race! Congratulate every
participant who put in the work and competed!
These bolded words are verbs. Verbs are words that describe specific actions,
like running, winning, and being amazing.
Not all verbs refer to literal actions, though. Verbs that refer to feelings or states of
being, like to love and to be, are known as nonaction verbs. Conversely, the verbs
that do refer to literal actions are known as action verbs.

VERBS Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show action or state of being.
 Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a sentence.
In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty slot.
NOUN __________ THERE ________ NOUN
(verb) (verb)

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is a verb. For example,
the suffixes -ify, -ize, -ate, or -en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify,
characterize, irrigate, and sweeten. Prefixes such as be-, de-, or en- may signify that
a word is a verb, as in bestow, dethrone, and encourage. These affixes, often
inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivational affixes. Added to a word, they
either change the word's part of speech

Example:

or change the word's meaning

Example:

The base form of a verb is derived from the verb’s infinitive: to + verb

Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb used
in all tenses:
1. -s creates 3rd person singular / present tense (He talks.)
 2. -ing creates the present participle / used with be (He is talking.)
3. -ed creates the simple past (He talked.)
4. -en creates the past participle / used with have (He has talked.)

Note: The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is generally
written -ed, as in has talked.

Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional suffixes are consistently used with
all verbs, even though their form may look different from verb to verb.

Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –ed and/or –en endings
may not follow any obvious pattern.

Examples:
Smith writes short stories at home. (-s ending)
Smith is writing short stories at home. (-ing ending)
(to write) Smith wrote short stories at home. (-ed ending)
Smith has written short stories at home. (-en ending)
*
Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-s ending)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (-ing ending)
(to buy) Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (-ed ending)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-en ending)
*
Students go to the library often. (-s ending)
Students are going to the library often. (-ing ending)
(to go)
Students went to the library often. (-ed ending)
Students have gone to the library often. (-en ending)

The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -ed and -en to form their
simple past tense and past participles. (e.g. talked, has talked)

Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pattern in creating their -
ed and/or -en forms. A list of the major irregular verbs is shown below.

Present Past (-ed form) Past Participle (-en

form)
arise arose arisen
ask asked asked
attack attacked attacked
awaken awakened OR awoke awakened
bear bore borne/born
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
dive dived OR dove dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got OR gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (things) hung hung
hang (people) hanged hanged
happen happened happened
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lie lay lain
loosen loosened loosened
lose lost lost
pay paid paid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shrink shrank OR shrunk shrunk OR shrunken
sing sang sung
sink sank OR sunk sunk
sit sat sat
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spit spat spat
spring sprang OR sprung sprung
steal stole stolen
sting stung stung
stink stank OR stunk stunk
strive strove striven
study studied studied
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke OR waked woken OR waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all its auxiliaries (helping
verbs).
Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.
There are two types of auxiliary verbs:

1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:

be have do

2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary verbs)

present past no tense

will would must
shall should
can could
may might

Examples of verb phrases:

He has taken the test. (auxiliary has + main verb take.)

He is taking the test. (auxiliary is + main verb take)
He did take the test. (auxiliary do + main verb take)
He has been taking the (auxiliaries has been + main
test. verb take)

Verbs may be divided into three types:

A. Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental

B. Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/had been, will be) -
show a state of existence:

C. **Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement

(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.)
Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem, remain,

become

NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as action verbs.

Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.
A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:

B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object.

Example:

Caution: An intransitive verb may be followed by adjectives, adverbs,

and/or prepositional phrases. As long as the verb is not followed by a noun or
pronoun functioning as the direct object, the verb is intransitive.

Example:

NOTE: Some action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

Example: (left)
 Another example (read):

Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

A. The indicative mood states a fact, asks a question, or exclaims.

B. The imperative mood gives a command. The subject is always "you" understood.

C. The subjunctive mood occurs in two instances:

1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.
 2. The sentence
 shows a wish, desire, or demand
 in a nominal clause beginning with that
 following verbs such as desire, demand, request, suggest

ADVERB

Adverbs

An adverb is a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. Take a

look at these examples:
Here’s an example: I entered the room quietly. Quietly is describing how
you entered (verb) the room.
Here’s another example: A cheetah is always faster than a lion. Always is describing
how frequently a cheetah is faster (adjective) than a lion.

What is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word that is used to change, modify or qualify several types of words
including an adjective, a verb, a clause, another adverb, or any other type of word
or phrase, with the exception of determiners and adjectives, that directly modify
nouns. A good way to understand adverbs is to think about them as the words that
provide context. Specifically, adverbs provide a description of how, where, when, in
what manner and to what extent something is done or happens. Normally, we can
spot an adverb by the fact that it often ends in –ly, but there are lots of adverbs that
don’t end in this way. Moreover, adverbs can be used in many combinations with
each other

Traditionally considered a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of

functions, making it difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. However,
spotting an adverb, especially one that ends in -ly is easy. Adverbs normally help
paint a fuller picture by describing how something happens, such as

 When? She always arrives early.

 How? He drives carefully.
 Where? They go everywhere together.
 In what way? She eats slowly.
  To what extent? It is terribly hot.

This function of providing more information about how something is done is called
the adverbial function, and it may be accomplished by using adverbial clauses and
adverbial phrases as well as by adverbs that stand alone.
There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which
type of adverb you are using. Remember these basics and using adverbs to make
sentences more meaningful will be easier for you.

 Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs. Notice that the second of these
two sentences is much more interesting simply because it contains an adverb:
o The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know
much more about the scene.)
o The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail,
panting happily, and looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much
more interesting picture in your head when you know how or why the
dog is running.)
 Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives. This makes
it very easy to identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to this
rule; everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.
 An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it
conveys. For example:
o He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he
wins.)
o He plays tennis extremely well. (He knows how to play tennis so well
that he wins often.)

As you read the following adverb examples, you’ll notice how these useful words
modify other words and phrases by providing information about the place, time,
manner, certainty, frequency, or other circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs
or verb phrases in the sentences.
Types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner will explain how an action is carried out. Very often adverbs of
manner are adjectives with -ly added to the end, but this is certainly not always the
case. In fact, some adverbs of manner will have the same spelling as the adjective
form.
Some examples of adverbs of manner include:
1. Slowly
2. Rapidly
3. Clumsily
4. Badly
5. Diligently
6. Sweetly
7. Warmly
8. Sadly
Adverb of manner examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

 She passed the exam easily.

 They walk quickly to catch the train.
 The dinner party went badly.
 John answered the question correctly.
Notice how the adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjectives bad,
correct and quick, although there is a slight spelling change when forming an adverb
with the adjective easy.
As mentioned, some adverbs of manner take the same spelling as the adjective and
never add an -ly to the end:
 The boys had worked hard.
 The car drives
 Julia dances well.

Adverbs of place
An adverb of place, sometimes called spatial adverbs, will help explain where an
action happens. Adverbs of place will be associated with the action of the verb in a
sentence, providing context for direction, distance and position: southeast,
everywhere, up, left, close by, back, inside, around. These terms don’t usually end
in -ly.
Adverbs of place examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Directions

 New York is located north of Philadelphia.

 They traveled down the mountainside.
 First, I looked here, and then I looked there, but I can’t find
them anywhere.
Notice that here and there are often used at the beginning of a sentence to express
emphasis or in exclamation.
 Here comes the sun.
 There is love in the air.
 Here you are!
Many times, adverbs of place can be used as prepositions as well. The difference is,
when the phrase is used as an adverb, it is modifying a verb; when it is used as a
preposition, it is always followed by a noun.
 New York is located north of Philadelphia -> New York is on the map.
 They travelled down river -> They travelled in the first compartment.
 That puppy was walking around by itself-> We put a collar around its neck.
Distance
 There was a deli
 Jane is moving far away.
 Carly is sitting close to me.
Position
  The treasure lies underneath the box.
 The cat is sleeping on the bed.
 Why are you standing in the middle of the dancefloor?
In addition, some adverbs of position will refer to a direction of movement. These
often end in -ward or -wards.
 Oscar travelled onward to Los Angeles.
 Hannah looked upwards to the heavens.
 Molly, move forward to the front of the queue, please.

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are used to express time or how often something occurs.
Adverbs of frequency can be split two main groups. The first, adverbs of indefinite
frequency, are terms that have an unclear meaning as to how long are how
often something occurs: usually, always, normally. These adverbs will usually be
placed after the main verb or between the auxiliary verb and infinitive.
Adverbs of frequency examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
 The adverb is usually placed before the main verb.
 I can normally make the shot.
 I will always love
Adverbs of definite frequency will usually be placed at the end of the sentence.
 We get paid hourly.
 I come here
 The situation seems to change monthly.
 The newspaper is bought daily.

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time, while seemingly similar to adverbs of frequency, tell
us when something happens. Adverbs of time are usually placed at the end of a
sentence.
Adverbs of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
 I will see you
 Harvey forgot his lunch yesterday and again today.
 I have to go now.
 We first met Julie last year.
While it’s almost always correct to have the adverb of time at the end of the sentence,
you can place it at the start of the sentence to put a different emphasis on the time if it
is important to the context.

 Last year was the worst year of my life.

 Tomorrow our fate will be sealed.
 Yesterday my troubles seemed so far away.
 Adverbs of Purpose

Adverbs of purpose, sometimes called adverbs of reason, help to

describe why something happened. They can come in the form of individual words –
so, since, thus, because – but also clauses – so that, in order to. Notice in the
examples that the adverbs of purpose are used to connect sentences that wouldn’t
make sense if they were formed alone.
Adverbs of purpose examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

 I was sick, thus didn’t go to work today.

 I started jogging so that I wouldn’t be late.
 Because I was late, I jogged a little faster.
 Since it’s your birthday, I will buy you a gift.

Positions of Adverbs
The positions of adverbs are not a fixed or set thing. As you have seen, adverbs can
appear in different position in a sentence. However, there are some rules that help us
decide where an adverb should be positioned. The rules will be different depending
on whether the adverb is acting to modify an adjective or another adverb, a verb or
what type of adverb it is.
Positional adverb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
Adverb position with adjectives and other adverbs
These adverbs will usually be placed before the adjective or adverb being modified:

 We gave them a really tough match. The adverb really modifies the
adjective tough.
 It was quite windy that night. The adverb quite modifies the adjective windy.
 We don’t go to the movies terribly often. The adverb terribly modifies the
adverb often.

Adverb position with verbs

This can be a bit trickier because, it will depend on the type of adverb – place,
position, time etc. – and there are many exceptions to the rules. However, a basic set
of guidelines is shown below:
Adverbs of manner or place are usually positioned at the end of the sentence:

 She laughed timidly.

 I stroked the cat gently.
 Janine lived here.
 There is money everywhere.
As mentioned, if the adverb is of definite time it will be placed at the end of the
sentence.
  I did it yesterday.
 We can discuss it tomorrow.
 Let’s go to Paris next week.
However, if it is an indefinite period of time, it will go between the subject and main
verb.

 We often go to Paris in the springtime.

 Debbie regularly swims here.
 Bobby and Audrey always loved fishing by the lake.

Order of Adverbs
Adverb order is so important it has clear rules. It’s already mentioned that some
adverbs will act to modify another, but how do you decide the structure of a sentence
with several adverbs? Thankfully, there is a simple set of rules to follow, called the
order of adverbs. Handily, the order of adverbs, sometimes also called the royal order
of adverbs, can help us determine sentence structure too. In short, the adverbs get
preference (are placed first) in the following order:
1. Adverbs of manner.
2. Adverbs of place.
3. Adverbs of frequency.
4. Adverbs of time.
5. Adverbs of purpose.

Consider this sentence:

I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place) every
morning (frequency) before school (time) because (purpose) I might miss the bus.
While it is good to remember the order of adverbs, there is always flexibility with
language, and we have already mentioned that adverbs of time and frequency can be
placed at the start of a sentence to change the emphasis. So, bottom line: think of the
order of adverbs as more of a guideline than a rule that can’t be broken.
Examples of Adverbs
As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs have been
italicized for easy identification. Consider how replacing the existing adverbs with
different ones would change the meaning of each sentence.
1. She was walking rapidly.
2. The kids love playing together in the sandbox.
3. Please come inside now.
4. His jokes are always very
5. You don’t really care, do you?

Adverbs Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how adverbs
work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. The driver stopped the bus _______________.
A. Financially
B. Exactly
C. Abruptly
D. Now

Answer: C. The driver stopped the bus abruptly

2. During autumn, colourful leaves can be seen falling ______________ from

trees.
A. Everywhere
B. Very
C. Gently
D. Loudly

Answer: C. During autumn, colourful leaves can be seen falling gently from
trees.
3. My grandmother always smiled _______________.
A. Cheerfully
B. Sadly
C. Never
D. Yesterday
Answer: A. My grandmother always smiled cheerfully.

4. After the party, confetti was strewn _________________.

A. Blandly
B. Everywhere
C. Later
D. Carefully

Answer: B. After the party, confetti was strewn everywhere.

5. It’s time to go ____________.

A. Before
B. Now
C. Yesterday
D. Lightly

Answer: B. It’s time to go now.

Adverbs List
There are many different words that function as adverbs. The following list is broken
down into segments which list adverbs by function. After reading, you will be able to
think of additional adverbs to add to your own list – after all, there are thousands.
Many adverbs end in “-ly”. This makes it very easy to spot the adverbs in most
sentences.
Abruptly
Boldly
Carefully
Deliberately
Excitedly
Financially
Horribly
Mildly
Naughtily
Openly
Poorly
Quickly
Sadly
Terribly
Willingly
Yearly

Some adverbs tell us where the action happened. These are known as adverbs of
place.

Everywhere
Here
Inside
There
Underground
Upstairs
Certain adverbs let us know when or how often the action happened. These are
known as adverbs of time and adverbs of frequency.

After
Always
Before
Later
Now
Today
Yesterday
Many adverbs tell us the extent of the action.
Almost
Enough
So
Too
Quite
Rather
Very
Some adverbs are used as intensifiers.
Absolutely
Certain
Completely
Heartily
Really

Certain adverbs called adverbs of manner tell us about the way in which
something was done.

Briskly
Cheerfully
Expectantly
Randomly
Willingly
Some groups of words serve the same functions as adverbs. These are known as
adverb clauses. Be sure to read the adverb clause section to learn new ways to make
your sentences even more interesting.

PREPOSITION

Prepositions tell you the relationship between the other words in a sentence.
Here’s an example: I left my bike leaning against the garage. In this
sentence, against is the preposition because it tells us where I left my bike.

Here’s another example: She put the pizza in the oven. Without the preposition in,
we don’t know where the pizza is.

A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other
words of a sentence. They explain relationships of sequence, space, and logic
between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help us
understand order, time connections, and positions.

Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about prepositions.
First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to
the language. We use a fixed set of prepositions.
Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive,
inflection, or anything else.
Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So,
it is easy to be confused about it.
Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or
more words are called phrasal prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:
because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in
spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition
Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are
common in every type of preposition as they function in a versatile way.
 Simple Preposition
 Double Preposition
 Compound Preposition
 Participle Preposition
 Disguised Preposition
 Detached Preposition
 Prepositions of Time
 Prepositions of Place and Direction
 Prepositions of Agents or Things
 Phrasal Prepositions

Simple Preposition

These are among the most common type of prepositions. The prepositions used to
express the relationship the Nouns and Pronouns of a sentence have with the rest of
the words in it are called Simple Prepositions. They are often used to join two
clauses in terms of Complex Sentence and Compound Sentence.
Examples:
Most Popular Prepositions
and but at to on in
for of up off from out
with during down below beside over
by near behind inside among along

Double Preposition
Two Simple Prepositions joining together to form one which connects the Noun(s) or
Pronoun(s) to the rest the words in a sentence.
Examples:
o Are you out of your mind?
o I was allowed the inside of the temple.
o She’s sandwiched in between two of her cousins.
Compound Preposition
Compound Prepositions are composed of prepositions as well as other words.
Compound Prepositions are easily confused with Double Prepositions since they both
require other prepositions or words to help with acting like a preposition.
Examples:
o According to my calculations, this color should work just fine.
o I started for home, with a view to celebrating Eid with my family.
o On behalf of our family, my father attended the family reunion.

Participle Preposition

Present Participles (-ing) and Past Participles (-ed and -en) that are used as
Prepositions instead of Verbs, are called Participle Prepositions. These are participles
as well as prepositions.
Examples:
Present Participle Past Participles
Prepositions Prepositions
Assuming Respected
Barring Given
Considering Gone
During Barred
Notwithstanding Provided
Regarding Taken
Participle Prepositions Used in Sentences:
o Barred from the entrance, he threw a fit.
o I was happy given the fact that I got great marks.
o Assuming the possibility of rain, she carried an umbrella.

Disguised Preposition
These prepositions are usually disguised as some other element in the English
language. Often these prepositions are disguised as "a" and "o" in sentences.
Examples:
o I wake up at 5 o'clock. (Of the clock)
o Keep striding ahead. (on the head)
o Pope went ashore. (onshore)
o Rimi visits the riverbank once a day. (in a day)
 Detached Preposition
A preposition that has been detached and sent to the very end of the sentence is called
Detached Preposition. These prepositions are detached from the interrogative or
relative pronouns and adverbs but get detached for the sake of the integrity of
sentences.
Examples:
o Where are you coming from?
o Is that the neighbourhood you are headed to?
o I won't tolerate being screamed at.

Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other
parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common
preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October.
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday.

Prepositions of Place and Direction

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other
parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in
front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions
of place/direction.

Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house.
o I live across the river.

Prepositions of Agents or Things

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and
other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or
things.
Example:
o This article is about smart phones.
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers.

Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of
two or more words that function as a preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary
to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of,
on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions make it possible to build complex sentences that express multiple

ideas.
I like marinara sauce. I like alfredo sauce. I don’t like puttanesca sauce. Each of these
three sentences expresses a clear idea. There’s nothing wrong with listing your
preferences like this, but it’s not the most efficient way to do it.
Consider instead: I like marinara sauce and alfredo sauce, but I don’t like puttanesca
sauce.
In this sentence, and and but are the two conjunctions that link your ideas together.

What is Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing
sentences. Conjunctions make a link between/among words or groups of words to
other parts of the sentence and show a relationship between/among them.
Example:
o Alex and Robin are playing together.
o Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
o I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
o When he was sick, I went to see him.
Types of Conjunctions
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Correlative Conjunctions
 Subordinating Conjunctions
 Compound Conjunction
 Adverbial Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunctions
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or independent
clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are seven coordinating conjunctions
which are by far the most common conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

It's easier to memorize the seven Coordinating Conjunctions with the acronym -
FANBOYS.

For - I was meaning to leave soon, for I was getting late to the next class.
And - Freya left quickly and I was worried about her.
Nor - They weren’t up for athletics nor was I.
But - We were running late but it wasn’t possible to get out of here anytime soon.
Or - Is it okay or should I go for the last laugh?
Yet - It was early in the morning yet we were all ready to go home.
So - He was panicking so we were cautious.
Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want ice cream or would some chocolates be more preferable?
o Go away and never come back.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show

a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence. The words of correlative
conjunctions have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both -
and, not - but, whether - or etc.
Example:
o Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and cereal
o He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
o Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.
o She didn’t know whether to call in or wait her turn.

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparallel sentence structure.
These elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent clause.
The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as
much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until, who/whom, before,
since, what, whoever and whomever.
Time Comparison Condition
After Than If
Before Rather than If only
As soon as Whether Unless
Until Whereas Provided
Whenever Provided that
Now Supposing
Now that Assuming
When Assuming that
Now when
Once
Till
While
As long as
Reason Relativity Opinion
As That Though
Because What Although
Since Whatever Even though
Inasmuch as Which As though
In order to Whichever As if
In order that Who How
So that Whoever
Why Whom
Lest Whomever
Whose
Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
o Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.

Compound Conjunction
These are conjunctions that have two or three parts. Each and every part of these does
not have to be conjunctions themselves. The parts become inseparable in the sense
that they tend to pop up next to one another more often and not.
Examples:
o We love to go skinny dipping as well as busking in the sun.
o He acted as if it were his first time under the sun.
o I made a deal to see them provided that I was assured police protection.
o I hurried out of the room so that I didn’t have to listen to her anymore.

Adverbial Conjunction
They help bring together two complete thoughts like some of the other Conjunctions
while also being Adverbs themselves. They are also called Conjunctive Adverbs.
List of Adverbial Conjunctions
To compare To contrast Time To emphasize
Similarly But Lately Undoubtedly
Like However Since Definitely
As Instead Now Certainly
Likewise Rather Meanwhile Of course
In spite of Before Indeed
To summarize To exemplify Effect Sequence
Briefly For example Accordingly First
Merely For instance Consequently Next
Quickly Namely Hence Finally
In conclusion Typically Therefore Furthermore
In summary Representatively Then In addition
Moreover
Examples:
o I was looking for a tea stall; additionally, I needed a salon for a complete
makeover.
o Tim was banking on his skills as a salesman. Meanwhile, he should have
researched the clients.
o I shouted my discomfort out, that is, I didn’t like the stares I was getting.
o Mila was on her way back home, therefore, the world she left behind her
didn’t bother her as much.

Punctuations with Conjunctions

Two independent clauses in a sentence must be separated by a comma and that goes
for no matter what conjunction is used. If the clauses attached by the conjunction can
stand as complete sentences, a comma must be used between them.
Examples:
o I'm doing fine, but I have my own struggles.
o You were running the marathon, and I was cheering you on.
o My father was unsure of the result, though he was keeping it together.
While using the Subordinating Conjunctions to attach Dependent and Independent
Clauses in a sentence, there are two ways to construct these complex sentences and
one of them requires a comma separating the two clauses. The comma becomes an
integral part of the sentence when the Subordinating Conjunctions are placed at the
start of the sentence.
Examples:
o (Comma) If you are going for gold, I'll come with you.
o (No comma) I'll come with you if you are going for gold.
o (Comma) Though we are running late, we can help you install your home
theatre.
o (No comma) We can help you install your home theatre though we are
running late.
In the case of Adverbial Conjunctions joining two independent clauses, the most
common punctuational practice is to use a semicolon before It and a comma after that
while the two complete thoughts are situated on either side. Some opt for two
commas on both sides of the conjunction and there is another practice to separate the
two clauses with a period while the capitalized conjunction starts the next sentence
followed by a comma.
Examples:
o Sam was worried about the rain; therefore, she didn’t do her laundry today.
o I was there with her 24/7. Moreover, I kept a close eye on her every move.
o Matt was agitated, however, the rest of us were trying to convince him to
stay.

ARTICLES
Articles

A pear. The brick house. An exciting experience. These bolded words are known as
articles.
Like nouns, articles come in two flavors: definite articles and indefinite articles. And
just like the two types of nouns, the type of article you use depends on how specific
you need to be about the thing you’re discussing.
A definite article describes one specific noun, like the and this. Example: Did you
buy the car?
Now swap in an indefinite article: Did you buy a car?
See how the implication is gone and you’re asking a much more general question?

What Are Articles?

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following
examples:
After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.
By using the article the, we’ve shown that it was one specific day that was long and
one specific cup of tea that tasted good.
After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.
By using the article a, we’ve created a general statement, implying that any cup of tea
would taste good after any long day.

Types of Articles
The Definite Article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular
thing. For example, your friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this
weekend?” The definite article tells you that your friend is referring to a specific
party that both of you know about. The definite article can be used with
singular, plural, or uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite
article the used in context:
Please give me the hammer.
Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.
Please give me the nail.
Ex : Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this
painting.
Ex : Please give me the hammer and the nail.

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that
begins with a consonant. It’s the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a
vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers to a general idea rather than
a particular thing. For example, you might ask your friend, “Should I bring a gift to
the party?” Your friend will understand that you are not asking about a specific type
of gift or a specific item. “I am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you.
Again, the indefinite article indicates that she is not talking about a specific apple pie.
Your friend probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article only
appears with singular nouns. Consider the following examples of indefinite articles
used in context:
Ex : Please hand me a book; any book will do.
Ex: Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

Exceptions: Choosing A or An
There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with
consonants and an before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the
word honor, for example, is a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of its
spelling, the word honor begins with a vowel sound. Therefore, we use an. Consider
the example sentence below for an illustration of this concept.
Ex : My mother is a honest woman.
Ex: My mother is an honest woman.
Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a
consonant sound, use a, as in the sample sentence below:
Ex: She is an United States senator.
Ex : She is a United States senator.
Article Before an Adjective
Sometimes an article modifies a noun that is also modified by an adjective. The usual
word order is article + adjective + noun. If the article is indefinite,
choose a or an based on the word that immediately follows it. Consider the following
examples for reference:
Eliza will bring a small gift to Sophie’s party.
I heard an interesting story yesterday.

Indefinite Articles with Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are either difficult or impossible to count.
Uncountable nouns include intangible things (e.g., information, air), liquids (e.g.,
milk, wine), and things that are too large or numerous to count (e.g., equipment, sand,
wood). Because these things can’t be counted, you should never use a or an with
them—remember, the indefinite article is only for singular nouns. Uncountable nouns
can be modified by words like some, however. Consider the examples below for
reference:
Incorrect : Please give me a water.
Water is an uncountable noun and should not be used with the indefinite article.
Correct : Please give me some water.

However, if you describe the water in terms of countable units (like bottles), you can
use the indefinite article.
Correct : Please give me a bottle of water.
Incorrect : Please give me an ice.
Correct : Please give me an ice cube.
Correct : Please give me some ice .
Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable
(e.g., hair, noise, time):
Correct : We need a light in this room.
Correct : We need some light in this room.

Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable
(e.g., hair, noise, time):
Correct : We need a light in this room.
Correct : We need some light in this room.

Using Articles with Pronouns

Possessive pronouns can help identify whether you’re talking about specific or
nonspecific items. As we’ve seen, articles also indicate specificity. But if you use
both a possessive pronoun and an article at the same time, readers will become
confused. Possessive pronouns are words like his, my, our, its, her, and their. Articles
should not be used with pronouns. Consider the examples below.
Incorrect : Why are you reading the my book?
The and my should not be used together since they are both meant to modify the same
noun. Instead, you should use one or the other, depending on the intended meaning:

Correct : Why are you reading the book?

Correct : Why are you reading my book?

Omission of Articles

Many languages and nationalities are not preceded by an article. Consider the
example below:

Incorrect : I studied the French in high school for four years.

Correct :I studied French in high school for four years.

Sports and academic subjects do not require articles. See the sentences below for
reference:
Incorrect :I like to play the baseball.
Correct :I like to play baseball .
Incorrect :My sister was always good at the math .
Correct :My sister was always good at math .

Occasionally, articles are omitted altogether before certain nouns. In these cases, the
article is implied but not actually present. This implied article is sometimes called a
“zero article.” Often, the article is omitted before nouns that refer to abstract ideas.
Look at the following examples:

Incorrect : Let’s go out for a dinner tonight.

Correct :Let’s go out for dinner tonight.
Incorrect : The creativity is a valuable quality in children.
Correct :Creativity is a valuable quality in children.

Pronunciation Tip: Words Ending in -age

English, there are many words that end in -age, like engage, advantage, garage,
mirage, encourage, usage, baggage, heritage, etc. However, -age is not pronounced
the same in all cases, otherwise you wouldn’t be reading this! In fact, I have found
that many learners tend to mispronounce it. So let’s see. In general terms, there are
three ways to pronounce it:

1. Backstage /eɪdʒ/: this is the case of some words ending in –age when the
last syllable is stressed* (in Spanish, acentuada). This is what happens
with «engage» or «enrage«. Click on the words to check their
pronunciation.

2. Sabotage /ɑːʒ/: this usually happens when the word is of French origin
and the pronunciation was kept more or less the same. This is the case of
words like «mirage«, «collage» or «camouflage«. Click on the words to
check their pronunciation.

3. Language /ɪdʒ/: this is the most common pronunciation of this

syllable. This usually happens when the stress is not on -age, but on the
syllables before it. For
example: advantage, encourage, usage, baggage, luggage, manage, cover
age, voyage, vintage, etc. Click on the words to check their
pronunciation.

o Luggage [Source]

o Also, a few words even have two possible pronunciations, like «garage«,
which can take both forms 2 and 3.

o In conclusion, you should remember that, when -age is not stressed (in
Spanish, no acentuada), the third pronunciation /ɪdʒ/ is definitely the most
common.

o Remember that you can access these pronunciation tips any time through
the pronunciation section in the menu.

o If you liked this article, share it with other English learners! Maybe they can
also benefit from these tips.

o Have a good day and Keep Smiling!

 Introduction to Vocabulary, All Types of Vocabulary –
Exercises on it.

Vocabulary: Introduction
Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Beginning readers must use
the words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print.

Consider, for example, what happens when a beginning reader comes to the
word dig in a book. As she begins to figure out the sounds represented by the
letters d, i, and g, the reader recognizes that the sounds make up a very familiar word
that she has heard and said many times. It is harder for a beginning reader to figure
out words that are not already part of her speaking (oral) vocabulary.

Furthermore, as children advance to reading longer, more complex types of words,

many English words have more than one plausible phonetic pronunciation. For
example, canopy could be cuh-NOP-ee instead of CAN-up-ee; timid could be
pronounced with a long i in the first syllable (like time – id) instead of with a short i.
If children already have these words in their oral vocabularies, it will be easier for
them to read the words correctly.

Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot

understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. As
children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn the meaning of new
words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.

There are four types of vocabulary:

 Listening vocabulary: the words we need to know to understand what we hear
 Speaking vocabulary: the words we use when we speak
 Reading vocabulary: the words we can read and understand
 Writing vocabulary: the words we use in writing
In assessment of vocabulary in beginning or struggling readers, use of an oral
measure (listening and/or speaking vocabulary) is very important. A written measure
of vocabulary will confound vocabulary knowledge with reading skills.

For instance, if a student who struggles with decoding gets a low score on a
vocabulary measure that requires reading, it will be difficult to know whether the low
score actually reflects vocabulary limitations or merely the fact that the child could
not decode the words on the test.
 Notes on Question Tags
In grammar, a question tag is a very short clause at the end of
a statement which changes the statement into a question.
For ex , in 'She said half price, didn't she?',
the words 'didn't she' are a question tag.

Do you know how to use question tags like is he and didn't you?

Look at these examples to see how question tags are used.

You haven't seen this film, have you?

Your sister lives in Spain, doesn't she?

He can't drive, can he?

Grammar Explanation
We can add question tags like isn't it?, can you? or didn't they? to a
statement to make it into a question. Question tags are more common
in speaking than writing.
We often use question tags when we expect the listener to agree with
our statement.
In this case, when the statement is positive, we use a negative question
tag.
She's a doctor, isn't she?

Yesterday was so much fun, wasn't it?

If the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.

He isn't here, is he?

The trains are never on time, are they?

Nobody has called for me, have they?

If we are sure or almost sure that the listener will confirm that our
statement is correct, we say the question tag with a falling intonation.
If we are a bit less sure, we say the question tag with a rising
intonation.
Formation
If there is an auxiliary verb in the statement, we use it to form the
question tag.
I don't need to finish this today, do I?

James is working on that, isn't he?

Your parents have retired, haven't they?

The phone didn't ring, did it?

It was raining that day, wasn't it?

Your mum hadn't met him before, had she?

Sometimes there is no auxiliary verb already in the statement. For

example, when:
... the verb in the statement is present simple or past simple and is
positive. Here we use don't, doesn't or didn't:
Jenni eats cheese, doesn't she?

I said that already, didn't I?

... the verb in the statement is to be in the present simple or past

simple. In this case we use to be to make the question tag:
The bus stop's over there, isn't it?

None of those customers were happy, were they?

... the verb in the statement is a modal verb. Here we use the modal
verb to make the question tag:
They could hear me, couldn't they?
You won't tell anyone, will you?

If the main verb or auxiliary verb in the statement is am, the positive
question tag is am I?
but the negative question tag is usually aren't I?:
I'm never on time, am I?

I'm going to get an email with the details, aren't I?

Do this exercise to test your grammar again

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a
mini-question. We use tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean
something like: "Is that right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in
English.

The basic structure of a tag question is:

positive statement negative tag

Snow is white, isn't it?

negative statement positive tag

You don't like me, do you?

Notice that the tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the statement
and changes it to negative or positive.

Positive Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with positive statements. You will see that most of the time, the
auxiliary verb from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and changed to negative.

(+) positive statement (-) negative tag

subject auxiliary main auxiliary not personal pronoun

verb same as subject

You are coming, are n't you?

We have finished, have n't we?

You do like coffee, do n't you?

You like coffee, do n't you?

They will help, wo n't they?

I can come, can 't I?

We must go, must n't we?

He should try harder, should n't he?

You are English, are n't you?

John was there, was n't he?

Notice:
 the use of do in the two coffee questions.

 Remember that in Present Simple, do is optional in positive statements (You

like coffee/You do like coffee).
 But the do must appear in the tag. The same applies to Past Simple did.
 in last two questions, no auxiliary for main verb be in Present Simple and Past
Simple. The tag repeats the main verb.
Negative Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with negative statements. Notice that the negative verb in
the original statement is changed to positive in the tag.

(-) negative statement (+) positive tag

subject auxiliary main auxiliary personal

verb pronoun
same as
subject
It is n't raining, is it?

We have never seen that, have we?

You do n't like coffee, do you?

They will not help, will they?

They wo n't report us, will they?

I can never do it right, can I?

We must n't tell her, must we?

He should n't drive so fast, should he?

You wo n't be late, will you?

You are n't English, are you?

John was not there, was he?

Notice:
 won't is the contracted form of will not

 the tag repeats the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. Except, of course, for the
verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple.
Answering Tag Questions

How do we answer a tag question?

Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it

(They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do).

Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an opposite

system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in
the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!

Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation.

Your answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.

For example, everyone knows that snow is white.

Look at these questions, and the correct answers:

tag question correct notes

answer

Snow is white, isn't it? Yes (it is). Answer is same But notice change
in both cases - of stress when answerer
because snow is does not agree with
white! questioner.
Snow isn't white, is it? Yes it is!

