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POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions

KENG C. WU
Switching Power, Inc. Ronkonkoma, NY, United States
POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50
Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-323-88542-3

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Publisher: Graham Nisbet

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Editorial Project Manager: Grace Lander
Production Project Manager: Prasanna Kalyanaraman
Cover Designer: Brian Salisbury

Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India

Dedicated to
Grandson
Mitchell Patrick Wu Cayanni
Contents

About the Author xi

Preface xiii

1. Capacitor and inductor 1

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form 1
1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form 2
1.3 Inductor equation in differential form 3
1.4 Inductor equation in integral form 4
1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law 4
1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance 5
1.7 Transformer equation 7
1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and equivalent circuit 10
1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits 11
1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor 13
1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor 15

2 First-order circuits 19
2.1 RC network with periodic drive source 19
2.2 Sawtooth (triangle ramp) generator 30
2.3 Full-wave rectifier with RC load 33
2.4 A brushless DC Motor with permanent magnets rotor 38
2.5 A BLDC motor speed detector 45
References 47

3 Current source 49
3.1 Semiconductor diode equation 49
3.2 Simple current source 50
3.3 Bob Widlar current source 54
3.4 Improved current source 58
3.5 Source impedance 60
3.6 555 timer 64
3.7 Precision current loop 70
3.8 Current-mode laser driver 74
3.9 LED array driver 76
3.10 JFET current source 77
3.11 MOSFET current source 78

vii
viii Contents

4 Second order 81
4.1 Form 81
4.2 Root 83
4.3 Time domain 85
4.4 Frequency domain 89
4.5 Parallel and serial resonance 92
4.6 Eigen value approach 103
4.7 RC filters and Sallen–Key filters 104
4.8 Power filters 111
4.9 Oscillator 113
4.10 Implicit function 120

5 Gain blocks 123

5.1 Class-A direct-coupled bipolar transistor amplifiers 123
5.2 Class-AB, B, C bipolar transistor amplifiers 129
5.3 Transformer-coupled transistor amplifiers 133
5.4 Class-D switch-mode power amplifiers 135
5.5 Pulse width modulator 139
5.6 Digital (clocked) window comparator 140
5.7 Linear operational amplifiers 142
5.8 Tuned amplifiers and implicit function 147
5.9 Composite nonlinear operational amplifiers 150
5.10 Unity-gain bandwidth of op-amp 153
5.11 Large signal gain of op-amp 156

6 Feedback approaches 167

6.1 Voltage feedback 167
6.2 Current feedback 170
6.3 PID feedback 175
6.4 State feedback 178
6.5 Feedback isolation 180

7 Control practices 189

7.1 Level control 189
7.2 Mode control 190
7.3 Zone control 192
7.4 Variable structures 193
7.5 Sensor 196
7.6 Open loop 198
 Contents ix

7.7 Close loop 200

7.8 Loop contention 203
7.9 Time control 204
7.10 Sequential time control 206

8 Linear regulator 213

8.1 Bipolar series voltage regulator 213
8.2 MOSFET series voltage regulator 223
8.3 Multiple implicit function approach 227
8.4 Design procedure for loop stability 228
8.5 Design procedure for error amplifiers 230
8.6 Current-mode laser driver design procedure 236
8.7 Shunt regulators 238

9 Switch-mode DC/DC converters 241

9.1 Power filter, inductor, and capacitor 243
9.2 Fundamental topologies 249
9.3 Operational dynamics of basic buck topology 254
9.4 Operational dynamics of basic boost topology 257
9.5 Operational dynamics of basic flyback converter 259
9.6 Cascaded converter—nonisolated 261
9.7 Isolated converter—forward converter 264
9.8 Isolated converter—half-bridge converter 269
9.9 Isolated converter—push–pull converter 272
9.10 Isolated converter—full-bridge converter 272
9.11 Isolated converter—quasi-resonant converter 273
9.12 Analog feedback 275
9.13 Close loop—analog 288
9.14 Close loop—digital 296

10 AC drives, rectification, and inductive loads 299

10.1 Reexamine RC-loaded rectifier 299
10.2 AC drive with unidirectional RL load 301
10.3 Half-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 304
10.4 Full-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 305
10.5 Phase-controlled AC drive with RL load 307
10.6 Phase-controlled AC drive with free-wheel diode and RL load 309
10.7 Phase-controlled full-wave AC drive with RL load 311
10.8 Three-phase circuits 313
x Contents

11 Rotation, three-phase synthesis, and space vector concepts 319

11.1 Magnetic field (flux) 319
11.2 Synthesis of three-phase sources and inverters 323
11.3 Vector concept 331

Appendix A Accelerated steady-state analysis for a parallel resonant

network fed by nonsinusoidal, half-wave rectified current 347

Appendix B Matrix exponential 349

Appendix C Example 4.7 MATLAB m-file 351

Appendix D Example 8.1 353

Appendix E A general mass-spring-dashpot second-order system;

first alternative 359

Appendix F A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

second alternative 363

Appendix G A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

third alternative 365

Appendix H Matrix exponential—Jordan form 367

Appendix I A step-by-step primer on digital power-supply design 369

Digital tides 369
Tumble to digital 369
Roadmap to digital 370
Navigate to digital filter 371
Work out a forward converter example 373
Implementation 377
Conclusion 380
References 381

Appendix J Motor winding driven by SCR phase-controlled

sine source 383
Index 385
About the Author

Keng C. Wu, a native of Chiayi( ), Dalin( ), Taiwan, received the B.S.

degree from Chiaotung University, Taiwan, in 1969 and the M.S. degree
from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois in 1973.
He was a lead member, technical staff, of Lockheed Martin, Moorestown,
NJ. He has published five books: Pulse Width Modulated DC-DC Converters
Chapman & Hall, January 1997; Transistor Circuits for Spacecraft Power System
Kluwer Academic Publishers, November 2002; Switch-mode Power Converters:
Design and Analysis Academic Press, Elsevier, November 2005; Power Recti-
fiers, Inverters, and Converter Lulu.com November 2008.; Power Converters with
Digital Filter Feedback Control, Elsevier, Academic Press, 2016. He holds a
dozen US patents, was awarded Author of the Year twice (2003 and 2006
at Lockheed Martin), and presented a 3-hour educational seminar at IEEE
APEC-2007 S17.

xi
Preface

Years ago, Prof. Emeritus Chi-Tsong Chen, the author of Linear System
Theory and Design, a very successful textbook (Oxford University Press), met
the author at his Flushing, New York residence. In the meeting, and in the
preface of Signals and Systems – A Fresh Look his last publication (PDF form
free to all globally), Prof. Chen lamented that “Feedbacks from graduates
that what they learned in university is not used in industry prompted me to
ponder what to teach in signals and systems.”
Sadly,and based on long professional career serving RCA/GE/Lockheed
Martin space sector, the author can definitively confirm the fact Prof.
Chen was sad about. The less-than-desirable state had existed, and is still
present,in the form that many degree-holding engineers including electrical,
electronic, mechanical, and other specialties are falling short in applying
mathematical tools they were taught in college. Given electrical schematic
drawings, they were unable to formulate and express systems’ dynamics in
state variables and state transition using the first-order differential equations
and linear algebra technique. As a result, they were unable to boost their
productivity using software such as MATLAB.
This book intends to bridge the gap—what is taught in college and how
it is being applied in industry. In essence, this writing shall be considered
didactic.
It begins with Chapter one giving capacitors and inductors, two indis-
pensable energy storage components, an in-depth examination from the
view point of the first-order derivative, its corresponding integral form,
and its physical implications. Chapter two covers RC- and RL-type net-
works governed by a single differential equation. Key steps moving system
differential equations to Laplace transform in a frequency domain and to
a state-space transition form are introduced. Along the way, unconven-
tional approaches deriving Fourier series, explaining orthogonal property,
or treating boundary value problems are also explored. Chapter three covers
current sourcing circuits including current mirror, the workhorse of analog
integrated circuits, and precision current generator loops critical to instru-
mentation. Chapter four extends Chapter two to networks of second order
governed by two first-order differential equations. Procedures transforming
multiple differential equations to Laplace form, to state-transition form, and
to state-transition solution are shown. Chapter five examines circuit blocks