Snow is black, isn't it? No it isn't! Answer is same

in both cases -
because snow is
not black!
Snow isn't black, is it? No (it isn't).

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes"
(meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!

Here are some more examples, with correct answers:

 The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
 The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
 The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
 Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
 Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
 Men don't have babies, do they? No.
 The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
 Tag Question Special Cases
Negative adverbs
The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative
sense. Even though they may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the statement
is negative. We treat statements with these words like negative statements, so the
question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples :

positive statement positive tag

treated as negative statement

He never came again, did he?

She can rarely come these days, can she?

You hardly ever came late, did you?

I barely know you, do I?

You would scarcely expect her to know that, would you?

Intonation

We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our
voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real
answer:

intonation

You don't know where my wallet do / rising real question

is, you?
It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ not a real
falling question

Imperatives

Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but

the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer.
We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.

imperative + question tag notes

Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation

Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you? quite polite

Do it now, will you. less polite

Don't forget, will you. with negative imperatives only will is possible

Same-way tag questions

Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-

positive, it is sometimes possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative
structure. We use same-way tag questions to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and
not to make real questions.

Look at these positive-positive tag questions:

 So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!

  She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
 So you think that's funny, do you? Think again.

Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:

 So you don't like my looks, don't you? (British English)

Asking for information or help

Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a
negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For
example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do
you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You
wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more
examples:

 You don't know of any good jobs, do you?

 You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
 You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?
Some more special cases

example notes

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...

I have been answering, haven't use first auxiliary

I?

Nothing came in the treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like
post, did it? negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)

 Mixed Examples of Tag Questions

Here is a list of examples of tag questions in different contexts. Notice that some are
"normal" and others seem to break all the rules:

 But you don't really love her, do you?

 This'll work, won't it?
 Oh you think so, do you?
 Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 We'd never have known, would we?
 Oh you do, do you?
 The weather's bad, isn't it?
 You won't be late, will you?
 Nobody knows, do they?
 You never come on time, do you?
 You couldn't help me, could you?
 You think you're clever, do you?
 So you don't think I can do it, don't you? (British English)
 Shut up, will you!
 She can hardly love him after all that, can she?
 Nothing will happen, will it?
EXERCISE ON QUESTION TAGS
(Answers are in Green Color )
1. She is collecting stickers,________ isn't she?
2. We often watch TV in the afternoon,______ don't we?
3. You have cleaned your bike,________ haven't you?
4. John and Max don't like maths,________ do they?
5. Peter played handball yesterday,____ didn't he?
6. They are going home from school,______ aren't they?
7. Mary didn't do her homework last Monday,_____ did she?
8. He could have bought a new car,_______ couldn't he?
9. Kevin will come tonight, ____won't he?
10. I'm clever, ________aren't I?

Notes on One Word Substitutes

One word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a
wordy phrase, to make the sentence structure more clear. This also makes work
more succinct, instead of convoluted. For example, if you have a sentence that
states 'He drives me in a vehicle around town.' instead you can use 'He
chauffeurs me around town.' The meaning is identical, yet the

One Word Substitution with Meaning

1. Audience – a number of people listening to a lecture
2. Altruist – one, who considers the happiness and well-
being of others first
3. Atheist – a person who does not believe in God
4. Anthropologist – one, who studies the evolution of
mankind
5. Autocracy – government by one person
6. Autobiography – the life history of a person written by
himself
7. Amputate – to cut off a part of a person's body which is
infected
8. Arsenal – a place for ammunition and weapons
9. Archives – a place where government or public records are
kept
10. Amateur – a man who does a thing for pleasure and not
as a profession
11. Aristocracy – government by the nobles
12. Aquatic – animals/plants ere which live in water
13. Amphibian – animals which live both on land and sea
14. Ambidexter – one, who can use either hand with ease
15. Alimony – allowance paid to wife on legal separation
16. Anthology – a collection of poems
17. Abdication – voluntary giving up of throne in favour of
someone
18. Arbitrator – a person, appointed by two parties to solve
a dispute
19. Astronomer – a person, who studies stars, planets and
other heavenly bodies
20. Astrologer – a person who studies the influence of
heavenly bodies on human beings
2. 21. Anthology – a collection of poems
22. Axiom – a statement which is accepted as true without
 proof
23. Agenda – a list of headings of the business to be
transacted at a meeting
24. Anarchist – one, who is out to destroy all governance,
law and order
25. Almanac – an annual calender with positions of stars
26. Bigamy – the practice of having two wives or husbands
at a time
27. Bibliophile – a lover and collector of books
28. Bouquet – a collection of flowers
29. Bureaucracy – government by the officials
30. Belligerent – a person, nation that is involved in war
31. Biennial – an event which happens once in two years
32. Blasphemy – the act of speaking disrespectfully about
sacred things
33. Creche – a nursery where children are cared for while
their parents are at work
34. Cosmopolitan – a person who regards whole world as
his country
35. Chauffeur – one, who is employed to drive a motor car
36. Curator – a person incharge of a museum
37. Carnivorous – one, who lives on flesh
38. Cannibal – one, who feeds on human flesh
39. Contemporaries – belonging to or living at the same
time
40. Cloak room – a place for luggage at railway station
41. Cynosure – centre of attraction
42. Connoisseur – a critical judge of any art and craft
43. Crusade – a religious war
44. Choreographer – one, who teaches dancing
45. Cacographist – a person, who is bad in spellings
46. Calligraphist – a person, who writes beautiful handwriting
47. Cynic – one, who sneers at the aims and beliefs of his fellow
men
48. Convalescent – one, who is recovering health
49. Cavalry – soldiers, who fight on horse back
50. Cardiologist – a person, who is specialist in heart diseases
51. Cartographer – one, who draws maps
52. Dormitory – the sleeping rooms with several beds especially
in a college or institution
53. Drawn – a game that results neither in victory nor in defeat
54. Elegy – a poem of lamentation
55. Epitaph – words which are inscribed on the grave or the tomb
in the memory of the buried
56. Ephemeral – lasting one day
57. Effeminate – a person who is womanish
58. Emigrant – a person who leaves his own country and goes to
live in another
59. Edible – fit to be eaten
60. Egotism – practice of talking too much about oneself
61. Encyclopaedia – a book that contains information on various
subjects
62. Epicure – one, who is devoted to the pleasure of eating and
drinking
63. Florist – one, who deals-in flowers
64. Fastidious – one, who is very -selective in one's taste
65. Fanatic or Bigot – one, who is filled with excessive and
mistaken enthusiasm inthusiasm in religious matters
66. Fatal – causing death
67. Fatalist – one, who believes in fate
68. Facsimile – an exact copy of handwriting, printing etc
69. Fauna – the animals of a certain region
70. Flora – the plants of a particular region
71. Fratricide – murder of brother
72. Fugitive – one, who runs away from justice or the law
73. Fragile – easily broken
74. Feminist – one, who works for the welfare of the women
75. Granary – a place for grains
76. Genocide – murder of race
77. Gregarious – animals which live in flocks
78. Hangar – a place for housing aeroplanes
3. 79. Hive – a place for bees
80. Horticulture – the art of cultivating and managing
gardens
81. Homicide – murder of man
82. Hearse – a vehicle which is used to carry a dead body
83. Hedonist – one, who believes that pleasure is the chief
good (sensual)
84. Horizon – a line at which the earth and the sky seem to
meet
 85. Honorary – holding office without any remuneration
86. Heretic – one, who acts against religion
87. Herbivorous – one, who lives on herbs
88. Insolvent/Bankrupt – a person who is unable to pay his
debts
89. Inaudible – a sound that cannot be heard
90. Inaccessible – that cannot be easily approached
91. Incorrigible – incapable of being corrected
92. Irreparable – incapable of being repaired
93. Illegible – incapable of being read
94. Inevitable – incapable of being avoided
95. Impracticable – incapable of being practised
96. Immigrant – a person who comes to
4. one country from another in order to settle there
97. Invincible – one, too strong to be overcome
98. Indelible – that cannot be erased
99. Incognito – travelling under another name than one's
own
100. Indefatigable – one, who does not tire easily
101. Infallible – one, who is free from all mistakes and
failures
102. Invigilator – one, who supervises in the examination
hall
103. Itinerant – one, who journeys from place to place
104. Infirmary – a home or room used for ill or injured
people
105. Infanticide – murder of an infant
106. Infantry – soldiers, who fight on foot
107. Inflammable – liable to catch fire easily
108. Interregnum – a period of interval between two reigns
or governments
109. Kennel – a place for dogs
110. Lunatic asylum – a home for lunatics
111. Lexicographer – one, who compiles a dictionary
112. Loquacious – one, who talks continuously
113. Linguist – one, who is skilled in foreign languages
114. Lapidist – one, who cuts precious stones
115. Misanthrope – a hater of mankind
116. Misogamist – one, who hates marriage
 117. Mortuary – a place, where dead bodies are kept for
post mortem
118. Mercenery – working only for the sake of money
119. Matricide – murder of mother
120. Martyr – one, who dies for a noble cause
121. Maiden speech – the first speech delivered by a person
122. Mint – a place where coins are made
123. Misogynist – a hater of womankind
124. Morgue – a place, where dead bodies are kept for
identification
125. Mammals – animals which give milk
126. Monogamy – the practice of marrying one at a time
127. Missionary – a person, who is sent to propagate
religion
128. Numismatics – the study of coins
129. Namesake – a person having same name as another
130. Nostalgia – a strong desire to return home, home
sickness
131. Novice or Tyro – one, new to anything, inexperienced
132. Narcotic – a medicine for producing sleep
133. Optimist – a person who looks at the brighter side of
things
5. 134. Orphan – one, who has lost parents
135. Omnipresent – one, who is present everywhere
136. Omnipotent – one, who is all powerful
137. Omniscient – one, who knows everything
138. Opaque – that which cannot be seen through
139. Obituary – an account in the newspaper of the funeral
of the one deceased
140. Orphanage – a home for orphans
141. Obstetrician – one, who is skilled in midwifery
142. Ostler – one, who looks after horses at an inn
143. Omnivorous – one, who eats everything
144. Pessimist – a person who looks at the darker side of
things
145. Potable – fit to drink
146. Post mortem – an examination of dead body
147. Philanthropist – a lover of mankind
148. Patricide – murder of father
149. Philatelist – one, who collects stamps
6. 150. Plagiarism – literary theft or passing off an author's
original work as one's own
151. Polygamy – the practice of marrying more than one
wife at a time
152. Polyandry – the practice of marrying more than one
husband at a time
153. Philogynist – a lover of womankind
154. Plebiscite – (a decision made by) votes of all qualified
citizens
155. Philanderer – one, who amuses himself by love
making
156. Philistine – one who does not care for art and literature
157. Plutocracy – government by the rich
158. Pseudonym – an imaginary name assumed by an
author for disguise
159. Posthumous – a child born after the death of his father
or the book published after the death of the writer
7. 160. Panacea – a remedy for all diseases
161. Paediatrician – a person, who is specialist in child
diseases
162. Platitude – ordinary remarks often repeated
163. Pedant – one, who makes a vain display of his
knowledge
164. Polyglot – one, who speaks many languages
165. Paleography – the study of ancient writing
166. Posse – a number of policemen called to quell a riot
167. Parole – pledge given by a prisoner for temporary
release, not to escape
168. Pedestrian – one, who goes on foot
169. Portable – that can be carried easily
170. Quarantine – an act of separation from other persons
to avoid infection
171. Rhetoric – the art of elegant speech or writing
172. Regicide – murder of King or Queen
173. Sacrilege – violating or profaning religious
things/places
174. Sculptor – one, who cuts in stones
175. Suicide – murder of oneself
176. Stable – a place for horses
 8. 177. Somnambulist – a person, who walks in sleep
178. Somniloquist – a person, who talks in sleep
179. Souvenir – a thing kept as a reminder of a person, place
or event
180. Swan song – the last work (literary) of a writer
181. Sot, Toper – one, who is a habitual drunkard
182. Sinecure – a job with high salary but little
responsibility
183. Stoic – a person, who is indifferent to pleasure and pain
and has control over his passions
184. Sanatorium – a place for the sick to recover health
185. Sororicide – murder of sister
186. Triennial – an event which happens once in three
years
187. Truant – a person/student who absents himself from
class or duty without permission
188. Teetotaller – one, who does not take any intoxicating
drink
189. Transparent – that which can be seen through
190. Theocracy – government by religious principles
191. Uxorious – one extremely fond of one's wife
192. Utopia – an imaginary perfect social and political
system
9. 93. Uxoricide – murder of wife
194. Verbatim – repetition of speech or writing word for
word
195. Volunteer – one, who offers one's services
196. Virgin – a woman who has no sexual experience
197. Versatile – interested in and clever at many different
things
198. Veteran – one, who has a long experience of any
occupation
199. Venial – a fault that may be forgiven
200. Wardrobe – a place for clothes
Examples of One Word Substitution Regular Words
The following problems will have the wordy phrase with its one word
substitution next to it. There are some cases where there could be more
than one word that could be used as a substitution, and these are shown as
well. There are many other phrases, but these are several that are used
frequently.
To fall apart over time - Disintegrate
A copy of something that is identical - Facsimile
Old age that results in odd and unique behaviours - Senility
A smart and educated individual - Intellectual
Someone who is driven by passion to do crazy things - Zealot
Things to be done throughout the day - Schedule
To leave somewhere that is treacherous - Escape
A person who pushes an idea or belief system they do not believe -
Hypocrite
Someone who sees everything negatively - Cynic
Something that is not understandable - Incomprehensible
A person who is talented in many different facets of life - Versatile
A movie or play held during the daytime - Matinee
Timeframe between kids hitting puberty and being an adult - Adolescence
A person that is unknown - Anonymous
Someone that you work with - Colleague

Examples of Rarer One Word Substitutions

There are also one word substitutions that are rarer, but also useful in
writing in academics.
A government that is only ruled by a few people - Oligarchy
An animal or person who eats all different foods, vegetables, meats, fruits
- Omnivore
Someone who is new at being involved in an activity or group - Neophyte
Something that allows light to move through it - Translucent
A person who refuses to drink alcohol - Teetotaler
Something that is confusing because it has several meanings -
Ambiguous
A document or thing that cannot be read - Illegible
Every weapon that a country or place has as a whole - Arsenal
Something that babies have from birth, but may not be passed down by the
parents - Congenital
LearnFrenzy provides you lots of fully solved "One Word
Substitutes" Questions and Answers with explanation.

sentence is shorter. This adds a complexity to writing, while still making

sure the writing is concise.

One Word Substitution Examples: Generic Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution

An annual calendar that

contains important dates Almanac
and time

A cold blooded vertebrate

animal that lives in the
Amphibian
water and breathes using
gills

A structure on which
abstractly defined structure Axiom
is based

A vigorous campaign for a

Crusade
cause

Spoken on the spot without

Extempore
any preparation

A sentimental memory of Nostalgia

the past

Certain to happen Inevitable

Safe to drink Potable

Violation or misuse of
Misusage
power

Exact use of words that

Verbatim
were being used originally

Emblem of Royalty Regalia

Copying someone else’s

work and trying to submit Plagiarism
as your own

An imaginary society free

Utopia
from crimes and poverty

Incapable of making
Infallible
mistakes

Fond of company Gregarious

Also Read: IT Full Form

One Word Substitution Examples: Government Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution

A state of disorder due to

Anarchy
absence of authority
Nobility powered
Aristocracy
government

One person with absolute

Autocracy
power

State official decision

Bureaucratic
making government

A group governed by old

Gerontocracy
people

A state run by least

Kakistocracy
qualified candidates

Government not
concerned with religious Secular
activities
Head Monarch leading a
Monarchy
state
Government governed by
Plutocracy
wealth
Inexperienced people
governing a state or a Neocracy
region
A government led by all
the eligible candidates Democracy
through elections

Also Read: General Nursing and Midwifery

One Word Substitution Examples: Venue/Spot Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution
A cage made for birds Aviary
Collection of historical
documents or records about Archives
a place, person or thing
A collection of beehives Apiary
A place to keep the fishes Aquarium
A place of activity Arena
A hole or tunnel dug by a
Burrow
small animal
A collection of items which
are hidden and kept in an Cache
inaccessible place
A burial Ground Cemetery
A place to play games and
Casino
bet on them
A place of exercising and
Gym
training

One Word Substitution: Dictionary

One word substitutions can be found in dictionaries. You can search

through the synonyms which mostly represent the one word
representations. The can be searched alphabetically in a dictionary.

One Word Substitution: FAQs – Exercises

What will be a one-word substitution for a person who has

never had an alcoholic drink?
A one-word substitution for a person who has never had
an alcoholic drink would be Teetotal.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of
 heights?
A one-word substitution for a person afraid of height
would be Acrophobia.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of
insects?
A one-word substitution for a person afraid of insects
would be Entomophobia.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of
water?
A one-word substitution for a person afraid of water is
Aqua phobia.

STRONG AND WEAK FORMS OF WORDS

STRONG VS WEAK FORMS

Grammatical words are words that help us construct the sentence but they don't mean
anything: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.