xiii
xiv Preface

and modules performing amplification, voltage-to-time window, duty cycle

modulation, etc. Chapter six covers feedback practices including voltage,
current, isolation, summative current, subtractive current, and state feedback.
Chapter seven discusses configurations of control loops including single loop,
multiple loop, open loop, closed loop, nested loop, loop contention, etc.
Chapter eight deals with linear regulators including series voltage regulator
and current shunt in parallel. Chapter nine explores switch-mode power
processing. Chapter ten presents complexities arising from inductive load fed
by rectified AC sources of single phase, multiple phases, and phase control.
Employing the concept of electromagnetic vectors in space, Chapter eleven
focuses on the formation of magnetic flux vector placed intentionally along
selected orientation, time-varying flux intensity, and rotational flux vector
that makes motor spin.
Considering the writer’s goal is to bridge materials taught in college and
applications of the material in actual industrial settings, the topics outlined
above and organized in that particular order are suitable for college seniors
and novice professionals in the industry. Following the material, and when
facing a real-world design schematic, readers will be able to (1) assign state
variables (circuit node voltage, inductor branch current), (2) write down
multiple differential equations, (3) place equation set in a state-transition
form, (4) select the approach one is more comfortable and confident, for the
time being, (5) obtain system response solutions corresponding to various
drives in different time frames, (6) stitch together a steady-state response
solution in closed-form analytical expressions.
Given time and practice, and when facing system order exceeding three,
most readers will quickly realize that state-transition equation and solution
invoking matrix operation delineated in linear algebra are more effective,
even elegant, in handling high-order systems.
This writer had definitely experienced that awareness, and expects all
reader to do the same.
As indicated in the subtitle of this writing, along the presentation,
mathematical notes are inserted where appropriateness is not violated. Quite
a few may be considered unconventional. This is done in the spirit of never
taking authority dogmatically—a true open mind respecting the unlimited
possibilities of viewing nature from multiple angles and a belief that what
 Preface xv

was said true in the past may not be true in the future when new discoveries
see the daylight.
On the backdrop of the above conviction, this author took additional
efforts to make this writing also available in Chinese language;thanks to pub-
lisher Elsevier for granting such translation right. Thanks are also extended
to Mr. , at ITRI (Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu Taiwan),
who had performed the translation, a very demanding task considering the
limitations of Chinese language in handling technical subjects.
With the advance of miniaturized electronic hardware and supercom-
puter equipped with mathematical co-processors, engineering design tasks
are now mostly carried out by the simulation and computation. The
implementation of both always requires design formulation in the form
of analytical expressions based on, in most cases, systems of differential
equations with coefficients depending on components/parts values.
In the course of almost four decades‘Ł‘™professional career in aerospace
industries, the author had definitely derived significant benefits from follow-
ing the path outlined above.
You, readers, can certainly do the same.
Keng C. Wu
Princeton, NJ.
Dec. 2020
CHAPTER 1

Capacitor and inductor

Two components, capacitors and inductors, play irreplaceable roles in elec-
trical power processing for their energy-storage properties.By presenting the
analytical equations governing both in either differential or integral forms,
this chapter illuminates the electromagnetic behaviors of those devices and
elucidates its physical significance when working with driving sources.

MATH. NOTE: In most calculus textbooks, derivatives and integrals are

introduced in the forms of f´(x) = dy/dx = df(x)/dx and ∫ydx = ∫f(x)dx,
given y = f(x) a two-dimensional plane curve and x is the independent vari-
able, with little physical meaning attached except the concept of “tangential
slope,” associated with the derivative, and “geometrical area,” associated with
the integral, employing the approach of limit. The independent variable x is
by no means restricted to signifying only space quantity.It certainly can stand
for time,and many other variables as well.The simple act of replacing dx with
dt, an infinitesimal time increment, introduces interesting, and important,
physical meaning to derivative f´(t) = dy/dt = df(t)/dt. As dt appears in the
numerator (inverse of time), derivative against time yields the dimension of
speed, velocity, and/or frequency; the temporal changes of a time-dependent
variable. ♣

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form

Almost without exception, the action of capacitors is introduced in text-
books in a differential form; which links current through the device and
time rate of voltage change across it with a positive sign as shown.

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the current is expressed as

the rate of charge carriers’ changes, i(t) = dQ(t)/dt, in which Q(t) = Cv(t) and
C, the capacitance and a constant within reason, is a function of geometry
and material property. ♣

i
dv(t ) +v
i(t ) C (1.1)
dt
Power electronic system design. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-32-388542-3.00004-2 All rights reserved. 1
2 Power electronic system design

v
i
t

Fig. 1.1 Terminal current and voltage of a capacitor.

What does this form tell us about a capacitive element?

1. When dv/dt = 0, that is when the device voltage reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device current crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain current waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding voltage waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for a capacitor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.1.
2. As the voltage variable in Eq. (1.1) appears as a derivative, the current
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.1) is rewritten as
d[VDC + v(t )]
i(t ) = C (1.2)
dt
In this form, one important property of capacitor stands out. That is, the
device sustains a DC (direct current) voltage, VDC , which however does not
contribute to its current. The significance of this attribute is that a capacitor
blocks DC current. Or, DC current does not flow through a capacitor. Only
AC (alternating) current does.
3. Capacitor allows the application of a DC voltage within limit; the
breakdown voltage.

1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.1) can of course be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
v(t ) = i(t )dt = V0 (t0 ) + i(τ )dτ (1.3)
C C t0
MATH. NOTE: This is actually a rewording of the previous MATH
NOTE, that is, charge is equal to the time integral of current. ♣
In contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.3), in particular
the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the capacitive
state variable: voltage.
4. In a very straightforward manner, it declares the continuous nature of
capacitor voltage.
 Capacitor and inductor 3

t
v

Fig. 1.2 Terminal current and voltage of an inductor.

5. In addition, Eq. (1.3) implies that capacitor voltage is lagging its

current in time domain:voltage phase lags (The integral of a time-dependent
variable yields accumulation of its past acts.) Or, capacitor current is leading
its voltage across: current phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that a capacitor stores
energy in stationary charge space: E-field.

1.3 Inductor equation in differential form

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the inductive voltage will
be expressed as the rate of magnetic flux changes, v(t) = d(t)/dt, in which
(t) = Li(t) and L, the inductance and a constant within reason, is a function
of geometry and material property. This will be expounded in one of the
section to follow. ♣

By the same token, inductor and its electrical symbol was always intro-
duced by the following
i
di(t ) +v
v(t ) L (1.4)
dt

With reasoning similar to those given for capacitors, the following

electric behaviors are expected of an inductor.
1. When di/dt = 0, that is when the device current reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device voltage crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain voltage waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding current waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for an inductor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.2.
2. As the current variable in Eq. (1.4) appears as a derivative, the voltage
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.4) is rewritten as
d[IDC + i(t )]
v(t ) = L (1.5)
dt
4 Power electronic system design

In this form, one important property of inductor stands out. That is, the
device allows a DC current, IDC , which however does not contribute to its
voltage.
3. The allowed DC current is however constrained within a limit; the
magnetic core saturation and winding wire Ampere rating.