These words have no stress, and so they are weakened. That weakened form is called
"weak form" as opposed to a "strong form", which is the full form of the word
pronounced with stress.

The strong form only happens when we pronounce the words alone, or when we
emphasize them.

Weak forms are very often pronounced with a schwa, and so are very weak and
sometimes a bit difficult to hear properly.

Sometimes weak forms are easy to spot, because we use contractions in the spelling
to show it:

I am French (strong form) I'm French (weak form)

But usually there is no change of spelling, only the pronunciation is different:

But strong form: /bʌt/ weak form: /bət/

Tell him to go strong forms /hɪm/ /tu:/ weak form: /tel əm tə gəʊ/

As you can see, the grammatical words "him" and "to" are unstressed and have a
weak form when pronounced inside a sentence.

another example: I would like some fish and chips

strong forms /aɪ wʊd laɪk sʌm fɪʃ ænd tʃɪps/ This version sounds unnatural
and, believe it or not, more difficult to understand for a native speaker.

weak forms /ɑ wəd laɪk səm fɪʃ ən tʃɪps/ and we can use weaker forms
sometimes: /ɑd laɪk səm fɪʃ ən tʃɪps/ so we can see that the auxiliary verb
"would" has two weak forms /wəd/ and /d/

English Words are Stressed when speaking

It is very common to use strong form and weak form when speaking in
English because English is a stress-time language. It means you stress on content
words such as nouns and principal verbs, while structure words such as helping
verbs, conjunctions, prepositions… are not stressed. Using proper strong form and
weak form can help you to speak English more fluently.
For example, take a look at these sentences:

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.

Here are these two sentences with stressed words in bold.

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.

In this case the words ‘can‘ and ‘is from‘ are weak form. The weak form change the
vowel to “ə” sound.

 can in strong form: /kæn/

 can in weak form: /kən/
 from in strong form: /frɔm/
 from in weak form: /frəm/

Below are some function words that you can remember:

 auxiliar verbs am, are, be, been, can, could, do, does, has, had, shall, should,
was, were, would,
 prepositions at, for, from, of, to,
 pronouns he, her, him, his, me, she, them, us, we, you,
 conjunctions for, and, but, or, than, that,
 particles to,
 articles a, the, an,

Function words have both strong and weak forms in

English
A lot of function words have both strong and weak forms. As a rule, the weak form
turns the vowel to be muted. For example, take a look at these sentences:

Word Strong form Weak form

/ði/
– when stands before the /ðə/
vowels – when stands before the
consonants
Ex: They have
The bought the apples. Ex: I dislike the man.
/ bət/
– mention the difference
/bʌt/
– stress on the contrast Ex: His girl friend is very
beautiful, but is not enough
But Ex: I’m but a fool. intelligent.
/ðət/
/ðæt/ – as a relative pronoun.
– as a demonstrative
pronoun or adjective Ex: I think that we should
improve quality of services
That Ex: That is Tom’s car. a lot.
/dʌz/
– stress on the verb of /dəz/
action – as a helping verb ()

Ex: She does hope for Ex: Does she work as a

Does interview next week. teacher?
/him/ /im/
Ex: This gift was sent to Ex: I haven’t seen him for
Him him not to his wife. ages.
/hə:/ /hə/
Ex: He loves her but not Ex: Her mother is still
other girls. young.
Her

/fɔ:/ /fə/
Ex: A good job is what I Ex: I am looking for a job.
For looking for.
At /æt/ /ət/
 What are you looking I’ll meet you at the office.
at?

How strong form and weak form are used in everyday English
conversation.

The weak form is usually used in everyday English conversation, especially when
speaking fast. But there are many situations you have to speak in strong form for the
followings:
1. Stand at the end of sentence

 What are you looking at (/æt/)?

 Where are you from (/ frɔm/)?
2. In the contrast situations

 The letter is from him, not to him. /frɔm/ /tu/

 He likes her, but does she like him? /hə:/ /him/
3. Stress on opposite prepositions

 I travel to and from London a lot. /tu/ /frɔm/

4. Stress on the purpose of the meaning.

You must get the unniversity certificate to have good job in the future. /mʌst/
 You must choose us or them, you cannot have all. /mʌst/
The words that have two syllables or more will have the strong
pronunciation and weak pronunciation. The vowel of the weak pronunciation will
be chaned to /ə/ sound. Let’s see the following examples:
Strong form Weak form

u Butter / ‘bʌtə/ Autumn / ‘ɔ:təm/

e Settlement / ‘setlmənt Violet / ‘vaiələt/

or Mortgage / ‘mɔ:gidʒ/ Forget / fə‘get/

o Potato / pə’teitou/ Carrot / ‘kærət/

ar March /mɑ:t∫/ Particular /pə‘tikjulə/

a Character / ‘kæriktə/ Attend [ə‘tend]

Hope that you have understood the use of strong form and weak form in English
through this simple lesson. If you have any questions, write it in comment below.

Word stress can change the sentence meaning

Pronunciation
When you are speaking English the words you stress can change the underlying
meaning of a sentence. Let’s take a look at the following sentence:

 I don’t think he should get the job.

This simple sentence can have many levels of meaning based on the word you stress.
Consider the meaning of the following sentences with the stressed word in bold.
Read each sentence aloud and give a strong stress to the word in bold:

I don’t think he should get the job.

Meaning: Somebody else thinks he should get the job.

I don’t think he should get the job.

Meaning: It’s not true that I think he should get the job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: That’s not really what I mean. OR I’m not sure he’ll get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: Somebody else should get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: In my opinion it’s wrong that he’s going to get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: He should have to earn (be worthy of, work hard for) that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: He should get another job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: Maybe he should get something else instead.

VOCABULARY EXERCISE TYPES

There are many different types of tests to see how much vocabulary a learner knows,
from matching words to pictures to completing gaps. This section will introduce you
to the main types of vocabulary tests and will give you advice and practice exercises
so you will get top marks in your next test.

CLICK THE BELOW LINK FOR VOCABULARY EXERCISE

https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/alle_words.htm
LINKS TO OPEN MCQ QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS ON MODULE 1
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1-/e313050c-9c9e-4219-a525-56fb9f691838
3) https://leverageedu.com/blog/vocabulary-test/
4) https://www.examtiger.com/mcq/objective-english-
vocabulary-synonym-mcq-test/

MODULE- 4

Notes on Question Tags

In grammar, a question tag is a very short clause at the end of
a statement which changes the statement into a question.
For ex , in 'She said half price, didn't she?',
the words 'didn't she' are a question tag.

Do you know how to use question tags like is he and didn't you?
Look at these examples to see how question tags are used.
You haven't seen this film, have you?

Your sister lives in Spain, doesn't she?

He can't drive, can he?

Grammar Explanation
We can add question tags like isn't it?, can you? or didn't they? to a
statement to make it into a question. Question tags are more common
in speaking than writing.
We often use question tags when we expect the listener to agree with
our statement.
In this case, when the statement is positive, we use a negative question
tag.
She's a doctor, isn't she?

Yesterday was so much fun, wasn't it?

If the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.

He isn't here, is he?

The trains are never on time, are they?

Nobody has called for me, have they?

If we are sure or almost sure that the listener will confirm that our
statement is correct, we say the question tag with a falling intonation.
If we are a bit less sure, we say the question tag with a rising
intonation.
Formation
If there is an auxiliary verb in the statement, we use it to form the
question tag.
I don't need to finish this today, do I?

James is working on that, isn't he?

Your parents have retired, haven't they?

The phone didn't ring, did it?

It was raining that day, wasn't it?

Your mum hadn't met him before, had she?

Sometimes there is no auxiliary verb already in the statement. For

example, when:
... the verb in the statement is present simple or past simple and is
positive. Here we use don't, doesn't or didn't:
Jenni eats cheese, doesn't she?

I said that already, didn't I?

... the verb in the statement is to be in the present simple or past

simple. In this case we use to be to make the question tag:
The bus stop's over there, isn't it?

None of those customers were happy, were they?

... the verb in the statement is a modal verb. Here we use the modal
verb to make the question tag:
They could hear me, couldn't they?

You won't tell anyone, will you?

If the main verb or auxiliary verb in the statement is am, the positive
question tag is am I?
but the negative question tag is usually aren't I?:
I'm never on time, am I?

I'm going to get an email with the details, aren't I?

Do this exercise to test your grammar again
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a
mini-question. We use tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean
something like: "Is that right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in
English.

The basic structure of a tag question is:

positive statement negative tag

Snow is white, isn't it?

negative statement positive tag

You don't like me, do you?

Notice that the tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the statement
and changes it to negative or positive.

Positive Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with positive statements. You will see that most of the time, the
auxiliary verb from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and changed to negative.

(+) positive statement (-) negative tag

subject auxiliary main auxiliary not personal pronoun

verb same as subject

You are coming, are n't you?

We have finished, have n't we?

You do like coffee, do n't you?

You like coffee, do n't you?

They will help, wo n't they?

I can come, can 't I?

We must go, must n't we?

He should try harder, should n't he?

You are English, are n't you?

John was there, was n't he?

Notice:
 the use of do in the two coffee questions.

 Remember that in Present Simple, do is optional in positive statements (You

like coffee/You do like coffee).
 But the do must appear in the tag. The same applies to Past Simple did.
 in last two questions, no auxiliary for main verb be in Present Simple and Past
Simple. The tag repeats the main verb.
Negative Statement Tag Questions

Look at these examples with negative statements. Notice that the negative verb in
the original statement is changed to positive in the tag.

(-) negative statement (+) positive tag

subject auxiliary main auxiliary personal

verb pronoun
same as
subject

It is n't raining, is it?

We have never seen that, have we?

You do n't like coffee, do you?

They will not help, will they?

They wo n't report us, will they?

I can never do it right, can I?

We must n't tell her, must we?

He should n't drive so fast, should he?

You wo n't be late, will you?

You are n't English, are you?

John was not there, was he?

Notice:
 won't is the contracted form of will not

 the tag repeats the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. Except, of course, for the
verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple.
Answering Tag Questions

How do we answer a tag question?

Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it

(They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do).

Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an opposite

system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in
the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!

Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation.

Your answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white.

Look at these questions, and the correct answers:

tag question correct notes

answer

Snow is white, isn't it? Yes (it is). Answer is same But notice change
in both cases - of stress when answerer
because snow is does not agree with
white! questioner.
Snow isn't white, is it? Yes it is!

Snow is black, isn't it? No it isn't! Answer is same

in both cases -
because snow is
not black!
Snow isn't black, is it? No (it isn't).

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes"
(meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!

Here are some more examples, with correct answers:

 The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
 The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
 The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
 Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
 Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
 Men don't have babies, do they? No.
 The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
Tag Question Special Cases
Negative adverbs
The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative
sense. Even though they may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the statement
is negative. We treat statements with these words like negative statements, so the
question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples :
positive statement positive tag
treated as negative statement

He never came again, did he?

She can rarely come these days, can she?

You hardly ever came late, did you?

I barely know you, do I?

You would scarcely expect her to know that, would you?

Intonation

We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our
voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real
answer:

intonation

You don't know where my wallet do / rising real question

is, you?

It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ not a real

falling question

Imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but
the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer.
We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.

imperative + question tag notes

Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation

Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you? quite polite

Do it now, will you. less polite

Don't forget, will you. with negative imperatives only will is possible

Same-way tag questions

Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-

positive, it is sometimes possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative
structure. We use same-way tag questions to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and
not to make real questions.

Look at these positive-positive tag questions:

 So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!

 She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
 So you think that's funny, do you? Think again.

Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:

 So you don't like my looks, don't you? (British English)

Asking for information or help
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a
negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For
example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do
you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You
wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more
examples:

 You don't know of any good jobs, do you?

 You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
 You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?
Some more special cases

example notes

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...

I have been answering, haven't use first auxiliary

I?

Nothing came in the treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like
post, did it? negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)

Mixed Examples of Tag Questions

Here is a list of examples of tag questions in different contexts. Notice that some are
"normal" and others seem to break all the rules:

 But you don't really love her, do you?

 This'll work, won't it?
 Oh you think so, do you?
  Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 We'd never have known, would we?
 Oh you do, do you?
 The weather's bad, isn't it?
 You won't be late, will you?
 Nobody knows, do they?
 You never come on time, do you?
 You couldn't help me, could you?
 You think you're clever, do you?
 So you don't think I can do it, don't you? (British English)
 Shut up, will you!
 She can hardly love him after all that, can she?
 Nothing will happen, will it?
EXERCISE ON QUESTION TAGS
(Answers are in Green Color )
11. She is collecting stickers,________ isn't she?
12. We often watch TV in the afternoon,______ don't we?
13. You have cleaned your bike,________ haven't you?
14. John and Max don't like maths,________ do they?
15. Peter played handball yesterday,____ didn't he?
16. They are going home from school,______ aren't they?
17. Mary didn't do her homework last Monday,_____ did she?
18. He could have bought a new car,_______ couldn't he?
19. Kevin will come tonight, ____won't he?
20. I'm clever, ________aren't I?

Notes on One Word Substitutes

One word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a
wordy phrase, to make the sentence structure more clear. This also makes work
more succinct, instead of convoluted. For example, if you have a sentence that
states 'He drives me in a vehicle around town.' instead you can use 'He
chauffeurs me around town.' The meaning is identical, yet the