1.4 Inductor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.4) can also be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
i(t ) = v(t )dt = I0 (t0 ) + v(τ )dτ (1.6)
L L t0
Again in contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.6), in
particular the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the
inductive state variable: current.
4. It states the continuous nature of inductive current.
5. In addition, (Eq. 1.6) implies that inductive current is lagging its voltage
in time domain: current phase lag. Or, inductive voltage is leading its through
current: voltage phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that an inductor stores
energy in circulating charge: H-field.

1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law

Faraday’s law is also generally presented in a differential form and named
“Faraday’s Law of Induction”: An electromagnetic force, emf, is generated by
a time-varying magnetic flux, e = d/dt. This form may best be interpreted
as magnetic induction on a single turn (loop). For a multiple-loop device,
the case of a practical inductor with N turns, the total induced emf sums up
to v = Ne = d(N)/dt.
Placed in an integral form, Faraday’s law of induction with multiple
loops in series becomes λ = N = ∫vdt: Total flux linkage equals the time
integral of a driving (voltage) source. For a practical device consisting of
a magnetic core, which serves to guide and focus flux, and an N-loop
winding, which passes current, each loop experiences an identical flux, .
With known cross-sectional core area, Ac , supplied by core manufacturer,
the total flux linkage is expressed as λ = NAc B, in which B stands for flux
density. It is then understood in physics that, given a core material with
permeability μ = μo μr (μo vacuum permeability, μr relative permeability), flux
 Capacitor and inductor 5

density is proportional to the magnetic field intensity, H, generated by a

driving source in the form of current, I, while permeability serves as the
proportional constant. Therefore, the total flux linkage is further expressed
as λ = NAc μo μr H.
Here, another electromagnetic law kicks in. That is Ampere’s Law:
magneto-motive force Ni = ∫Hdlm , the contour integral of magnetic field
intensity along a closed path lm . The integral may be simplified to HLm for
a geometrically isotropic and materially homogeneous core.
This additional attribute allows us to step further and rewrite the total
flux linkage as λ = NAc μo μr Ni/Lm , or λ = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )i. Plugging into
Faraday’s law of induction, we have v = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )di/dt. Referring to
Eq. (1.4), inductance is therefore L = N2 μo μr Ac /Lm for an inductor with core
material property μo , μr and core geometry Ac ,Lm ; core area and magnetic
path length.
As given, parameters determining inductance value are grouped in two;
(1) inductance index equal to the product of material property and core area
to magnetic path length ratio, and (2) square of winding turn number. In
industrial sector, core inductance index is often assigned a symbol AL .

1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance

In previous section citing Faraday’s law of induction, “time-varying mag-
netic flux” is mentioned as the key to magnetic induction. However,
“variable magnetic flux” may be more fitting as there are basically three
mechanisms to create variable magnetic flux.
A flux source may be moved mechanically in space while the inductive
reception loop stays stationary. Or, the flux generator stays stationary while
the reception loop is moved mechanically. Either way, a relative spatial
motion exists between two entities and that is actually the bottom line
of magnetic induction. Hydropower, coal-fired power, and other turbine
generators all fall under this category. In conventional physics text, it is
named “generator action.”
But the third way involves no mechanical motion at all. Both the flux
source and the reception loop remain stationary in space while the flux
generation side is driven by a true time-varying electric source. By so doing,
a time-varying flux is also created. In conventional physics, it is named
“transformer action.”
Employing the “Transformer action,” multiple windings, each with
multiple turns, are built wrapping around a common ferrous core. One
6 Power electronic system design

i1 i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.3 Ferrite cup-cored transformer and its electrical symbol.

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B( H)
Tesla

0 0

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.4 A B-H curve example without hysteresis.

winding, the primary, serves as a flux source driven by an external voltage

while the rest, the secondary, act as output windings. Fig. 1.3 shows a ferrite
cup-cored transformer, a two-winding and a multi-winding transformer
symbols.
Based on the two-winding transformer, Ampere’s law establishes a mag-
netic field intensity (N1 i1 + N2 i2 )/Lm in the core. When only winding 1 is
driven while winding 2 remains open, i2 = 0, Eq. (1.7) holds

N1 i1 Aw1
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw1 B = N1 Aw1 μoμr = N12 μoμr i1 = L1 i1
Lm Lm
(1.7)
where Aw1 stands for winding 1 cross-sectional area.
Under the same driving condition, Eq. (1.8), a cross-coupled flux linkage,
holds for winding 2, assuming Aw2 < Aw1 .

N1 i1 Aw2
λ2 = N2 2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N2 N1 μoμr i1
Lm Lm (1.8)
λ2 = M21 i1
 Capacitor and inductor 7

Next, we move driving source to winding 2 and open winding 1, i1 = 0.

Eq. (1.9), again a cross-coupled flux linkage, holds for winding 1. Readers
are cautioned to note the assumption that Aw2 < Aw1 .
N2 i2 Aw2
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw2 B = N1 Aw2 μoμr = N1 N2 μoμr i2
Lm Lm (1.9)
λ1 = M12 i2
And, Eq. (1.10) holds for winding 2
N2 i2 Aw2
λ2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N22 μoμr i2 = L2 i2 (1.10)
Lm Lm
Clearly, a mutual inductance exists between the two windings. That is
Aw2
M = M12 = M21 = N1 N2 μoμr (1.11)
Lm
An interesting effect is also observed, that is the product of L1 and L2 .
Aw1 2 Aw2
L1 L2 = N12 μoμr N2 μoμr
Lm Lm
(1.12)
Aw1 Aw2 Aw1 2
= N1 N2 μoμr N1 N2 μoμr = M
Lm Lm Aw2
or,

Aw2 √
0<k= < 1, M = k L1 L2 (1.13)
Aw1
Here an imperfect attempt indicates the origin of coupling coefficient,
k. Imperfect because perfectionist theoretician may mount a challenge
against the use of winding area in place of core area. However, considering
the imprecise nature of magnetism, practitioners in the industrial sectors
are willing to accept Eq. (1.13) knowing there are other flux leakages
unaccounted for.

1.7 Transformer equation

In previous sections, the linkage, represented by symbol μo , μr , between flux
density and magnetic field intensity was freely invoked without qualification.
Unfortunately, nature always places limitation on everything. Permeability
of material is not exempted either. It is well understood, and documented,
that ferromagnetic materials exhibit highly nonlinear and hysteric properties
8 Power electronic system design

when magnetized. The nonlinearity may be expressed in an analytic form

by borrowing the Fermi–Dirac (electron density) distribution, (Eq. 1.14), and
modifying it.
In solid-state physics, the Fermi–Dirac function is given as
1
p(E ) = E−E f
(1.14)
1+ e kT
−23
in which k = 1.380658 × 10 [Joule/degree], T temperature in degree
Kelvin, Ef Fermi energy.
With slight modifications based on Eq. (1.14), Eq. (1.15) describes the
nonlinear magnetic property for ferrous material.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H ) = Bsat ⎜ − 1⎟ (1.15)
⎝ −
H 
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
in which Bsat is the saturation flux density, specific to a material, in Tesla
(MKS unit]; H the driving magnetic field intensity in Oersted (MKS unit].
For example, given μo = 4π × 10−7 [Henry/m, MKS uint], μr = 2500 [unit-
less], Bsat = 0.25 [Tesla], Eq. (1.15) yields Fig. 1.4 plot.
With further modifications, hysteretic behavior is also accounted for,
(Eq. 1.16), depending on either increasing or decreasing magnetic field.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H, Ho ) = Bsat ⎜ H −Ho 
− 1⎟ (1.16)
⎝ −
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
In the case of increasing, the B-H curve traverses the right ascending leg,
while the left descending leg covers decreasing field (Fig. 1.5).
The main point of focus is that the magnetic flux density for any ferrous
material is limited to an upper bound, Bsat , beyond which the material can
no longer support additional flux change. Once a drive condition, that is,
the volt-second integral, exceeds the limit, the device/material permeability
drops to zero. As a result, the device incorporating the material no longer
offers inductance.Eq.(1.4) then states that,with near-zero inductance,a huge
di will also results. Such a surge current, limited only by winding resistance,
will lead to device destruction. And, this is exactly the reason the following,
flux density of transformer core, is discussed.
 Capacitor and inductor 9

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B(H, 50)
Tesla 0
0
B(H, −50)

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.5 A B-H curve example with hysteresis.

MATH. NOTE: What Fig. 1.5 shows is a multivalue function. At a selected

H coordinate, there are two corresponding flux density values. At a selected
B coordinate, there are two corresponding field intensity values. ♣
Refer now to Fig. 1.3 transformer. Suppose an AC source v(t) = Va cos(ωt)
is driving the primary winding N1 . The integral form of Faraday’s law of
induction gives a total flux linkage
 √
Va 2 Vrms
λ = Va cos (ωt )dt = sin (ωt ) = sin (ωt ) (1.17)
ω ω
As discussed above and considering the allowable saturation flux density,
the flux linkage magnitude of Eq. (1.17) must satisfy Eq. (1.18)
√ √
2 Vrms 2 Vrms
|λ| = = ≤ N1 Ac Bsat (1.18)
ω 2π f
where f stands for a driving source frequency. In other words, the driving
source magnitude, in RMS, must be constrained to
2π
Vrms ≤ √ f N1 Ac Bsat ≈ 4.443 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.19)
2
Otherwise, the transformer core will be saturated if the drive exceeds the
limit.
In power processing, in addition to sinusoidal drive, symmetrical 50%
square wave drive, dotted trace in Fig. 1.6, is also a very popular source.
Readers are invited to prove that, in this case, the source magnitude is
10 Power electronic system design

Va
flux

−Va

Fig. 1.6 Square-wave drive and core flux function.

Va Va
0

−Va −Va

Fig. 1.7 Rectangular wave drives.

constrained by Eq. (1.20) and the core flux (per turn) traces the solid curve
given in Fig. 1.6.
Vrms ≤ 4 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.20)
At this point, a moment of caution is warranted. Both Eqs. (1.19) and
(1.20) invoke drive source in RMS quantity. This practice entails easily mis-
understood mistake. Specifically, Eq. (1.19) is applicable solely for sinusoidal
drive while Eq. (1.20) for symmetrical, 50%, square-wave drive. For drive
waves, such as those given in Fig. 1.7, conversion factors existing between
drive amplitude,Va ,and its equivalent RMS quantity will alter the numerical
factor, 4.443 or 4, that appears in Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20). Readers are again
invited to work out the flux profile for drive waves shown in Fig. 1.7.

1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and

equivalent circuit
So far, all discussions concerning capacitors and magnetic devices are carried
out in the context of idealistic, conceptual space on paper. To be of practical
use, both must be built and brought to face real world. Capacitors are made
of bilayer electrodes, which must extend externally via metal contacts, while
inductors of spiral metal wires. Therefore, serial resistances are inevitably
introduced. This is not all; even a short piece of wire has inductance, however
small. What else? Capacitance exists between adjacent wires. Surfaces of
device package also create sneaky, leaky path. Taking in all, a real capacitor
or inductor may be represented by a lumped model (Fig. 1.8).
As shown, a view begins to emerge that neither device would work
as purely as what it is theoretically. Depending on the frequency range it is
immersed in a capacitor/inductor actually acts like a complex RLC network
(Fig. 1.8). We will come back to this point later.
 Capacitor and inductor 11

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 Lumped model of real (a) capacitors and (b) inductors.

1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits

In the same spirit, two-wind transformer (Fig. 1.3) can be transformed into
equivalent circuits. However, before proceeding, the drawing will be slightly
modified (Fig. 1.9) to include effects of mutual inductance. Readers should
also refer to physics textbooks for the dot convention invoked in the figure.
For the time being and in the following, winding resistances are omitted
to simplify the derivation of equivalence.
One sees easily that N1 loop gives

di1 di2 di1 di1 di1 di2

v1 = L1 +M = L1 −M +M +M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.21)
di1 d(i1 + i2 )
= (L1 − M ) +M
dt dt
And, N2 loop gives

di2 di1 di1 di2 di2 di2

v2 = L2 +M =M +M + L2 −M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.22)
d(i1 + i2 ) di2
=M + (L2 − M )
dt dt
Both lead to the loop T-form equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.10).

i1 M i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.9 Two-winding transformer with mutual inductance.

12 Power electronic system design

1:1
i1 L 1 - M L2 - M i2
v1 M v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.10 Loop T-form model for two-winding transformer.

1:1
i1
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ i2
v1 M
v2
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ (L1L2 - M 2 )/ Ideal
(L2-M ) (L1-M )

Fig. 1.11 Nodal π -form model for two-winding transformer.

Taking Laplace transform for the left most parts of Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22),
we reach a new equation set
v1 = sL1 I1 (s) + sMI2 (s) v2 = sMI1 (s) + sL2 I2 (s) (1.23)
Eq. (1.23) enables us to express I1 and I2 in terms of v1 and v2 .
v1 sM
v2 sL2 sL2 v1 − sMv2 (L2 − M )v1 + M (v1 − v2 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.24)
v1 (v1 − v2 )
=  +  
−M
s L1 L2M−M
2 2
s L1LL22−M

sL1 v1
sM v2 sL1 v2 − sMv1 (L1 − M )v2 + M (v2 − v1 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.25)
v2 (v2 − v1 )
=  +  
L1 L2 −M 2
s L1 L2M−M
2
s L1 −M

Eqs. (1.24) and (1.25) indicate a nodal π -form equivalent circuit

(Fig. 1.11).
Both the loop form and the nodal form transformer equivalent circuits
do not find them useful as it calls out all components and parameters.
 Capacitor and inductor 13

1:1
i1 (1-k 2)L 1 i2
v1 k 2L 1 v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.12 Hybrid τ -form model for two-winding transformer.

A keen observation changes the situation. By making L2 – M = 0 in

Fig. 1.10 and recognizing M = kæ(L1 L2 ), M = L2 becomes k2 L1 . As a result,
Fig. 1.10 becomes Fig. 1.12; the hybrid τ -form equivalent circuit.
This form has a loop and a node equation with two parameters, coupling
coefficient and primary inductance, involved.

1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor

Based on the fundamental principle dealing with electric charge storage
capacity of a pair of metallic plates or metalized films, the capacitance C of
such a mechanical construction is expressed as
A
C=ε (1.26)
d
in which ε represents the permittivity (dielectric constant) of separator
medium embedded between two plates, while A stands for plate area and d
plate separation, both spatial dimensions. Therefore, to a very good estimate,
the volumetric size for a capacitor will be at least equal to, or larger than,
dA; which is a simple product of two geometrical entities.
However, the process for sizing magnetic devices does not enjoy the
simplicity a capacitor is endowed with, as the construct of magnetic devices
always require some ferromagnetic filling a core shaped purposely to guide
magnetic flux such that the latter forms closed loops. In addition, space
must also be provided to accommodate multiple windings made of turns
of insulated metal wires. Fig. 1.13 shows one half of a ferrite core. The other
half is a mirror image.
As shown, the core has a center post giving a cross-sectional area Ac and
a winding window area Aw , within which coil(s) is(are) wound.
For a core wound with multiple windings, each winding in general
sustains different periodic voltage waveform and carries different currents,
also periodic. Eq. (1.18) can be generalized to specify how each winding will
be designed individually considering core flux limitation.

(Vrms ) j = K f f N j Ac Bmax (1.27)

14 Power electronic system design

Ac
Aw

Fig. 1.13 Half of a ferrite core; Ac = center post core area; Aw . (dotted line) = winding
window area, small filled circles = coil wires.