One Word Substitution with Meaning

1. Audience – a number of people listening to a lecture
2. Altruist – one, who considers the happiness and well-
being of others first
3. Atheist – a person who does not believe in God
4. Anthropologist – one, who studies the evolution of
mankind
5. Autocracy – government by one person
6. Autobiography – the life history of a person written by
himself
7. Amputate – to cut off a part of a person's body which is
infected
8. Arsenal – a place for ammunition and weapons
9. Archives – a place where government or public records are
kept
10. Amateur – a man who does a thing for pleasure and not
as a profession
11. Aristocracy – government by the nobles
12. Aquatic – animals/plants ere which live in water
13. Amphibian – animals which live both on land and sea
14. Ambidexter – one, who can use either hand with ease
15. Alimony – allowance paid to wife on legal separation
16. Anthology – a collection of poems
17. Abdication – voluntary giving up of throne in favour of
someone
18. Arbitrator – a person, appointed by two parties to solve
a dispute
19. Astronomer – a person, who studies stars, planets and
other heavenly bodies
20. Astrologer – a person who studies the influence of
heavenly bodies on human beings
2. 21. Anthology – a collection of poems
22. Axiom – a statement which is accepted as true without
proof
23. Agenda – a list of headings of the business to be
transacted at a meeting
24. Anarchist – one, who is out to destroy all governance,
law and order
25. Almanac – an annual calender with positions of stars
26. Bigamy – the practice of having two wives or husbands
at a time
 27. Bibliophile – a lover and collector of books
28. Bouquet – a collection of flowers
29. Bureaucracy – government by the officials
30. Belligerent – a person, nation that is involved in war
31. Biennial – an event which happens once in two years
32. Blasphemy – the act of speaking disrespectfully about
sacred things
33. Creche – a nursery where children are cared for while
their parents are at work
34. Cosmopolitan – a person who regards whole world as
his country
35. Chauffeur – one, who is employed to drive a motor car
36. Curator – a person incharge of a museum
37. Carnivorous – one, who lives on flesh
38. Cannibal – one, who feeds on human flesh
39. Contemporaries – belonging to or living at the same
time
40. Cloak room – a place for luggage at railway station
41. Cynosure – centre of attraction
42. Connoisseur – a critical judge of any art and craft
43. Crusade – a religious war
44. Choreographer – one, who teaches dancing
45. Cacographist – a person, who is bad in spellings
46. Calligraphist – a person, who writes beautiful handwriting
47. Cynic – one, who sneers at the aims and beliefs of his fellow
men
48. Convalescent – one, who is recovering health
49. Cavalry – soldiers, who fight on horse back
50. Cardiologist – a person, who is specialist in heart diseases
51. Cartographer – one, who draws maps
52. Dormitory – the sleeping rooms with several beds especially
in a college or institution
53. Drawn – a game that results neither in victory nor in defeat
54. Elegy – a poem of lamentation
55. Epitaph – words which are inscribed on the grave or the tomb
in the memory of the buried
56. Ephemeral – lasting one day
57. Effeminate – a person who is womanish
58. Emigrant – a person who leaves his own country and goes to
live in another
59. Edible – fit to be eaten
60. Egotism – practice of talking too much about oneself
61. Encyclopaedia – a book that contains information on various
subjects
62. Epicure – one, who is devoted to the pleasure of eating and
drinking
63. Florist – one, who deals-in flowers
64. Fastidious – one, who is very -selective in one's taste
65. Fanatic or Bigot – one, who is filled with excessive and
mistaken enthusiasm inthusiasm in religious matters
66. Fatal – causing death
67. Fatalist – one, who believes in fate
68. Facsimile – an exact copy of handwriting, printing etc
69. Fauna – the animals of a certain region
70. Flora – the plants of a particular region
71. Fratricide – murder of brother
72. Fugitive – one, who runs away from justice or the law
73. Fragile – easily broken
74. Feminist – one, who works for the welfare of the women
75. Granary – a place for grains
76. Genocide – murder of race
77. Gregarious – animals which live in flocks
78. Hangar – a place for housing aeroplanes
3. 79. Hive – a place for bees
80. Horticulture – the art of cultivating and managing
gardens
81. Homicide – murder of man
82. Hearse – a vehicle which is used to carry a dead body
83. Hedonist – one, who believes that pleasure is the chief
good (sensual)
84. Horizon – a line at which the earth and the sky seem to
meet
85. Honorary – holding office without any remuneration
86. Heretic – one, who acts against religion
87. Herbivorous – one, who lives on herbs
88. Insolvent/Bankrupt – a person who is unable to pay his
debts
89. Inaudible – a sound that cannot be heard
90. Inaccessible – that cannot be easily approached
91. Incorrigible – incapable of being corrected
 92. Irreparable – incapable of being repaired
93. Illegible – incapable of being read
94. Inevitable – incapable of being avoided
95. Impracticable – incapable of being practised
96. Immigrant – a person who comes to
4. one country from another in order to settle there
97. Invincible – one, too strong to be overcome
98. Indelible – that cannot be erased
99. Incognito – travelling under another name than one's
own
100. Indefatigable – one, who does not tire easily
101. Infallible – one, who is free from all mistakes and
failures
102. Invigilator – one, who supervises in the examination
hall
103. Itinerant – one, who journeys from place to place
104. Infirmary – a home or room used for ill or injured
people
105. Infanticide – murder of an infant
106. Infantry – soldiers, who fight on foot
107. Inflammable – liable to catch fire easily
108. Interregnum – a period of interval between two reigns
or governments
109. Kennel – a place for dogs
110. Lunatic asylum – a home for lunatics
111. Lexicographer – one, who compiles a dictionary
112. Loquacious – one, who talks continuously
113. Linguist – one, who is skilled in foreign languages
114. Lapidist – one, who cuts precious stones
115. Misanthrope – a hater of mankind
116. Misogamist – one, who hates marriage
117. Mortuary – a place, where dead bodies are kept for
post mortem
118. Mercenery – working only for the sake of money
119. Matricide – murder of mother
120. Martyr – one, who dies for a noble cause
121. Maiden speech – the first speech delivered by a person
122. Mint – a place where coins are made
123. Misogynist – a hater of womankind
 124. Morgue – a place, where dead bodies are kept for
identification
125. Mammals – animals which give milk
126. Monogamy – the practice of marrying one at a time
127. Missionary – a person, who is sent to propagate
religion
128. Numismatics – the study of coins
129. Namesake – a person having same name as another
130. Nostalgia – a strong desire to return home, home
sickness
131. Novice or Tyro – one, new to anything, inexperienced
132. Narcotic – a medicine for producing sleep
133. Optimist – a person who looks at the brighter side of
things
5. 134. Orphan – one, who has lost parents
135. Omnipresent – one, who is present everywhere
136. Omnipotent – one, who is all powerful
137. Omniscient – one, who knows everything
138. Opaque – that which cannot be seen through
139. Obituary – an account in the newspaper of the funeral
of the one deceased
140. Orphanage – a home for orphans
141. Obstetrician – one, who is skilled in midwifery
142. Ostler – one, who looks after horses at an inn
143. Omnivorous – one, who eats everything
144. Pessimist – a person who looks at the darker side of
things
145. Potable – fit to drink
146. Post mortem – an examination of dead body
147. Philanthropist – a lover of mankind
148. Patricide – murder of father
149. Philatelist – one, who collects stamps
6. 150. Plagiarism – literary theft or passing off an author's
original work as one's own
151. Polygamy – the practice of marrying more than one
wife at a time
152. Polyandry – the practice of marrying more than one
husband at a time
153. Philogynist – a lover of womankind
 154. Plebiscite – (a decision made by) votes of all qualified
citizens
155. Philanderer – one, who amuses himself by love
making
156. Philistine – one who does not care for art and literature
157. Plutocracy – government by the rich
158. Pseudonym – an imaginary name assumed by an
author for disguise
159. Posthumous – a child born after the death of his father
or the book published after the death of the writer
7. 160. Panacea – a remedy for all diseases
161. Paediatrician – a person, who is specialist in child
diseases
162. Platitude – ordinary remarks often repeated
163. Pedant – one, who makes a vain display of his
knowledge
164. Polyglot – one, who speaks many languages
165. Paleography – the study of ancient writing
166. Posse – a number of policemen called to quell a riot
167. Parole – pledge given by a prisoner for temporary
release, not to escape
168. Pedestrian – one, who goes on foot
169. Portable – that can be carried easily
170. Quarantine – an act of separation from other persons
to avoid infection
171. Rhetoric – the art of elegant speech or writing
172. Regicide – murder of King or Queen
173. Sacrilege – violating or profaning religious
things/places
174. Sculptor – one, who cuts in stones
175. Suicide – murder of oneself
176. Stable – a place for horses
8. 177. Somnambulist – a person, who walks in sleep
178. Somniloquist – a person, who talks in sleep
179. Souvenir – a thing kept as a reminder of a person, place
or event
180. Swan song – the last work (literary) of a writer
181. Sot, Toper – one, who is a habitual drunkard
182. Sinecure – a job with high salary but little
 responsibility
183. Stoic – a person, who is indifferent to pleasure and pain
and has control over his passions
184. Sanatorium – a place for the sick to recover health
185. Sororicide – murder of sister
186. Triennial – an event which happens once in three
years
187. Truant – a person/student who absents himself from
class or duty without permission
188. Teetotaller – one, who does not take any intoxicating
drink
189. Transparent – that which can be seen through
190. Theocracy – government by religious principles
191. Uxorious – one extremely fond of one's wife
192. Utopia – an imaginary perfect social and political
system
9. 93. Uxoricide – murder of wife
194. Verbatim – repetition of speech or writing word for
word
195. Volunteer – one, who offers one's services
196. Virgin – a woman who has no sexual experience
197. Versatile – interested in and clever at many different
things
198. Veteran – one, who has a long experience of any
occupation
199. Venial – a fault that may be forgiven
200. Wardrobe – a place for clothes
Examples of One Word Substitution Regular Words
The following problems will have the wordy phrase with its one word
substitution next to it. There are some cases where there could be more
than one word that could be used as a substitution, and these are shown as
well. There are many other phrases, but these are several that are used
frequently.
To fall apart over time - Disintegrate
A copy of something that is identical - Facsimile
Old age that results in odd and unique behaviours - Senility
A smart and educated individual - Intellectual
Someone who is driven by passion to do crazy things - Zealot
Things to be done throughout the day - Schedule
To leave somewhere that is treacherous - Escape
A person who pushes an idea or belief system they do not believe -
Hypocrite
Someone who sees everything negatively - Cynic
Something that is not understandable - Incomprehensible
A person who is talented in many different facets of life - Versatile
A movie or play held during the daytime - Matinee
Timeframe between kids hitting puberty and being an adult - Adolescence
A person that is unknown - Anonymous
Someone that you work with - Colleague

Examples of Rarer One Word Substitutions

There are also one word substitutions that are rarer, but also useful in
writing in academics.
A government that is only ruled by a few people - Oligarchy
An animal or person who eats all different foods, vegetables, meats, fruits
- Omnivore
Someone who is new at being involved in an activity or group - Neophyte
Something that allows light to move through it - Translucent
A person who refuses to drink alcohol - Teetotaler
Something that is confusing because it has several meanings -
Ambiguous
A document or thing that cannot be read - Illegible
Every weapon that a country or place has as a whole - Arsenal
Something that babies have from birth, but may not be passed down by the
parents - Congenital
LearnFrenzy provides you lots of fully solved "One Word
Substitutes" Questions and Answers with explanation.

sentence is shorter. This adds a complexity to writing, while still making

sure the writing is concise.

One Word Substitution Examples: Generic Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution

An annual calendar that

contains important dates Almanac
and time

A cold blooded vertebrate

animal that lives in the
Amphibian
water and breathes using
gills

A structure on which
abstractly defined structure Axiom
is based

A vigorous campaign for a

Crusade
cause

Spoken on the spot without

Extempore
any preparation

A sentimental memory of
Nostalgia
the past

Certain to happen Inevitable

Safe to drink Potable

Violation or misuse of Misusage

power

Exact use of words that

Verbatim
were being used originally

Emblem of Royalty Regalia

Copying someone else’s

work and trying to submit Plagiarism
as your own

An imaginary society free

Utopia
from crimes and poverty

Incapable of making
Infallible
mistakes

Fond of company Gregarious

Also Read: IT Full Form

One Word Substitution Examples: Government Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution

A state of disorder due to

Anarchy
absence of authority

Nobility powered
Aristocracy
government

One person with absolute

Autocracy
power

State official decision Bureaucratic

making government

A group governed by old

Gerontocracy
people

A state run by least

Kakistocracy
qualified candidates

Government not
concerned with religious Secular
activities
Head Monarch leading a
Monarchy
state
Government governed by
Plutocracy
wealth
Inexperienced people
governing a state or a Neocracy
region
A government led by all
the eligible candidates Democracy
through elections

Also Read: General Nursing and Midwifery

One Word Substitution Examples: Venue/Spot Terms

Generic Words One-word Substitution
A cage made for birds Aviary
Collection of historical
documents or records about Archives
a place, person or thing
A collection of beehives Apiary
A place to keep the fishes Aquarium
A place of activity Arena
A hole or tunnel dug by a
Burrow
small animal
A collection of items which
are hidden and kept in an Cache
inaccessible place
A burial Ground Cemetery
A place to play games and
Casino
bet on them
A place of exercising and
Gym
training

One Word Substitution: Dictionary

One word substitutions can be found in dictionaries. You can search

through the synonyms which mostly represent the one word
representations. The can be searched alphabetically in a dictionary.

One Word Substitution: FAQs – Exercises

What will be a one-word substitution for a person who has never had
an alcoholic drink?
A one-word substitution for a person who has never had an
alcoholic drink would be Teetotal.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of heights?
A one-word substitution for a person afraid of height would be
Acrophobia.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of insects?
A one-word substitution for a person afraid of insects would be
Entomophobia.
What will be a one-word substitution for a person afraid of water?
 A one-word substitution for a person afraid of water is Aqua
phobia.

STRONG AND WEAK FORMS OF WORDS

STRONG VS WEAK FORMS

Grammatical words are words that help us construct the sentence but they don't mean
anything: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.

These words have no stress, and so they are weakened. That weakened form is called
"weak form" as opposed to a "strong form", which is the full form of the word
pronounced with stress.

The strong form only happens when we pronounce the words alone, or when we
emphasize them.

Weak forms are very often pronounced with a schwa, and so are very weak and
sometimes a bit difficult to hear properly.

Sometimes weak forms are easy to spot, because we use contractions in the spelling
to show it:

I am French (strong form) I'm French (weak form)

But usually there is no change of spelling, only the pronunciation is different:

But strong form: /bʌt/ weak form: /bət/

Tell him to go strong forms /hɪm/ /tu:/ weak form: /tel əm tə gəʊ/

As you can see, the grammatical words "him" and "to" are unstressed and have a
weak form when pronounced inside a sentence.

another example: I would like some fish and chips

strong forms /aɪ wʊd laɪk sʌm fɪʃ ænd tʃɪps/ This version sounds unnatural
and, believe it or not, more difficult to understand for a native speaker.

weak forms /ɑ wəd laɪk səm fɪʃ ən tʃɪps/ and we can use weaker forms
sometimes: /ɑd laɪk səm fɪʃ ən tʃɪps/ so we can see that the auxiliary verb
"would" has two weak forms /wəd/ and /d/

English Words are Stressed when speaking

It is very common to use strong form and weak form when speaking in
English because English is a stress-time language. It means you stress on content
words such as nouns and principal verbs, while structure words such as helping
verbs, conjunctions, prepositions… are not stressed. Using proper strong form and
weak form can help you to speak English more fluently.
For example, take a look at these sentences:

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.

Here are these two sentences with stressed words in bold.

 She can play violin.

 Mary is from Chicago.

In this case the words ‘can‘ and ‘is from‘ are weak form. The weak form change the
vowel to “ə” sound.

 can in strong form: /kæn/

 can in weak form: /kən/
 from in strong form: /frɔm/
 from in weak form: /frəm/

Below are some function words that you can remember:

 auxiliar verbs am, are, be, been, can, could, do, does, has, had, shall, should,
was, were, would,
 prepositions at, for, from, of, to,
 pronouns he, her, him, his, me, she, them, us, we, you,
 conjunctions for, and, but, or, than, that,
 particles to,
 articles a, the, an,

Function words have both strong and weak forms in English

A lot of function words have both strong and weak forms. As a rule, the weak form
turns the vowel to be muted. For example, take a look at these sentences:

Word Strong form Weak form

/ði/
– when stands before the /ðə/
vowels – when stands before the
consonants
Ex: They have
The bought the apples. Ex: I dislike the man.
 / bət/
– mention the difference
/bʌt/
– stress on the contrast Ex: His girl friend is very
beautiful, but is not enough
But Ex: I’m but a fool. intelligent.
/ðət/
/ðæt/ – as a relative pronoun.
– as a demonstrative
pronoun or adjective Ex: I think that we should
improve quality of services
That Ex: That is Tom’s car. a lot.
/dʌz/
– stress on the verb of /dəz/
action – as a helping verb ()

Ex: She does hope for Ex: Does she work as a

Does interview next week. teacher?
/him/ /im/
Ex: This gift was sent to Ex: I haven’t seen him for
Him him not to his wife. ages.
/hə:/ /hə/
Ex: He loves her but not Ex: Her mother is still
other girls. young.
Her

/fɔ:/ /fə/
Ex: A good job is what I Ex: I am looking for a job.
For looking for.
/æt/
What are you looking /ət/
at? I’ll meet you at the office.
At
How strong form and weak form are used in everyday English
conversation.

The weak form is usually used in everyday English conversation, especially when
speaking fast. But there are many situations you have to speak in strong form for the
followings:
1. Stand at the end of sentence

 What are you looking at (/æt/)?

  Where are you from (/ frɔm/)?
2. In the contrast situations

 The letter is from him, not to him. /frɔm/ /tu/

 He likes her, but does she like him? /hə:/ /him/
3. Stress on opposite prepositions

 I travel to and from London a lot. /tu/ /frɔm/

4. Stress on the purpose of the meaning.

You must get the unniversity certificate to have good job in the future. /mʌst/
 You must choose us or them, you cannot have all. /mʌst/
The words that have two syllables or more will have the strong
pronunciation and weak pronunciation. The vowel of the weak pronunciation will
be chaned to /ə/ sound. Let’s see the following examples:
Strong form Weak form

u Butter / ‘bʌtə/ Autumn / ‘ɔ:təm/

e Settlement / ‘setlmənt Violet / ‘vaiələt/

or Mortgage / ‘mɔ:gidʒ/ Forget / fə‘get/

o Potato / pə’teitou/ Carrot / ‘kærət/

ar March /mɑ:t∫/ Particular /pə‘tikjulə/

a Character / ‘kæriktə/ Attend [ə‘tend]

Hope that you have understood the use of strong form and weak form in English
through this simple lesson. If you have any questions, write it in comment below.

Word stress can change the sentence meaning

Pronunciation
When you are speaking English the words you stress can change the underlying
meaning of a sentence. Let’s take a look at the following sentence:

 I don’t think he should get the job.

This simple sentence can have many levels of meaning based on the word you stress.
Consider the meaning of the following sentences with the stressed word in bold.
Read each sentence aloud and give a strong stress to the word in bold:

I don’t think he should get the job.

Meaning: Somebody else thinks he should get the job.
I don’t think he should get the job.
Meaning: It’s not true that I think he should get the job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: That’s not really what I mean. OR I’m not sure he’ll get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: Somebody else should get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: In my opinion it’s wrong that he’s going to get that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: He should have to earn (be worthy of, work hard for) that job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: He should get another job.

I don’t think he should get that job.

Meaning: Maybe he should get something else instead.

PREFIX AND SUFFIX

Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of
another word. They are not words in their own right and cannot stand on their own in
a sentence: if they are printed on their own they have a hyphen before or after them.

Prefixes

Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new word
with a different meaning. For example:

word prefix new word

happy un- unhappy
cultural multi- multicultural
work over- overwork
space cyber- cyberspace
market super- supermarket

Suffixes

Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word. For example:

word suffix new word

child -ish childish
work -er worker
taste -less tasteless
idol -ize/-ise idolize/idolise
likeable
like -able

The addition of a suffix often changes a word from one word class to
another. In the table above, the verb like becomes the
adjective likeable, the noun idol becomes the verb idolize, and the
noun child becomes the adjective childish.

Word creation with prefixes and suffixes

Some prefixes and suffixes are part of our living language, in that people
regularly use them to create new words for modern products, concepts, or
situations. For example:

word prefix or suffix new word

security bio- biosecurity
clutter de- declutter
media multi- multimedia
email -er emailer

Email is an example of a word that was itself formed from a new prefix, e-
 , which stands for electronic. This modern prefix has formed an ever-
growing number of other Internet-related words, including e-book, e-
cash, e-commerce, and e-tailer.