Here, Bmax is often chosen to be less than Bsat . Kf is a scaling factor relating
the RMS value of a periodic voltage and its time-domain magnitude.
Next, for each winding with peak current ij , a winding area (Aw )j is
conceptually assigned. Due to wire shape and unavoidable stacking in actual
build, only k(Aw )j is utilized. Given a desired inverse current density J [unit,
length2 /Amp],the winding peak current and its corresponding winding area
is associated by
k · (Aw ) j
ij = (1.28)
JN j
Eqs. (1.27) and (1.28) allow, for jth winding, its area product
(Vrms ) j JN j i j J (Vrms ) j i j
Ac (Aw ) j = · = (1.29)
K f f N j Bmax k kK f f Bmax
The total core cross-sectional area and winding area product covering all
winds is then
 J 
Ac A w = A c (Aw ) j = (Vrms ) j i j (1.30)
j
kK f f Bmax j

The summation on the right-hand side hints the total power handling
capacity of the device. The mathematical formulation may not be exactly
right, but it does give the flavor.
Therefore, referring to Fig. 1.13 and ignoring unit discrepancy, the
volumetric size of a magnetic device, in numerical term, may be considered
 Capacitor and inductor 15

almost twice of Eq. (1.30). Designers must check with core manufacturers
as to the accounting of the area2 number to avoid over, or under, count;
therefore over, or under, sizing a device.

1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor

In the following, only key parameters considered essential are tabulated
for both parts. Readers are to be reminded that a good understanding
of part specifications and ratings constitutes a major role in delivering a
good design, selecting reliable components, and making a high-quality final
product.

1.11.1 Capacitor

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments

Value Numeral, pF, nF, or 100 pF, 100 μF
μF
Value, tolerance Numeral, % 5%, 10%
Value, thermal Numeral, %/°C, 0.02%/°C
ppm/CÚ
Voltage, breakdown Numeral, Volts 25 V, 100 V DCmax + AC peak
magnitude
Voltage, surge rate Numeral, 1 KV/ms Causes transient
(dv/dt) Volts/sec current and
localized
overheating
Current, steady Numeral, A or mA 0.5 A at 360 Hz Frequency
sinusoidal dependent
Current, single pulse Numeral, A μs; A 500 A 3 μs Causes localized
ns overheating
ESR (Equivalent Numeral, mOhm 7 mOhm Not a constant
Serial Resistance)
Reactance Numeral, Ohm = Xc (ω), A curve Frequency
1/(ωC) dependent
Dissipation factor Numeral, A curve ESR/Xc (ω),
dimensionless
Leakage current Numeral, pA, nA Insulation quality
Lead Polarity Not applicable Polarized or Electrolytic or Film
nonpolarized
Packaging Not applicable Radial or axial Mounting
Disc or tubular consideration
16 Power electronic system design

A c B–L m H curve
0.4

Weber(volt.second)=AcB
Ψ(H, 50∙500)

Ψ(H, −50∙500)

−0.4

−2×105 H 2×105
AmpereTurn=LmH

Fig. 1.14 A core specific Ac B–Lm H curve.

1.11.2 Inductor
The intricacy for specifying magnetic devices is, in this writer’s view, orders
of magnitude harder than that for capacitors. Here, we will begin with an
important reexamination of the B-H curves given in Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5.
As far as this writer has been able to reach, the most existing literature
including journalistic articles and textbooks dealing with the subject cover
it solely in terms of B(flux density)-H(field strength) parameters. What was
not clearly mentioned in those presentations is the underlying significance
of presenting in B-H form. In a single statement, we proclaim that the
curve in B-H parameter form is “material specific.” It is characterizing a
specific ferrous material in terms of per unit volume. In other words, it is
independent of core geometry.
Therefore, those material property curves can be easily modified to be
“core specific,” Fig. 1.14, in which core geometry is now included; Ac core
cross-sectional area and Lm magnetic path length. The plot x-axis coordinate
is HLm (Ampere) while the y-axis is Ac B (flux, per turn, in Weber) (Readers
should ignore numerical figures in Fig. 1.14. It just shows that the inclusion
of core geometry will alter plot coordinate scales.)
By the same token, it can be further modified to be “device specific” or
“winding specific,” “terminal specific” in which the winding turn number,
N, is included. With that, the plot x-axis coordinate is Ni (Ampere turn)
while the y-axis is NAc B (total flux linkage in volt-second = ∫vdt).
In summary, three aspects are involved in specifying a magnetic device:
core material B-H, core geometry Ac B–HLm , and winding terminal NAc B-
Ni.
 Capacitor and inductor 17

1.11.3 Inductor core material

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
μi , zero-biased Numeral, 126, NIDC = 0 Referenced to μo
Permeability dimensionless = 4π × 10−7
μr , IDC -biased Numeral, 95, NIDC = 40, Referenced to μo
Permeability dimensionless Amp-Turn = 4π × 10−7
μo , free space 4π × 10−7 μ = μr • μo
Permeability

1.11.4 Inductor core Geometry

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
2
Ac , cross-sectional Numeral, SI (MKS) 0.67 cm
area meter2 or cgs cm2
lm , magnetic path Numeral, SI (MKS) 8.15 cm
length meter or cgs cm
Aw , winding area Numeral, SI (MKS) 2.13 cm2
meter2 or cgs cm2

1.11.5 Inductor winding

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
Fill factor 0< kf < 1, N/A 0.77, AWG #20 Wire gauge
dependent
lw , mean turn Numeral, m or 1.85 cm, Wire gauge
length cm AWG#24 dependent
N, turn number Numeral 13, AWG#22 Wire gauge
dependent
Many magnetic device manufacturers also often list the area product,
discussed in Section 1.10, to give designer a sense of how large the device
may be in handling a given power. This particular listing may be considered
to belong to the category of core geometry; but not exactly.
There are certainly other parameters, such as core losses unit volume
(a frequency-dependent parameter), thermal conductivity, etc. that are not
listed above; as this section presentation is not meant to be exhaustive.
Actually, this is the reason that efforts specifying magnetic devices properly
are very demanding.
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(Ah me, that crowded hour of glorious lives—
Ten of them, all from drives!)

Once only have you let me in,

Through all the knocks we've had together;
That time when, wanting four to win,
I fairly tried to tonk the leather—
And lo! a full-faced welt, without the least
Warning, went S.S.E.

A painful scene. In point of fact

I'm doubtful if I ought to hymn it;
Enough to say you went and cracked,
And left me thinking things like "Dimmit"
(And not like "Dimmit"), as I heard Slip call
"Mine!" and he pouched the ball.

Do you remember, too, the game

One August somewhere down in Dorset
When, being told to force the same,
We straightway started in to force it....
For half-an-hour or so we saw it through,
And scratched a priceless two;

Or how the prayer to play for keeps

And hang the runs, we didn't need 'em,
So stirred us, we collected heaps
With rather more than usual freedom;
Fifteen in fourteen minutes—till a catch
Abruptly closed the match?

* * * * * *

Well, well—the coming years (if fine)

Shall see us going even stronger;
So pouring out the oil and wine,
Let's sit and drink, a little longer;
 Here's to a decent average of ten!
(Yours is the oil. Say when....)

—————

When Morning on the heels of Night

Picks up her shroud at five and after,
The diffident observer might
(Or might not) see, beneath a rafter,
A pensive rodent upside down. Well, that
Is (possibly) a Bat....
In any case I have not sung of that.

A SCRATCH LOT

I. THE CHOOSING OF THE DAY

As soon as I had promised to take an eleven down to Chartleigh I knew

that I was in for trouble; but I did not realise how great it would be until I
consulted Henry Barton. Henry is a first-class cricketer, and it was my idea
that he should do all the batting for us, and such of the bowling as the laws
allowed. I had also another idea, and this I explained to Henry.

"As you are aware," I said, "the ideal side contains five good bats, four
good bowlers, a wicket-keeper, and Henry Barton."

"Quite so," agreed Henry.

"That is the principle on which one selects an eleven. Now, I intend to

strike out a line of my own. My team shall consist of three authors or
journalists, two solicitors, four barristers, a couple from the Stock
Exchange, some civil servants and an artist or two. How many is that?"
 "Nineteen."

"Well, that's the idea, anyhow."

"It's a rotten idea."

"No, it's a splendid idea. I wonder nobody has thought of it before. I

send a solicitor and a journalist in first. The journalist uses the long handle,
while the solicitor plays for keeps."

"And where does the artist come in?"

"The artist comes in last, and plays for a draw. You are very slow to-day,
Henry."

Henry, the man of leisure, thought a moment.

"Yes, that's all very well for you working men," he said at last, "but
what do I go as? Or am I one of the barristers?"

"You go as 'with Barton.' Yes. If you're very good you shall have an 'H'
in brackets after you. 'With Barton (H)'"

The method of choosing my team being settled, the next thing was the
day. "Any day in the first week in July," the Chartleigh captain had said.
Now at first sight there appear to be seven days in the week, but it is not
really so. For instance, Saturday. Now there's a good day! What could one
object to in a Saturday?

But do you imagine Henry Barton would let it pass?

"I don't think you'll get eleven people for the Saturday," he said. "People
are always playing cricket on Saturday."

"Precisely," I said. "Healthy exercise for the London toiler. That's why
I'm asking 'em."

"But I mean they'll have arranged to play already with their own teams.
Or else they'll be going away for week-ends."
 "One can spend a very pretty week-end at Chartleigh."

"H'm, let me think. Any day in the week, isn't it?"

"Except, apparently, Saturday," I said huffily.

"Let's see now, what days are there?"

I mentioned two or three of the better-known ones.

"Yes. Of course, some of those are impossible, though. We'd better go

through the week and see which is best."

I don't know who Barton is that he should take it upon himself to make
invidious distinctions between the days of the week.

"Very well, then," I said. "Sunday."

"Ass."

That seemed to settle Sunday, so we passed on to Monday.

"You won't get your stockbroker on Monday," said Henry. "It's

Contanger day or something with them every Monday."

"Stocktaking, don't you mean?"

"I dare say. Anyhow, no one in the House can get away on a Monday."

"I must have my stockbrokers. Tuesday."

Tuesday, it seemed, was hopeless. I was a fool to have thought of

Tuesday. Why, everybody knew that Tuesday was an impossible day for
——

I forget what spoilt Tuesday's chance. I fancy it was a busy day for Civil
Servants. No one in the Home Civil can get away on a Tuesday. I know that
sounds absurd, but Henry was being absurd just then. Or was it barristers?
Briefs get given out on a Tuesday, I was made to understand. That brought
us to Wednesday. I hoped much from Wednesday.

"Yes," said Henry. "Wednesday might do. Of course most of the

weeklies go to press on Wednesday. Rather an awkward day for journalists.
What about Thursday?"

I began to get annoyed.

"Thursday my flannel trousers go to the press," I said—"that is to say,

they come back from the wash then."

"Look here, why try to be funny?"

"Hang it, who started it? Talking about Contanger-days. Contanger—it

sounds like a new kind of guano."

"Well, if you don't believe me——"

"Henry, I do. Thursday be it, then."

"Yes, I suppose that's all right," said Henry doubtfully.

"Why not? Don't say it's sending-in day with artists," I implored. "Not
every Thursday?"

"No. Only there's Friday, and——"

"Friday is my busy day," I pleaded—"my one ewe lamb. Do not rob me

of it."

"It's a very good day, Friday. I think you'd find that most people could
get off then."

"But why throw over Thursday like this? A good, honest day, Henry.
Many people get born on a Thursday, Henry. And it's a marrying day,
Henry. A nice, clean, sober day, and you——"
 "The fact is," said Henry, "I've suddenly remembered I'm engaged
myself on Thursday."

This was too much.

"Henry," I said coldly, "you forget yourself—you forget yourself

strangely, my lad. Just because I was weak enough to promise you an 'H'
after your name. You seem to have forgotten that the 'H' was to be in
brackets."

"Yes, but I'm afraid I really am engaged."

"Are you really? Look here—I'll leave out the 'with' and you shall be
one of us. There! Baby, see the pretty gentlemen!"

Henry smiled and shook his head.

"Oh, well," I said, "we must have you. So if you say Friday, Friday it is.
You're quite sure Friday is all right for solicitors? Very well, then."

So the day was settled for Friday. It was rather a pity, because, as I said,
in the ordinary way Friday is the day I put aside for work.

II. THE SELECTION COMMITTEE

The committee consisted of Henry and myself. Originally it was myself

alone, but as soon as I had selected Henry I proceeded to co-opt him,
reserving to myself, however, the right of a casting vote in case of any
difference of opinion. One arose, almost immediately, over Higgins. Henry
said:

(a) That Higgins had once made ninety-seven.

(b) That he had been asked to play for his county.

(c) That he was an artist, and we had arranged to have an artist in the team.
In reply I pointed out:

(a) That ninety-seven was an extremely unlikely number for anyone to have
made.

(b) That if he had been asked he evidently hadn't accepted, which showed
the sort of man he was: besides which, what was his county?

(c) That, assuming for the moment he had made ninety-seven, was it likely
he would consent to go in last and play for a draw, which was why we
wanted the artist? And that, anyhow, he was a jolly bad artist.

(d) That hadn't we better put it to the vote?

This was accordingly done, and an exciting division ended in a tie.

Those in favour of Higgins 1

Those against Higgins 1

The Speaker gave his casting vote against Higgins.

Prior to this, however, I had laid before the House the letter of
invitation. It was as follows (and, I flatter myself, combined tact with a
certain dignity):—

"DEAR——, I am taking a team into the country on Friday week to

play against the village eleven. The ground and the lunch are good. Do you
think you could manage to come down? I know you are very busy just now
with

Contangers,
Briefs,
Clients,
Your Christmas Number,
Varnishing Day,
(Strike out all but one of these)

but a day in the country would do you good. I hear from all sides that you
are in great form this season. I will give you all particulars about trains later
on. Good-bye. Remember me to——. How is——? Ever yours.

"P.S.—Old Henry is playing for us. He has strained himself a little and
probably won't bowl much, so I expect we shall all have a turn with the
ball."

Or, "I don't think you have ever met Henry Barton, the cricketer. He is
very keen on meeting you. Apparently he has seen you play somewhere. He
will be turning out for us on Friday.

"P.P.S.—We might manage to have some bridge in the train."

"That," I said to Henry, "is what I call a clever letter."

"What makes you think that?"

"It is all clever," I said modestly. "But the cleverest part is a sentence at
the end. 'I will give you all particulars about trains later on.' You see I have
been looking them up, and we leave Victoria at seven-thirty A.M. and get
back to London Bridge at eleven-forty-five P.M."

The answers began to come in the next day. One of the first was from
Bolton, the solicitor, and it upset us altogether. For, after accepting the
invitation, he went on: "I am afraid I don't play bridge. As you may
remember, I used to play chess at Cambridge, and I still keep it up."

"Chess," said Henry. "That's where White plays and mates in two
moves. And there's a Black too. He does something."

"We shall have to get a Black. This is awful."

"Perhaps Bolton would like to do problems by himself all the time."

"That would be rather bad luck on him. No, look here. Here's Carey.
Glad to come, but doesn't bridge. He's the man."
 Accordingly we wired to Carey: "Do you play chess? Reply at once."
He answered, "No. Why?"