Prefixes

Let's start with prefixes.

A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that we add to the beginning of a

word. Prefixes change the meanings of words. For example, the prefix un-
(or u-n) can mean "not," "remove," or "opposite." Adding un- to the word
"happy" gives you the word "unhappy," which means not happy.

U-n and r-e (or re-) are the two most common prefixes in the English
language. Re- means "again" or "back," such as in the words "rethink"
"redo" and "repay."

Here are a few things to remember when learning prefixes:

1. Different prefixes in English can have similar meanings, such as un-,

in- and non- all of which mean "not" or "opposite of." Also, the
prefixes mis- and ir- mean "wrong," "wrongly," or "incorrectly."
2. Notice that double letters are possible. For example, when you add
the prefix im- to words that begin with the letter "m," you get two "m"s as
in "immeasurable." That's also true when you add un- to words that begin
with the letter "n," as in "unnoticeable." The same is true for many other
prefixes.
3. When adding a prefix to a word, the spelling of the base word never
changes. For example, the prefix un- did not change the spelling of the
word "happy." And, the prefix re- would not change the spelling of the
word "live" in "relive."
4. Watch out for "lookalikes" – words that look like they contain
prefixes but, in fact, do not. For example, the un- in the word "uncle" is
not a prefix, nor is the re- in the words "reach" or "real."

Suffixes

Now, let's turn to suffixes.

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word. Suffixes

are commonly used to show the part of speech of a word. For example,
adding "ion" to the verb "act" gives us "action," the noun form of the
word. Suffixes also tell us the verb tense of words or whether the words
are plural or singular.

Some common suffixes are -er, -s, -es, -ed, -ing and -ly.

Here are a few things to remember when learning suffixes:

1. Some suffixes have more than one meaning. For example, the
suffix -er may suggest a person who performs an action, like a teacher.
But "er" is also commonly added to the ends of adjectives and adverbs.
They compare two things and show that one is "more" than the other, such
as in "faster" and "stronger."
2. The spelling of a base word can change when a suffix is added. This
is true of most base words ending in the letter "y." For instance, when we
add the suffix -ness to the word "crazy" to make "craziness," we replace
the "y" with an "i." This rule is also true of many base words ending in a
silent "e" when the suffix begins with a vowel. For example, in the words
"write," "make" and "manage," we drop the "e" in the words when we
add -ing to make: "writing," "making" and "managing." We also often
drop the silent "e" before the suffix -able such as in "usable." Be careful,
though, because with some words, we keep the "e," such as in
"changeable" and "loveable."

There are additional suffix rules, but they deal with spelling and can be
learned with time and practice.

A thing to keep in mind about both prefixes and suffixes is that some are
only used with some words. For example, we add the suffix -ful to some
nouns to mean "full of," such as in the words "beautiful" or "helpful." But,
we cannot add -ful to just any noun. You could not, for example, say
"loveful" to mean full of love.

So, what are some ways that you can practice common prefixes and
suffixes?

One way is to use online flashcards from websites like Quizlet. You can
choose sets of cards that are already made or create and use your own sets.
Or, you can make your own flashcards with pieces of paper.

Once you've spent time practicing, take a news story or page in a book and
look for words that have the prefixes and suffixes you learned. Then, use
what you know about the meaning of the root words to guess the meanings
of those words.

Learning prefixes and suffixes will not only build your vocabulary but can
make unfamiliar English words a lot less frightening.

I'm Phil Dierking. And I'm Alice Bryant.

Words in This Story

spell – v. to say, write, or print the letters of a word (gerund: spelling)

practice – n. to do something again and again in order to become better at

it

vowel – n. one of the letters a, e, i, o, u and sometimes y

flashcard – n. a card that has words, numbers, or pictures on it and that is

used to help students learn about a subject

Prefixes and Suffixes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Identify the meanings of common prefixes.
 Become familiar with common suffix rules.

The English language contains an enormous and ever-growing number of

words. Enhancing your vocabulary by learning new words can seem
overwhelming, but if you know the common prefixes and suffixes of
English, you will understand many more words.
Mastering common prefixes and suffixes is like learning a code. Once you
crack the code, you can not only spell words more correctly but also
recognize and perhaps even define unfamiliar words.

Prefixes

A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word to create a

new meaning. Study the common prefixes in Table 3.2 “Common
Prefixes”.

TIP

The main rule to remember when adding a prefix to a word is not to add
letters or leave out any letters. See Table 3.2 “Common Prefixes” for
examples of this rule.

Table 3.2 Common Prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example

dis not, opposite of dis + satisfied = dissatisfied

mis wrongly mis + spell = misspell

un not un + acceptable = unaccept

re again re + election = reelection

inter between inter + related = interrelate

pre before pre + pay = prepay

non not non + sense = nonsense

super above super + script = superscrip

sub under sub + merge = submerge

anti against, opposing anti + bacterial = antibacte

Suffixes
A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word to create a new
meaning. Study the suffix rules in the following boxes.

Rule 1
When adding the suffixes –ness and –ly to a word, the spelling of the word
does not change.

Examples:
  dark + ness = darkness
 scholar + ly = scholarly

Exceptions to Rule 1
When the word ends in y, change the y to i before adding –ness and –ly.

Examples:

 ready + ly = readily
 happy + ness = happiness

Rule 2

When the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the silent e in the root word.

Examples:

 care + ing = caring

 use + able = usable

Exceptions to Rule 2

When the word ends in ce or ge, keep the silent e if the suffix begins
with a or o.

Examples:

 replace + able = replaceable

 courage + ous = courageous

Rule 3

When the suffix begins with a consonant, keep the silent e in the original
word.

Examples:

 care + ful = careful

 care + less = careless

Exceptions to Rule 3
Examples:

 true + ly = truly
 argue + ment = argument

Rule 4
When the word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i before any
suffix not beginning with i.

Examples:

 sunny + er = sunnier
 hurry + ing = hurrying

Rule 5

When the suffix begins with a vowel, double the final consonant only if
(1) the word has only one syllable or is accented on the last syllable and
(2) the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

Examples:

 tan + ing = tanning (one syllable word)

 regret + ing = regretting (The accent is on the last syllable; the word
ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.)
 cancel + ed = canceled (The accent is not on the last syllable.)
 prefer + ed = preferred
KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word that changes

the word’s meaning.
 A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word that changes the
word’s meaning.
 Learning the meanings of prefixes and suffixes will help expand your
vocabulary, which will help improve your writing.
EXERCISES

1. Identify the five words with prefixes in the following paragraph, and
write their meanings on a separate sheet of paper.
At first, I thought one of my fuzzy, orange socks disappeared in the dryer,
but I could not find it in there. Because it was my favorite pair, nothing
was going to prevent me from finding that sock. I looked all around my
bedroom, under the bed, on top of the bed, and in my closet, but I still
could not find it. I did not know that I would discover the answer just as I
gave up my search. As I sat down on the couch in the family room, my
Dad was reclining on his chair. I laughed when I saw that one of his feet
was orange and the other blue! I forgot that he was color-blind. Next time
he does laundry I will have to supervise him while he folds the socks so
that he does not accidentally take one of mine!
Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.
2. Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write
the word on your own sheet of paper.
 I wanted to ease my stomach ________comfort, so I drank some
ginger root tea.
 Lenny looked funny in his ________matched shirt and pants.
 Penelope felt ________glamorous at the party because she was the
only one not wearing a dress.
 My mother said those ________aging creams do not work, so I
should not waste my money on them.
 The child’s ________standard performance on the test alarmed his
parents.
 When my sister first saw the meteor, she thought it was a
________natural phenomenon.
 Even though she got an excellent job offer, Cherie did not want to
________locate to a different country.
 With a small class size, the students get to ________act with the
teacher more frequently.
 I slipped on the ice because I did not heed the ________cautions
about watching my step.
 A ________combatant is another word for civilian.
3. On your own sheet of paper, write correctly the forms of the words
with their suffixes.
 refer + ed
 refer + ence
  mope + ing
 approve + al
 green + ness
 benefit + ed
 resubmit + ing
 use + age
 greedy + ly
 excite + ment
Part 1 : Use the negative prefixes and the adjectives given to complete
the sentence
polite - - honest - sociable – patient

1. My aunt's children are so IMPOLITE. They never say please and

thank you.
2. Tim's really DISHONEST. He never tells the truth.
3. I wish I wasn't so UNSOCIABLE, but I really don't like going out or
talking to new people.

4 ) Don't be so IMPATIENT. I'll be ready in 5 minutes

legal - responsible - pleasant - possible

5 ) Liz can be really UNPLEASANT sometimes . She seems like

upsetting people.
6) This maths problem is IMPOSSIBLE. I can't to it.

4. I wouldn't ask Jack to look after my little brother. He's

too IRRESPONSIBLE.
5. In Britain, it's ILLEGAL to drive under the age of 17.

Part 2 :
Mandy rides her _____ to school. (cycle) B
A: under-
B: bi-
 C: anti-
D: dis-
We decided not to see that show after reading the _____. (view) B
A: sub-
B: re-
C: un-
D: super-
A
I am _______ to finish that assignment in time. (able)
A: un-
B: bi-
C: sub-
D: trans-

B
I made a big _____ on that assignment. (take)
A: un-
B: mis-
C: in-
D: under-

D
Dad checked the ____ in the car yesterday. (freeze)
A: un-
B: auto-
C: co-
D: anti-
C
Did you ride the _____ when you were in Seattle? (rail)
A: auto-
B: sub-
C: mono-
D: anti-
A
Marcus wants to be an ______ agent when he grows up. (cover)
A: under-
B: over-
C: auto-
D: un-

D
Will Noah be able to ________ the pass and stop them from scoring?
(cept)
A: anti-
B: under-
C: super-
D: inter-
A
They were unable to ______ who the culprit was. (cover)
A: dis-
B: mis-
C: sub-
D: auto-

C
Our neighbor hunts for sunken treasure in a small _______. (marine)
A: super-
B: anti-
C: sub-
D: mono-
C
We got a big _____ on our new TV. (count)
A: mis-
B: super-
C: dis-
D: pro-
B
Mark can't have more than two ______ answers, if he wants to pass.
(correct)
A: inter-
B: in-
C: inter-
D: under-

Prefixes & suffixes worksheet – Exercise

Put the word in brackets into the correct form. You will have to use prefixes and/or
suffixes.

1. He was sitting ___comfortably__________ in his seat on the train. (comfort)

2. There was a __green________light coming from the window . ( green )
3. He was acting in a very ____childish_______ way ( child )
4. This word is very difficult to spell , and even worse , it’s __mispronounced
______ ( pronounced )
5. He lost his book again . I don’t know where he has _placed _________it this time
. ( place )
6. You should’nt have done that ! It was very __unthinkable ____________ of you .
(think )
7. He didn’’t pass his exam . He was ___successful___________for the second time
. ( succeed )
8. Some of the shanty towns are dreadfully _____Crowded _______ ( crowd )
9. The team that he supported were able to win the __championship ________ (
champion )
10.There is a very High ___likely _______ that they will be late . ( likely )
11.I couldn’t find any __weakness___________ in his theory . ( weak )
12.He wants to be a _____mathematician _________ when he grows up
.(mathematics )
13.You need to be highly trained __economist ___________ to understand this
report .(economy )
14.There were only a __handful ____________ of people at the match . ( hand )
15.She arrived late at work because she had _ been sleeping _____________ ( sleep
)
16.The road was too narrow , so they had to ___________ it . ( wide )
17.He was accused of __falsifying _________ documents . ( false )
18.They had to _____tranquilise _____ the lion before they could catch it . (
tranquil )
19.He needed to ____regulate ________ the temperature .
20. I think that you should ____consider ______ . It may not be the best thing to
do . ( consider )
21.There was a three hour ____stopping______ because of the strike . ( stop )

Part 2 : Answer the following and choose correct suffix to the word

1. Scholar
1) A. er
2) B. ty
3) C. hood
4) D. ship
Ans : d )ship

2. Long
 A. in
 B. er
 C. en
 D. or
Ans : b) er

3)

. Violin
 A. an
 B. en
 C. ty
 D. ist

Ans : d) ist

4. Weak
5) A. ly
6) B. an
7) C. ty
8) D. lst
Ans : a ) ly

5) 5. Child
 A. il
 B. ie
 C. tion
 D. like
Ans : d ) like

6. Joy
 A. ist
 B. ous
 C. ty
 D. ee
Ans : b ) ous

7) 7. Gene
 A. ic
 B. eu
 C. tic
 D. ize
Ans : c) tic

8. Modern
9) A. ity
10) B. ty
11) C. ize
12) D. ite
Ans : a ) ity

9. Placed
 A. in
 B. un
 C. dis
 D. De
 Ans : c) dis

10 . 10. Pure
 A. ify
 B. fy
 C. fee
 D. Fe
 Ans : a ) ify
 Suffixes

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which

makes a new word.

words suffix new words

forget, use -ful forgetful, useful

state, govern -ment statement, government

complicate, create -ion complication, creation

The new word is most often a different word class from the original word.
In the table above, the suffix -ful has changed verbs to adjectives, -ment,
and -ion have changed verbs to nouns. If you see a word ending in -ment,
for example, it is likely to be a noun (e.g. commitment, contentment).

Suffixes: spelling
Often, the suffix causes a spelling change to the original word. In the table
above, the -e ending of complicate and create disappears when the -
ion suffix is added. Other examples of spelling changes include:
1. beauty, duty + -ful → beautiful, dutiful (-y changes to i)
2. heavy, ready + -ness → heaviness, readiness (-y changes to i)
3. able, possible + -ity → ability, possibility (-le changes to il)
4. permit, omit + -ion → permission, omission (-t changes to ss)
A good learner’s dictionary will give you information on the correct
spelling of words with suffixes.
 See also:
 Spelling

Common suffixes and examples

Noun suffixes

suffix examples of nouns

-age baggage, village, postage

-al arrival, burial, deferral

-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence

-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom

-ee employee, payee, trainee

-er/-or driver, writer, director

-hood brotherhood, childhood, neighbourhood

-ism capitalism, Marxism, socialism (philosophies)

capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of

-ist
philosophies)

-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty

suffix examples of nouns

-ment amazement, disappointment, parliament

-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness

-ry entry, ministry, robbery

-ship friendship, membership, workmanship

-sion/-tion/-
expression, population, complexion
xion

Adjective suffixes

suffix examples of adjectives

-able/-ible drinkable, portable, flexible

-al brutal, formal, postal

-en broken, golden, wooden

-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese

-ful forgetful, helpful, useful

-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni

suffix examples of adjectives

-ic classic, Islamic, poetic

-ish British, childish, Spanish

-ive active, passive, productive

-ian Canadian, Malaysian, Peruvian

-less homeless, hopeless, useless

-ly daily, monthly, yearly

-ous cautious, famous, nervous

-y cloudy, rainy, windy

Verb suffixes

suffix examples of verbs

-ate complicate, dominate, irritate

-en harden, soften, shorten

-ify beautify, clarify, identify

 suffix examples of verbs

-ise/- economise, realise, industrialize (-ise is most common in

ize British English; -ize is most common in American English)

Adverb suffixes

suffix examples of adverbs

-ly calmly, easily, quickly

-ward(s) downwards, homeward(s), upwards

-wise anti-clockwise, clockwise, edgewise

refix Meaning Examples

de- from, down, away, reverse, opposite decode, decrease
dis- not, opposite, reverse, away disagree, disappear
ex- out of, away from, lacking, former exhale, explosion
il- not illegal, illogical
m- not, without impossible, improper
in- not, without inaction, invisible
mis- bad, wrong mislead, misplace
on- not nonfiction, nonsense
pre- before prefix, prehistory
pro- for, forward, before proactive, profess, program
re- again, back react, reappear
refix Meaning Examples
un- against, not, opposite undo, unequal, unusual
Suffixes

A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example,
the word flavorless consists of the root word “flavor” combined with the
suffix “-less” [which means “without”]; the word “flavorless” means
“having no flavor.”

A short list of suffixes:

uffix Meaning Examples
able able to, having the quality of comfortable, portable
-al relating to annual comical
-er comparative bigger, stronger
est superlative strongest, tiniest
ful full of beautiful, grateful
ble forming an adjective reversible, terrible
ily forming an adverb eerily, happily, lazily
ing denoting an action, a material, or a gerund acting, showing
ess without, not affected by friendless, tireless
-ly forming an adjective clearly, hourly
ness denoting a state or condition kindness, wilderness
-y full of, denoting a condition, or a diminutive glory, messy, victory

Prefixes and Suffixes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Identify the meanings of common prefixes.
 Become familiar with common suffix rules.
The English language contains an enormous and ever-growing number of
words. Enhancing your vocabulary by learning new words can seem
overwhelming, but if you know the common prefixes and suffixes of
English, you will understand many more words.

Mastering common prefixes and suffixes is like learning a code. Once you
crack the code, you can not only spell words more correctly but also
recognize and perhaps even define unfamiliar words.