"Carey will have to play that game with glass balls. Solitaire. Yes. We
must remember to bring a board with us."

"But what about the chess gentleman?" asked Henry.

"I must go and find one. We've had one refusal."

There is an editor I know slightly, so I called upon him at his office. I

found him writing verses.

"Be brief," he said, "I'm frightfully busy."

"I have just three questions to ask you," I replied.

"What rhymes with 'yorker'?"

"That wasn't one of them."

"Yorker—corker—por——"

"Better make it a full pitch," I suggested. "Step out and make it a full
pitch. Then there are such lots of rhymes."

"Thanks, I will. Well?"

"One. Do you play bridge?"

"No."

"Two. Do you play chess?"

"I can."

"Three. Do you play cricket? Not that it matters."

 "Yes, I do sometimes. Good-bye. Send me a proof, will you? By the
way, what paper is this for?"

"The Sportsman, if you'll play. On Friday week. Do."

"Anything, if you'll go."

"May I have that in writing?"

He handed me a rejection form.

"There you are. And I'll do anything you like on Friday."

I went back to Henry and told him the good news.

"I wonder if he'll mind being black," said Henry. "That's the chap that
always gets mated so quickly."

"I expect they'll arrange it among themselves. Anyhow, we've done our
best for them."

"It's an awful business, getting up a team," said Henry thoughtfully.

"Well, we shall have two decent sets of bridge, anyway. But you ought to
have arranged for twelve aside, and then we could have left out the chess
professors and had three sets."

"It's all the fault of the rules. Some day somebody will realise that four
doesn't go into eleven, and then we shall have a new rule."

"No, I don't think so," said Henry. "I don't fancy 'Wanderer' would allow
it."

III. IN THE TRAIN

If there is one thing I cannot stand, it is ingratitude. Take the case of

Carey. Carey, you may remember, professed himself unable to play either
bridge or chess; and as we had a three-hour journey before us it did not look
as though he were going to have much of a time. However, Henry and I,
thinking entirely of Carey's personal comfort, went to the trouble of buying
him a solitaire board, with glass balls complete. The balls were all in
different colours.

I laid this before Carey as soon as we settled in the train.

"Whatever's that?"

"The new game," I said. "It's all the rage now, the man tells me. The
Smart Set play it every Sunday. Young girls are inveigled into lonely
country houses and robbed of incredible sums."

Carey laughed scornfully.

"So it is alleged," I added. "The inventor claims for it that in some

respects it has advantages which even cricket cannot claim. As, for
instance, it can be played in any weather: nay, even upon the sick bed."

"And how exactly is it played?"

"Thus. You take one away and all the rest jump over each other. At each
jump you remove the jumpee, and the object is to clear the board. Hence the
name—solitaire."

"I see. It seems a pretty rotten game."

That made me angry.

"All right. Then don't play. Have a game of marbles on the rack
instead."

Meanwhile Henry was introducing Bolton and the editor to each other.

"Two such famous people," he began.

"Everyone," said Bolton, with a bow, "knows the editor of——"

 "Oh yes, there's that. But I meant two such famous chess players.
Bolton," he explained to the editor, "was twelfth man against Oxford some
years ago. Something went wrong with his heart, or he'd have got in. On his
day, and if the board was at all sticky, he used to turn a good deal from
QB4."

"Do you really play?" asked Bolton eagerly. "I have a board here."

"Does he play! Do you mean to say you have never heard of the
Trocadero Defence?"

"The Sicilian Defence——"

"The Trocadero Defence. It's where you palm the other man's queen
when he's not looking. Most effective opening."

They both seemed keen on beginning, so Henry got out the cards for the
rest of us.

I drew the younger journalist, against Henry and the senior stockbroker.
Out of compliment to the journalist we arranged to play half-a-crown a
hundred, that being about the price they pay him. I dealt, and a problem
arose immediately. Here it is.

"A deals and leaves it to his partner B, who goes No Trumps. Y leads a
small heart. B's hand consists of king and three small diamonds, king and
one other heart, king and three small clubs, and three small spades. A plays
the king from Dummy, and Z puts on the ace. What should A do?"

Answer. Ring communication-cord and ask guard to remove B.

"Very well," I said to Dummy. "One thing's pretty clear. You don't bowl
to-day. Long-leg both ends is about your mark. Somewhere where there's
plenty of throwing to do."

Later on, when I was Dummy, I strolled over to the chess players.

"What's the ground like?" said the editor, as he finessed a knight.

 "Sporting. Distinctly sporting."

"Long grass all round, I suppose?"

"Oh, lord, no. The cows eat up all that."

"Do you mean to say the cows are allowed on the pitch?"

"Well, they don't put it that way, quite. The pitch is allowed on the cows'
pasture land."

"I suppose if we make a hundred we shall do well?" asked somebody.

"If we make fifty we shall declare," I said. "By Jove, Bolton, that's a
pretty smart move."

I may not know all the technical terms, but I do understand the idea of
chess. The editor was a pawn up and three to play, and had just advanced
his queen against Bolton's king, putting on a lot of check side as it seemed
to me. Of course, I expected Bolton would have to retire his king; but not
he! He laid a stymie with his bishop, and it was the editor's queen that had
to withdraw. Yet Bolton was only spare man at Cambridge!

"I am not at all sure," I said, "that chess is not a finer game even than
solitaire."

"It's a finer game than cricket," said Bolton, putting his bishop back in
the slips again.

"No," said the editor. "Cricket is the finest game in the world. For why?
I will tell you."

"Thanks to the glorious uncertainty of our national pastime," began the

journalist, from his next Monday's article.

"No, thanks to the fact that it is a game in which one can produce the
maximum of effect with the minimum of skill. Take my own case. I am not
a batsman, I shall never make ten runs in an innings, yet how few people
realise that! I go in first wicket down, wearing my M.C.C. cap. Having
taken guard with the help of a bail, I adopt Palairet's stance at the wicket.
Then the bowler delivers: either to the off, to leg, or straight. If it is to the
off, I shoulder my bat and sneer at it. If it is to leg, I swing at it. I have a
beautiful swing, which is alone worth the money. Probably I miss, but the
bowler fully understands that it is because I have not yet got the pace of the
wicket. Sooner or later he sends down a straight one, whereupon I proceed
to glide it to leg. You will see the stroke in Beldam's book. Of course, I miss
the ball, and am given out l.b.w. Then the look of astonishment that passes
over my face, the bewildered inquiry of the wicket-keeper, and finally the
shrug of good-humoured resignation as I walk from the crease! Nine times
out of ten square-leg asks the umpire what county I play for. That is
cricket."

"Quite so," I said, when he had finished. "There's only one flaw in it.
That is that quite possibly you may have to go in last to-day. You'll have to
think of some other plan. Also on this wicket the ball always goes well over
your head. You couldn't be l.b.w. if you tried."

"Oh, but I do try."

"Yes. Well, you'll find it difficult."

The editor sighed.

"Then I shall have to retire hurt," he said.

Bolton chuckled to himself.

"One never retires hurt at chess," he said, as he huffed the editor's king.
"Though once," he added proudly, "I sprained my hand, and had to make all
my moves with the left one. Check."

The editor yawned, and looked out of the window.

"Are we nearly there?" he asked.

 IV. IN THE FIELD

It is, I consider, the duty of a captain to consult the wishes of his team
now and then, particularly when he is in command of such a heterogeneous
collection of the professions as I was. I was watching a match at the Oval
once, and at the end of an over Lees went up to Dalmeny, and had a few
words with him. Probably, I thought, he is telling him a good story that he
heard at lunch; or, maybe, he is asking for the latest gossip from the Lobby.
My neighbour, however, held other views.

"There," he said, "there's ole Walter Lees asking to be took off."