Prefixes
A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word to create a new
meaning. Study the common prefixes in Table 3.2 “Common Prefixes”.

TIP

The main rule to remember when adding a prefix to a word is not to add
letters or leave out any letters. See Table 3.2 “Common Prefixes” for
examples of this rule.

Table 3.2 Common Prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example

dis not, opposite of dis + satisfied = dissatisfied

mis wrongly mis + spell = misspell

un not un + acceptable = unaccept

re again re + election = reelection

inter between inter + related = interrelate

pre before pre + pay = prepay

non not non + sense = nonsense

super above super + script = superscrip

sub under sub + merge = submerge

anti against, opposing anti + bacterial = antibacte

Suffixes

A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word to create a new

meaning. Study the suffix rules in the following boxes.

Rule 1

When adding the suffixes –ness and –ly to a word, the spelling of the
word does not change.

Examples:

 dark + ness = darkness

 scholar + ly = scholarly

Exceptions to Rule 1

When the word ends in y, change the y to i before adding –ness and –
ly.

Examples:

 ready + ly = readily
 happy + ness = happiness

Rule 2

When the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the silent e in the root
word.

Examples:

 care + ing = caring

 use + able = usable

Exceptions to Rule 2

When the word ends in ce or ge, keep the silent e if the suffix begins
with a or o.

Examples:

 replace + able = replaceable

  courage + ous = courageous

Rule 3

When the suffix begins with a consonant, keep the silent e in the
original word.

Examples:

 care + ful = careful

 care + less = careless

Exceptions to Rule 3

Examples:

 true + ly = truly
 argue + ment = argument

Rule 4

When the word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i before

any suffix not beginning with i.

Examples:

 sunny + er = sunnier
 hurry + ing = hurrying

Rule 5

When the suffix begins with a vowel, double the final consonant only if
(1) the word has only one syllable or is accented on the last syllable
and (2) the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

Examples:

 tan + ing = tanning (one syllable word)

 regret + ing = regretting (The accent is on the last syllable; the word
ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.)
 cancel + ed = canceled (The accent is not on the last syllable.)
 prefer + ed = preferred
 KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word that

changes the word’s meaning.
 A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word that changes
the word’s meaning.
 Learning the meanings of prefixes and suffixes will help expand
your vocabulary, which will help improve your writing.
EXERCISES

1. Identify the five words with prefixes in the following paragraph, and
write their meanings on a separate sheet of paper.
At first, I thought one of my fuzzy, orange socks disappeared in the dryer,
but I could not find it in there. Because it was my favorite pair, nothing
was going to prevent me from finding that sock. I looked all around my
bedroom, under the bed, on top of the bed, and in my closet, but I still
could not find it. I did not know that I would discover the answer just as I
gave up my search. As I sat down on the couch in the family room, my
Dad was reclining on his chair. I laughed when I saw that one of his feet
was orange and the other blue! I forgot that he was color-blind. Next time
he does laundry I will have to supervise him while he folds the socks so
that he does not accidentally take one of mine!
Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.
2. Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write the
word on your own sheet of paper.
 I wanted to ease my stomach ________comfort, so I drank some
ginger root tea.
 Lenny looked funny in his ________matched shirt and pants.
 Penelope felt ________glamorous at the party because she was the
only one not wearing a dress.
 My mother said those ________aging creams do not work, so I
should not waste my money on them.
 The child’s ________standard performance on the test alarmed his
parents.
 When my sister first saw the meteor, she thought it was a
________natural phenomenon.
  Even though she got an excellent job offer, Cherie did not want to
________locate to a different country.
 With a small class size, the students get to ________act with the
teacher more frequently.
 I slipped on the ice because I did not heed the ________cautions
about watching my step.
 A ________combatant is another word for civilian.
3. On your own sheet of paper, write correctly the forms of the words with
their suffixes.
 refer + ed
 refer + ence
 mope + ing
 approve + al
 green + ness
 benefit + ed
 resubmit + ing
 use + age
 greedy + ly
 excite + ment

CONTRACTION AND ABBREVIATION

Abbreviations and contractions of words both serve to shorten a word,

but while abbreviations omit the last few letters of the word, contractions
omit letters in the middle of the word. Abbreviations and
contractions have become even more common with the internet, texting,
and the need to keep messaging and posting text to a minimum.

Here is an interesting recent history from Wikipedia about

how abbreviations and contractions have evolved:
“Minimization of punctuation in typewritten material became
economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of
carbon-film ribbons since a period or comma consumed the same
length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.
Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and
the Internet during the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial
abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual
communication services such as instant- and text messaging. SMS, for
instance, supports message lengths of 160 characters at most. This brevity
gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese,
with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are
abbreviated… Twitter began driving abbreviation use with 140 character
message limits.”

When a word is abbreviated, there is a period at the end of the word to

show that there are missing letters at the end of the word. i.e.: extension
ext.

Abbreviations and Contractions Examples

Abbreviations
Professor Prof.
extension ext.

Contractions
Doctor Dr.
Saint St
A contraction can also be an abbreviated form of more than one word. In
contractions that represent more than one word, the letters that have been
omitted should be replaced with an apostrophe

She’ll She will

They’ve They have
Wouldn’t Would not
Abbreviations and Contractions mostly adhere to certain rules. Exceptions
apply mainly to the usage of abbreviations:

1. Use periods in most abbreviations that contain lowercase letters. e.g. c.o.d.
2. Do not use periods for titles, time zones, businesses and organization
names, and acronyms. IBM, NASA, CIA, UN, EST.

3. In the United States, periods are not used for street names and road signs.
The U.S. Postal Service and the official manual for traffic signs rules that
mailing addresses and traffic and road signage do not use periods. Periods
should not be used with abbreviations on road signs street names, etc. For
example:
Fifth Ave
110th St
Broward Blvd

4. You capitalize abbreviations if you capitalize the original word because

they are proper nouns. For example. United Nations = UN. Common
nouns are not capitalized. For example: air conditioner – ac; compact disc
– cd.

Abbreviations and contractions of words both serve to shorten a word,

but while abbreviations omit the last few letters of the word,
contractions omit letters in the middle of the word.

Abbreviations
An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word. Abbreviations
normally end in a full stop, but this can be left out for commonly used
abbreviations

✔ cont. ✔ i.e.
✔ e.g. ✔ no.
✔ et al. ✔ p. / pp.
✔ etc. ✔ para.

Contractions
Contractions are shortened version of words in which the last letter of
the original word is present. They don’t need a full stop.
✔ Mr ✔ Rd
✔ Qld ✔ St

Acronyms
Acronyms are initial letters, sometimes pronounced as a word. They
are usually all capitals, and they don’t need a full stop at the end.
When an acronym has entered common usage, it is sometimes written
with just an initial capital.

✔ ABC ✔ CSIRO

✔ Anzac ✔ TAFE

Unless it is commonly understood, define the acronym the first time

you use it.
 You may be eligible for the Higher Education Loan Program
(HELP).When you use an acronym in a sentence, say it ut loud to see
if you should use ‘a’ or ‘an’. a vowel, use

******************************************************************
 NOTES ON MODULE – 5

ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS

6.1 Introduction

An individual has to interact with other members of the society throughout

the life; and, herein lies the importance of possession of communication
skills. These communication skills may range from oral to listening; writing
to reading and note-taking. The details of oral presentation skills have been
discussed in this lesson.

6.2 Oral Presentation Skills

Oral presentation is one of the instructional methods of teaching. Effective

speaking demands a high level of skill in oral presentation of material and
fullest compression on the part of instructor. Presentation is the practice of
showing and explaining the content of a topic to an audience or learner.
Presentations come in nearly as many forms as there are life situations. In
the business world, there are sales presentations, informational and
motivational presentations, first encounters, interviews, briefings, status
reports, image-building, and of course, the inevitable training sessions.

6.2.1 There are some effective tips for oral presentation:

6.2.1.1 Make your speech purposive

Any speech you make must have some purpose to entertain, amuse,
instruct, interact, sell an idea or product, or ask for some action.

6.2.1.2 Give brief introduction

In case audiences are strange, then introduce yourself, but avoid
unnecessaryinformation.
6.2.1.3 Know the audience
Make your presentation to audience's level of knowledge about the subject
of your presentation, what they need to know, and their interest. There are
far more types of audiences because audiences have innumerable flavors.
They may ask you as an individual to address a room full of factory
operations, managers who have no choice but to attend their talk, you then
may go before a congressional committee looking into various
environmental issues. When an individual stands up to deliver a
presentation before an audience, it s essential that the audience know
who the presenter is, why they are there, what specifically they expect to
get from your presentation, and how they will react to your message.

6.2.1.4 Be prepared
Develop good command over language as well as the subject. Practice
your presentation until you feel comfortable. Make sure you can present
your information within limited time frame. Anticipate questions you may be
asked and prepare answers to these.

6.2.1.5 Don't read your presentation

Talk to your audience. Use your notes as prompts as needed. Reading a
speech is never preferred. It is better not to speech at all than to read a
speech, regardless of how useful, well prepared and eloquent it may be.

6.2.1.6 Dont make excuses

Many-a-times, we may notice, a speaker making a beginning by saying, I
am sorry, I have not come prepared to speak on the topic, because .
Really, you are not prepared, no need to announce it in public
speaking, because audience never notices it.

6.2.1.7 Arouse the interest of the audience

Always speak in terms of what the audience wants and what you want.
Opening should be effective for making your presentation a success.
6.2.1.8 Maintain eye-contact
Shift your eye-contact around the room, so that everyone feels that you are
talking to them.

6.2.1.9 Use of proper gesture, posture and body

movement
Nonverbal communication plays a vital role in transfer of message. So, for
effective presentation your gesture, posture and body movement should
match with your verbal communication.

6.2.1.10 Be fluent
Fluency is one of the most important parameter for effective
communication. Without a smooth flow of speech, you are handicapped as
a speaker.

6.2.1.11 Be positive
Make it clear that you are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your
subject.

6.2.1.12 Provide Examples

Try to make your presentation as concrete and "down to earth" as possible.
Add appropriate examples and humor for effective understanding.

6.2.1.13 Use visual aids

Supplement what you say with visual aids such as handouts, charts,
transparencies, and slides. Make sure that everyone can easily see the
visual aids. Don't use visual aids that are so complex that the audience will
spend its time trying to read them instead of listening to you. Visual aids
are supplements to what you say, not replacements for what you say.
Skillful use of properly selected visuals makes your presentation easier and
more effective.
6.2.1.14 Actively involve your audience
People can only listen so long without their attention wandering. Making
your presentation interesting will help you to capture and keep your
audience's attention for a while, but you must do more. Build in some
simple and quick activities for your audience so that they are actively
involved in your presentation. Ask questions that you are confident your
audience will be able to answer.

6.2.1.15 Use repetitions, pauses and variation in

voice
Vary the tone of your voice and be careful not to talk too quickly.
Repetition pauses and variations in voice for emphasis are desirable in oral
presentation.

6.2.1.16 Stop before your audience wants you to

stop
You must come to an early and appropriately end after reaching the
climax. Make it a point to stop at a time, when audience feels you should
stop.

6.2.1.17 Have a smooth ending

Do not end your speech suddenly and abruptly. At the end, conclude your
talking.

Oral Communication: Definition, Types &

Advantages
Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from one
individual or group to another. Learn more about the definition and types of oral communication,
advantages and disadvantages of each type, and tips for developing oral communication skills.
Updated: 08/29/2021

Definition and Types

Great communication skills are your ticket to success in the academic and business world.But have
you ever been overcome by fear or anxiety prior to going on a job interview or speaking in front of
an audience? Knowing when to choose oral communication and polishing your speaking skills can
help you at every stage of your career.
Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from oneindividual
or group to another. Oral communication can be either formal or informal.
Examples of informal oral communication include:

 Face-to-face conversations
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business meetings

More formal types of oral communication include:

 Presentations at business meetings

 Classroom lectures
 Commencement speeches given at a graduation ceremony

With advances in technology, new forms of oral communication continue to develop. Videophones
and video conferences combine audio and video so that workers in distant locations can both see
and speak with each other. Other modern forms of oral communication includepodcasts (audio clips
that you can access on the Internet) and Voiceover Internet Protocol (VoIP), which allows callers to
communicate over the Internet and avoid telephone charges.Skype is an example of VoIP.

Advantages
There are many situations in which it makes sense to choose oral over written
communication. Oral communication is more personal and less formal than written
communication. If time is limited and a business matter requires quick resolution, it may be
best to have a face-to-face or telephone conversation. There is also more flexibility in oral
communication; you can discuss different aspects of an issue and make decisions more
quickly than you can in writing. Oral communication can be especially effective in
addressing conflicts or problems. Talking things over is often the best way to settle
disagreements or misunderstandings. Finally, oral communication is a great way to promote
employee morale and maintain energy and enthusiasm within a team.

What is Oral Communication?

When information is given, received, or transferred between two individuals via body
language, speaking, writing, or various forms of media, communication has taken place.
Communication skills are a building block to success in human society both academically
and in the business world, but choosing the most appropriate form of communication at
certain times can be challenging. Knowing when to use oral communication is an important
skill that may help an individual progress through different stages of their careers.
What is oral communication? Oral communication is defined as the process of transmitting
information or ideas verbally from one person or group to another. Oral communication can
be either formal or informal, relating to exchanges of information in a more professional or
relational way, respectively. Formal oral communication often takes place through channels
defined by an organization such as during presentations at business meetings, classroom
lectures, political speeches or speeches at ceremonies, while informal oral communication
can happen anywhere within the organization. Informal oral communication includes
transfers of ideas or information during face-to-face conversations, through telephone
conversations, or during regular conversations that take place at a business meeting.
 Importance of Oral Communication
Oral communication is an increasingly essential skill for both students and employees to understand,
especially in an atmosphere where new forms of digital and oral communicationhave continued to
develop. Video conferences and telework combine video and audio so thatthe giving and receiving
parties can both see and hear each other, meaning that multiple forms of communication need to be
used at once. In addition to spoken information,
individuals at video conferences must demonstrate proper body language on video, a factor which
was not as prevalent previously. Other new forms of oral communication include podcasts and
Voiceover Internet Protocols (VoIP) such as Skype and TeamSpeak, which allow users to
communicate verbally over the internet to avoid phone charges. Students and employees must be
able to work with both of these modern oral communication platforms toeffectively transfer information
between themselves and management, complete their job tasks, and comfortably adapt to remain
productive in their roles.
Good oral communication skills offer a range of important benefits to both students and employees,
as well as their teachers and employers. The continued development and advancement of oral
communication shows a commitment to fulfill roles in the classroom and within an organization,
leading to increased productivity and improved relations betweenan individual and their peers. When
an individual is able to verbally transfer information in an understandable manner, the risk of conflict
is further reduced, and a more positive work culture and job satisfaction may become more apparent.
Students and employees who have good oral communication are also more likely to build strong
teams and become more innovative, leading to their success and advancement in the academic and
business world.

Advantages of Oral Communication

Certain situations may result in oral communication to be used over other forms of information
exchange, such as through writing or the non-verbal use of body language. Oralcommunication is
typically more personal and are demonstrated less formally than written communication, making
them more approachable and accessible to other individuals. They are also more flexible, meaning
that decisions can be reached quickly and conflicts can be resolved in a more efficient manner than
through written or non-verbal interactions. In instances where time is limited or a business affair may
require a quick resolution, for example, a face-to-face conversation or telephone call may be most
appropriate. Oral communication is the best way to settle disagreements or understandings, and are
a useful way to increase employee morale and maintain enthusiasm towards team-oriented goals.
A few other advantages presented by oral communication to students, employees, andbusinesses
alike include:

 It leads to a higher level of transparency on an interpersonal basis.

 It provides for spontaneous and immediate feedback.
 It is time saving, which leads to the conservation of financial/economic resources.
 It can be used to transfer private or confidential information.
 It promotes positive reception of information and team building.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Similar to other forms of communication, times also exist when oral communication may not be best
suited for a particular situation. For example, when information needs to be documented, written
communication may be the best channel of information transfer to utilize. Oral communication is not a
substitute for writing because written communication is often much more detailed and clear than oral
forms. Oral communication is often more prone to misunderstandings or misinterpretations as a result
of the language barriers or cultural differences that exist between the parties exchanging information.
Likewise, oral communication is less likely to be organized in a logical or methodical manner to best
suit theneeds of a given subject or client.
Oral communication may also be disadvantageous to students, employees, and businesses forthe
following reasons:

 They are less formal and can be considered less authentic than written
communication.
 It requires a greater amount of attentiveness from both the speaker and receivers.
 There is less time for correction when a mistake is made.
 They may be less easy to maintain in certain fields because they are used infrequently
(in settings where written communication is dominant).

Oral Communication Skills

The basics of oral communication skills are regularly administered to students throughout thecourse
of their preliminary education, with continued development throughout their careers asemployees
within a larger organization. On a job application or resume, it is important to demonstrate and
elaborate on valuable known oral communication skills so that potential employers are enabled to
select the most effective candidates to fulfill open roles. Among themost common ways to learn the
valuable oral communication skills sought by most employers, the following methods can help any
prospective candidate become a polished and professional oral presenter:
Be prepared and flexible: Important for both formal presentations and informal discussions,preparation
relates to thinking about the goals and target audience, defining the course of delivery, and
establishing standards to meet during the spoken communication.
Get organized for the presentation: Compile and organize thoughts, ideas, and specific detailsahead
of time and create effective talking points to deliver a detailed oral communication.

Connect with the audience effectively: Engage the audience and encourage participation through a
lively speaking style or tone and pay close attention to non-verbal communication (such as body
language) that are being sent. Appearance, vocal tone, and eye contact are important factors to
consider when analyzing audience response and encouraging a continuedinterest in the content.
Make use of visual aids: Further engage the audience and help them understand or remember the
important points of the oral communication through the use of pictures, charts, graphs, orvideos.
Practice repeatedly: Continued practice of an oral communication, especially in preparationfor a
public speech or large group presentation, helps alleviate stage fright and improve delivery skills by
establishing more confidence in a concrete and rehearsed idea.

PUBLIC SPEAKING ANDEXTEMPORE SPEAKING

Extempore speaking:- •Extempore is a speech that is given on the spot without preparation.lt is a
test of your knowledge about a topic as well as your ability to expressyourself in good words in
framed manner within a limited time.

An extempore presentation tests the candidates on the following:

1. Ability to think on the spot.

2. Analysis of the topic and identification of the issue to be addressed.
3. Ability to connect with the panel.
4.Communication skills.
5.Overall presentation skills.

Body language,confidence,pose,composure etc.

For effective extempore
• Speaking, candidates must be fluent and articulate.
• Students are suggested to prepare well in advance so that speech comes
out to be spontaneously impressive.

Extempore speech is a format in which the following are evaluated :

a)Presence of mind.

b) Fluency in language.
c) Confidence.

The speech is carried out in the

following step:
A) A random topic is allocated to the speaker :
The allocation of the topic may be directly by the jury member or bypicking

up of a chit from a box .

b) Preparation time is given to the speaker:
Apperaration time of 3.5minutes is given to speaker to consolidate his/herthought on
the allocated topic.

c) The final speech: • The speaker then has to speak on the topic within the
stipulated time. The basic speech structure should contain introduction
main body and conclusion. The final speech decides the final score and
ranks.

Public speaking (oratory or oration)

Public speaking is the process or set of performing a speech to a

live audience. Public speaking is easily understood as formal, face
to face speaking of single person to group of listeners. However it
is modemly viewed as any form of speaking (formally and
informally)between an audience and the speaker.
Traditionally public speaking was considered to be a part of act that can be
accomplish particular purpose including to inform, to persuade and to
entertain. Public speaking was deloped in Rome and
Greece.Currently,technology continues to transform the art of public
speaking through newly available technology such as video
conferencing, multimedia presentations and non traditional forms.

Difference between extempore/public speaking

• Public speaking:

“public speakmg’7”speech’7“oratory”is an activity of addressing

live audience with a purpose of informing, persuading or speaking
to audience in a suitable manner appropriate to a particular
occasion whereas “extempore”is a type of speech delivered in
which one may use a rough outline prepared on note card.It stays
to be an unmemorized speech and the speakerfollows
usestoproceed

Make the audience the center of your universe

• You are not the focus of the event! Get that essential truth into your
presentation. Every good speaker cares more about the audience than
themselves.
• Focusing fully on the audience lifts the tremendous burden
from your shoulders in terms of worrying about the
performance .

RULE-1
Focus on relationships

• If the audience is the center of your universe, your are already focused on
the right task, establishing and maintaining a relationship with them. •
Three relationship are operating during speech, between you and the
audience, you and the content, and the audience and content.

RULE-2
Understand your purpose
• Too many speakers confuse topic and purpose. Being clear on your purpose
will help you gather exactly the right information to accomplish it.

RULE-3
Use your body language
• Your body is a powerful communication tool. Audience need you to give
expression to your message. That of course, means understanding how to
use body language as a speaker. Come out from behind the lectern if
possible, make your gestures few in number and well defined.

RULE-4
Color your vocal delivery Your voice is the most flexible speaking
tool you own apart from the brain itself. Its capable of a wide range
of coloration and effects.
To speak without vocal variation means using a “mono”or single tone, from
which we derive the word monotonous. If you are limited vocally,work
witha speech coach to learn the vocal dynamics that will, quite simply
make youa more exciting speakers. Department of Basic Sciences
www.cambridge.edu.in

RULE-5
Boost your skills at Q and A • Virtually anyone can give a reasonable
presentation if they practice and prepare enough. • But what happens
whenthe questions and challenges begin? The speaker who can handle
that
 situation with style, knowledge and a bit of humor is, the person
whoembodies presentation leadership.

Difference between public speech andextempore:

 Public speech is a speech prepared by a person to be given

on some event. The motive of such speech may be to create
awareness, to persuade or to inform people about any given
topic.
 It is generally spoken keeping in mind the occasion and the
type of audience. Because it is well thought out before, it is very
organized and systematic. On the other hand Extempore is a
speech made from certain cut out points.
 It is generally made on the spot and therefore can be
unorganized and informal. It is generally not memorized so it
depends on the speaker to make such type of speech worthwhile.
 Also anyone can be a good speaker while giving public
speech because sometimes it may be written and the speaker
would just have to read it, but in extempore the speaker need to
have a deep knowledge about the topic he / she is speaking about.

Communication Guidelines for Practice. Mother

Tongue Influence (MTI) –
South Indian Speakers, Various Techniques for
Neutralization of Mother Tongue Influence –

How to Neut ralis e Mother Tongue Infl uence (MT I) while speaking
Englis h?
Hello English learners & Overseas Aspirants!
I have a very interesting and relatable topic to discuss today: How to
neutralise mother tongue influence (MTI) while speaking English? It
is interesting because most of us are unaware of the fact that at
times we speak English like Punjabi, Gujarati, Telugu or Bengali. We
usually blame dialects for this, especially when we hear the words
like ‘see’ instead of ‘she’, ‘phonts’ instead of ‘fonts’, ‘veener’ instead
of ‘winner’, ‘iskool’ instead of school, ‘understandabul’ instead of
‘understandable.’
After becoming aware of mistakes which we make while using
English with interference of sounds from the mother tongue, we
happen to lose our confidence when Speaking English in public
which may result into embarrassment or hatred for English
language. Don’t you worry as this is not a serious problem and it can
be overcome with the right practice.
Start Speaking English Properly
How to Neutralise Mother Tongue Influence (MT I) while Speaking
Englis h?
Mother tongue influence (MTI) means the impact of the usage of our
mother tongue on the second language; for example, English. In
other words, we can figure out the ethnicity/nationality of someone
with the way he/she uses the dialects that interferes with English
speaking. This is very common in India.

The fact that Impressive English Speaking is key to good

communication skills cannot be denied, and with grammar and
vocabulary, pronunciation too is given equal weightage worldwide.
However, the evidence of mother tongue influence is obvious, so
this manifests in the form of incorrect pronunciation.

Why do People Face MTI

Problem?
The biggest reason for MTI problem is the lack of importance given
to pronunciation in most of Indian schools because the number of
dialects in India is too high; hence, it is very difficult to pick each
one for research and neutralise it. So, it is considered a serious
challenge faced by English teachers across India.

Learn to Avoid Indianism in Communication

What can be done to Overcome Mother Tongue Influence?
It might sound like a pipedream to practice and master the sounds of
consonants and vowels (phonetics); however, it is not so. Here are
some ways to get rid of mother-tongue influence while using English.
 Well, reading the Oxford dictionary is highly
recommended to know the pronunciation of each word as the
words are also spelled phonetically; e.g.: cuisine /kwɪˈziːn/.
 Practicing tongue-twisters may also help in improving the
pronunciation particularly of homophonic words, and to learn
differentiate between the sound of consonants like ‘s -sound’,‘f-
sound’, etc.
 Start watching English news on Star World, CNN, BBC if
you haven’t started yet. Honestly speaking, I find this option
quite boring, so I prefer watching English series from
Netflix because I find it recreational and interesting.
Undoubtedly, watching English news would be a great help as
you would also improve your fluency by imitating the
newsreader.
 Usage of Artificial intelligence eg: SIRI, google assistant
for detection of the words. You may have to keep pronouncing
the same word until Siri or google assistant detects it and
bingo! There you go!
 Read aloud in English for 15-20 minutes daily and
record your voice. I prefer to read aloud from the newspaper
or magazines. Research has proven the fact that it takes at
least three months to develop strong mouth muscles to speak
a new language. 
So, use all the tips to prevent the interference of regional language
while using English. Feel free to Reach Out to Me. All the best!
The students who are appearing for CELPIP, PTE, IELTS
Coaching at Aspire Square tend to get an extra practice of the
question types of Speaking module such as Read aloud, repeat
sentences, re-tell lectures and describe image with accurate
pronunciation and intonation; thus, making us CELPIP, IELTS, PTE
Coaching Centre in Ahmedabad, Surat and Vadodara.
 How to remove mother tongue influence
(MTI) while speaking in English?
How to get rid of Mother Tongue Influence while speaking in
English? Easiest way is to get a person Spoken English Trainer.

It is not that you cannot come over the MTI issue and speak fluent
English. There are multiple ways on how you can come over the
problem. Here are few ways to do-

.
 Correcting your Pronunciation-

Pronunciation is the most important part of making your English fluent.

You need to consciously learn how to articulate English sounds to
improve their pronunciation in English. As you join a reputed English
speaking class, trainer will guide you to correct mouth movement
helping to pronounce words of English. If the trainer models a sound,
then the learner will be assured of articulating certain sound. As the
practice goes on, you will keep correcting your pronunciation of English.

Regular Speaking of English words-

One of the best ways to work on your MTI issues is to keep using
English words in the actual tone. When you listen to any word,
carefully listen to it on how the word is pronounced and in the tone.
In the initial stage, this could be difficult, but as you keep talking,
you will certainly keep improving on your word usage. It is better to
record the session and listen to what the trainer says and how words are
used.

 Learn correct Intonation and English Rhythm–

You know you got a strong Mother Tongue Influence, and when you
speak with wrong intonation and English rhythm, person will certainly
 have hard time understanding you. Therefore, the best way is to
correcting your intonation and rhythm. With the help of English trainer,
you can correct your issues by regular practices. The main thing is
to make the person understand on what you speak.

Keep Reading-

Be it the novel, newspaper or journal, to make your MTI issue solved, the best
is to ke
ep reading, that too in high volume. This will help you to find new words and using
it right way. The best is torecord what you read and make it listen to your trainer who will
guide you. If there is any correction needed in your pronunciation or tone, the trainer will
correct it.

Daily English Communication-

One of the best ways to make your English sound fluent and MTI
issue solved is to communicate in English daily. Speak to your
colleagues, friends and even to your English learning partner. Daily
communication will help to bring down the MTI effect. Moreover, it will
help you to speak confidently in English.

Listen and watch English songs 

 and movies–
Movies and songs have huge impact on us. Therefore, when you watch
or listen to English movies or songs, it can affect our communication
since we try to imitate the language. So one way of improving your
English fluency and MTI issues to keep listening to English songs and
try singing it. Similarly watch English movies to know the accent and
words. This will have a great impact on your English fluency.

Record your own voice for 


Pronunciation-

As you keep practicing, do keep recording to listen to your

pronunciation. This will help you to correct and know how well you are
improving. Make it listen to your trainer and friends who will review
and give feedback. Take this feedback sportingly and improve on
your mistakes.
 How English Speaking Class helps?

 Personalized Training-

One of the reasons to take up English speaking course is trainers offer

personalized training to learners. Whether taking up online or offline
English training course, you get personalized training to make your
English sound perfect and remove the MTI issue. The trainer will
keenly listen to your words and correct it for perfect pronunciation.

 Offer Learning Materials-

Trainers will help you with learning materials including podcasts to learn
pronunciation and to shed the mother tongue influence. Follow on what
material they offer and accordingly practice the same. The ultimate aim
of the trainer is to make your learning easy and fast.

Conclusion for How to remove mother tongue influence

(MTI) while speaking in English?-

If you think your mother tongue influence issue will be solved overnight,
then you are wrong. It requires good practice and patience. The more
you practice, the better you speak fluent English.

You must have come across many people who while speaking in
English have a deep mother tongue influence. Native speakers
usually speak MTI influenced English and find it hard to overcome the
accent. For many, this can be a big issue to communicate with people
around. However, with the help of online English classes, native
speakers can bring massive change in MTI and speak fluent

English. Regular practice, regular communication and using right

practice material further helps to overcome the problem.
 What is MTI?

Mother Tongue Influence (MTI) is an impact of the way your first

language is spoken on the second language. When you speak the
second language, you can see how effective the mother tongue can
be. Therefore, when you speak to any native north Indian or South
Indian, you will see how heavily their mother language influences
them.

Why does MTI Happen?

Right from the birth to growing up, we speak our mother tongue,
which ends up being the part of regular communication. The effect
of MTI is when we belong to native area. When we keep speaking our
mother tongue daily, the pattern and tone set hard in our brain. Each
language has its own peculiar sounds, which retains in us for long.
If we keep speaking second language right from the young age, we
will witness the flexibility of speaking both languages fluently.

Our brain is trained to adopt multiple things, so when you start

speaking second language by joining English speaking class, you
will witness a good change. If you belong to bilingual family, then
you will certainly will not face MTI issues. This effect grows further
when you grow up and you find hard to speak fluent English.

Negative Effect of Mother Tongue Influence-

One of the worst things about MTI is it kills your confidence to have
solid communication. When you speak in front of any fluent
speaking person, you end up feeling self-conscious as the person
might feel your tone or accent funny. Each language has different words,
letters and script. There are certain sounds, which you will find in Hindi
or any language, but not in English.

Some of the Reasons behind MTI-

Heavy mother tongue influence majorly happens due to native language
sounds and replacing with second language is difficult. Here are top
three reasons behind MTI-
 Not spoke English
 Not communicating with English speaking people
 Avoided English speaking classes

What is Mother Tongue Influence?

Our mother tongue is the language we grew up speaking. Literally

speaking, it means the language our mother taught us: the language we
speak since childhood. It is a popular saying that in India, language
changes at every ten miles. This makes it difficult for us to speak in a
standard accent as all of us have our own way of speaking English. This
is what is called Mother Tongue Influence- when the effect of mother
tongue on English becomes evident.

Some examples are: ‘iskool’, ‘istudent’, ‘plezar’, ‘requesht’ and other

such words. In fact, I got the idea to write on this topic only after a
student told us that he wanted to speak ‘bhery phluent Englis’.

How does it develop?

This problem arises because of vernacular medium schools, which are
large in number in India. Hence, majority of Indians suffer from MTI.
Another reason could be that children are introduced to English at a later
stage in childhood. Studies show that those children who begin to learn
a second language in their childhood, learn it faster. Learning at a later
stage makes it difficult because by then child has already internalised
the sounds of his/her mother tongue and applies the same to English,
this is where the problem starts. Lastly, it could also be because of lack
of exposure to English.

Effects of Mother Tongue Influence

People have a good laugh at the expense of those who speak with
strong MTI. It is not right to do so because people who speak English
with MTI know that they speak wrong. They know that people make fun
of them when they speak English and so, they refrain from speaking
English altogether.
Some more Effects of MTI are:
 Lack of confidence in speaking English
 Embarrassment in communicating with others publicly
 Inability to speak English properly due to internalisation of sounds
from the mother tongue
  Slow career/academic growth
Most of our students ask us why MTI is such a big issue. Are the
various accents in the world, such as American and British
accents, not an example of MTI?
Yes, technically speaking these accents are also an example of MTI. But
the difference is that these are universally accepted and uniform. In
India, there is no consistency. We do have a standard Indian accent
which we aim to make popular, but there is still a long way to go. As of
now, The northern part of India speaks English in a different manner, the
southern part has its own pronunciation and way of speaking and so on.
Not just that, there are variations within the state as well! This is why MTI
is an issue in India.

How to get rid of MTI

It is difficult to get rid of something you have internalised. However, it is

not impossible. You can get rid of it by investing time and effort into it:
practice with dedication and you shall succeed!

Ways to remove MTI:

1. Practice tongue twisters to improve focus while speaking English.

2. Read text aloud and note down the words that you pronounce
incorrectly to practice later.
3. Listen to podcasts to observe and understand the correct sound of
each syllable.
4. Listen to an English news channel every day to
improve pronunciation.
5. Watch English movies and listen to English songs to find out how
native English speaker speak English.
6. Join Spoken English classes and have your trainer correct you on
the spot as you speak.
7. Record yourself speaking English to find out which words you
pronounce incorrectly.
In conclusion, I’d like to say that we need not be ashamed of how we
speak. But, we need to neutralise our MTI in order to achieve a standard
Indian accent that will be universally acceptable.
I hope this blog changed your perception. Do not forget to read our last
blog on How to Speak English Confidently if you haven’t already!
See you again!

READING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION

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Practice all the stories in the link for learning reading & listening
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