"Surely not," I answered. "Dalmeny had a telegram just now, and Lees
is asking if it's the three-thirty winner."

Lees then began to bowl again.

"There you are," I said triumphantly, but my neighbour wouldn't hear of

it.

"Ole Lees asked to be took off, and ole Dalmeny" (I forget how he
pronounced it, but I know it was one of the wrong ways)—"ole Dalmeny
told him he'd have to stick on a bit."

Now that made a great impression on me, and I agreed with my friend
that Dalmeny was in the wrong.

"When I am captaining a team," I said, "and one of the bowlers wants to

come off, I am always ready to meet him half-way, more than half-way.
Better than that, if I have resolved upon any course of action, I always let
my team know beforehand; and I listen to their objections in a fair-minded
spirit."

It was in accordance with this rule of mine that I said casually, as we

were changing, "If we win the toss I shall put them in."

There was a chorus of protest.

 "That's right, go it," I said. "Henry objects because, as a first-class
cricketer, he is afraid of what The Sportsman will say if we lose. The editor
naturally objects—it ruins his chance of being mistaken for a county player
if he has to field first. Bolton objects because heavy exercise on a hot day
spoils his lunch. Thompson objects because that's the way he earns his
living at the Bar. His objection is merely technical, and is reserved as a
point of law for the Court of Crown Cases Reserved. Markham is a socialist
and objects to authority. Also he knows he's got to field long-leg both ends.
Gerald——"

"But why?" said Henry.

"Because I want you all to see the wicket first. Then you can't say you
weren't warned." Whereupon I went out and lost the toss.

As we walked into the field the editor told me a very funny story. I
cannot repeat it here for various reasons. First, it has nothing to do with
cricket; and, secondly, it is, I understand, coming out in his next number,
and I should probably get into trouble. Also it is highly technical, and
depends largely for its success upon adequate facial expression. But it
amused me a good deal. Just as he got to the exciting part, Thompson came
up.

"Do you mind if I go cover?" he asked.

"Do," I said abstractedly. "And what did the vicar say?"

The editor chuckled. "Well, you see, the vicar, knowing, of course, that
——"

"Cover, I suppose," said Gerald, as he caught us up.

"What? Oh yes, please. The vicar did know, did he?"

"Oh, the vicar knew. That's really the whole point."

I shouted with laughter.

"Good, isn't it?" said the editor. "Well, then——"

 "Have you got a cover?" came Markham's voice from behind us.

I turned round.

"Oh, Markham," I said, "I shall want you cover, if you don't mind. Sorry
—I must tell these men where to go—well, then, you were saying——"

The editor continued the story. We were interrupted once or twice, but
he finished it just as their first two men came out. I particularly liked that
bit about the——

"Jove," I said suddenly, "we haven't got a wicket-keeper. That's always

the way. Can you keep?" I asked the editor.

"Isn't there anyone else?"

"I'm afraid they're all fielding cover," I said, remembering suddenly.

"But, look here, it's the chance of a lifetime for you. You can tell 'em all that
——"

But he was trotting off to the pavilion.

"Can anybody lend me some gloves?" he asked. "They want me to keep

wicket. Thing I've never done in my life. Of course I always field cover in
the ordinary way. Thanks awfully. Sure you don't mind? Don't suppose I
shall stop a ball though."

"Henry," I called, "you're starting that end. Arrange the field, will you?
I'll go cover. You're sure to want one."

Their first batsman was an old weather-beaten villager called George.

We knew his name was George because the second ball struck him in the
stomach and his partner said, "Stay there, George," which seemed to be
George's idea too. We learnt at lunch that once, in the eighties or so, he had
gone in first with Lord Hawke (which put him on a level with that player),
and that he had taken first ball (which put him just above the
Yorkshireman).
 There the story ended, so far as George was concerned; and indeed it
was enough. Why seek to inquire if George took any other balls besides the
first?

In our match, however, he took the second in the place that I mentioned,
the third on the back of the neck, the fourth on the elbow, and the fifth in
the original place; while the sixth, being off the wicket, was left there.
Nearly every batsman had some pet stroke, and we soon saw that George's
stroke was the leg-bye. His bat was the second line of defence, and was
kept well in the block. If the ball escaped the earthwork in front, there was
always a chance that it would be brought up by the bat. Once, indeed, a
splendid ball of Henry's which came with his arm and missed George's legs,
snicked the bat, and went straight into the wicket-keeper's hands. The
editor, however, presented his compliments, and regretted that he was
unable to accept the enclosed, which he accordingly returned with many
thanks.

There was an unwritten law that George could not be l.b.w. I cannot say
how it arose—possibly from a natural coyness on George's part about the
exact significance of the "l." Henry, after appealing for the best part of three
overs, gave it up, and bowled what he called "googlies" at him. This looked
more hopeful, because a googly seems in no way to be restricted as to the
number of its bounces, and at each bounce it had a chance of doing
something. Unfortunately it never did George. Lunch came and the score
was thirty-seven—George having compiled in two hours a masterly
nineteen; eighteen off the person, but none the less directly due to him.

"We must think of a plan of campaign at lunch," said Henry. "It's

hopeless to go on like this."

"Does George drink?" I asked anxiously. It seemed the only chance.

But George didn't. And the score was thirty seven for five, which is a
good score for the wicket.
 V. AT THE WICKETS

At lunch I said: "I have just had a wire from the Surrey committee to
say that I may put myself on to bowl."

"That is good hearing," said Henry.

"Did they hear?" asked Gerald anxiously, looking over at the Chartleigh
team.

"You may think you're very funny, but I'll bet you a—a—anything you
like that I get George out."

"All right," said Gerald. "I'll play you for second wicket down, the loser
to go in last."

"Done," I said, "and what about passing the salad now?"

After lunch the editor took me on one side and said: "I don't like it. I
don't like it at all."

"Then why did you have so much?" I asked.

"I mean the wicket. It's dangerous. I am not thinking of myself so much
as of——"

"As of the reading public?"

"Quite so."

"You think you—you would be missed in Fleet Street—just at first?"

"You are not putting the facts too strongly. I was about to suggest that I
should be a 'did not bat.'"

"Oh! I see. Perhaps I ought to tell you that I was talking just now to the
sister of their captain."

The editor looked interested.

 "About the pad of the gardener?" he said.

"About you. She said—I give you her own words—'Who is the tall,
handsome man keeping wicket in a M.C.C. cap?' So I said you were a well-
known county player, as she would see when you went in to bat."

The editor shook my hand impressively.

"Thank you very much," he said. "I shall not fail her. What county did
you say?"

"Part of Flint. You know the little bit that's got into the wrong county by
mistake? That part. She had never heard of it; but I assured her it had a little
bit of yellow all to itself on the map. Have you a pretty good eleven?"

The editor swore twice—once for me and once for Flint. Then we went
out into the field.

My first ball did for George. I followed the tactics of William the First
at the Battle of Hastings, 1066. You remember how he ordered his archers
to shoot into the air, and how one arrow fell and pierced the eye of Harold,
whereupon confusion and disaster arose. So with George. I hurled one
perpendicularly into the sky, and it dropped (after a long time) straight upon
the batsman. George followed it with a slightly contemptuous eye... all the
way....

All the way. Of course, I was sorry. We were all much distressed. They
told us afterwards he had never been hit in the eye before.... One gets new
experiences.

George retired hurt. Not so much hurt as piqued, I fancy. He told the
umpire it wasn't bowling. Possibly. Neither was it batting. It was just
superior tactics.

The innings soon closed, and we had sixty-one to win, and, what
seemed more likely, fifty-nine and various other numbers to lose. Sixty-one
is a very unlucky number with me—oddly enough I have never yet made
sixty-one; like W.G. Grace, who had never made ninety-three. My average
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