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Chromosomes, characterized by their karyotype and idiogram, play a crucial role in defining species through their number, size, and shape. They serve essential functions such as protecting genetic material, ensuring accurate DNA distribution during cell division, and facilitating gene regulation through associated proteins. The study of karyotypes provides insights into evolutionary relationships and the primitive or advanced nature of organisms.

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9 views5 pages

Share 'Chromosomes -U2013 Physical Structure (Karyotype and Ideogram) and Function.docx'

Chromosomes, characterized by their karyotype and idiogram, play a crucial role in defining species through their number, size, and shape. They serve essential functions such as protecting genetic material, ensuring accurate DNA distribution during cell division, and facilitating gene regulation through associated proteins. The study of karyotypes provides insights into evolutionary relationships and the primitive or advanced nature of organisms.

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Chromosomes – physical structure (karyotype and ideogram) and function

A group of plants and animals comprising a species is characterised by a set of chromosomes,


which have certain constant features such as chromosome number, size and shape of
individual chromosomes. The term karyotype has been given to the group of characteristics
that identifies a particular set of chromosomes. A diagrammatic representation of a karyotype
of a species is called idiogram (Fig. 1). Generally, in an idiogram, the chromosomes of a
haploid set of an organism are ordered in a series of decreasing size.

Uses of Karyotypes:
1. The karyotypes of different groups are sometimes compared and similarities in karyotypes
are presumed to present evolutionary relationship.
2. Karyotype also suggests primitive or advanced feature of an organism. A karyotype
showing large differences between smallest and largest chromosome of the set and having
fewer metacentric chromosomes, is called asymmetric karyotype, which is considered to be a
relatively advanced feature when compared with symmetric karyotype which has all
metacentric chromosomes of the same size. Levitzky (1931) suggested that in flowering
plants there is a prominent trend towards asymmetric karyotypes.
The karyotype is generally identical for a species, but it differs from species to species. In the
study of karyotype, various features of chromosomes are taken into account, viz:
(i) Number,
(ii) Position of centromere,
(iii) Size,
(iv) Position of satellite,
(v) Degree and distribution of heterochromatin.
Karyotype is of two types, viz., symmetrical and asymmetrical. In the former case, all the
chromosomes have median or sub-median position of centromere and less variation in the
size of chromosomes. Plant species with this type of karyotype are considered as primitive
ones.
In case of asymmetrical karyotype, the chromosomes have sub terminal centromere and show
wide variation in the size of the smallest and the longest chromosome.
Plant species with this type of karyotype are considered advanced from evolution point of
view. The karyotype is represented by gametic chromosome number. The idiogram is
generally depicted in descending order of chromosome length. Thus, study of karyotype helps
in understanding the evolutionary process.

Material of the Chromosomes:


The material of the chromosomes is the chromatin. Depending on their staining properties
with basic dyes (particularly the Feulgen reagent), the following two types of chromatin may
be distinguished in the interphase nucleus.
1. Euchromatin:
Portions of chromosomes that stain lightly are only partially condensed; this chromatin is
termed euchromatin. It represents most of the chromatin that disperse after mitosis has been
completed. Euchromatin contains structural genes which replicate and transcribe during G1
and S phase of interphase. It is considered genetically active chromatin, since it has a role in
the phenotype expression of the genes. In euchromatin, DNA is found packed in 3 to 8 nm
fibre.
2. Heterochromatin:
In the dark-staining regions, the chromatin remains in the condensed state and is called
heterochromatin. In 1928, Heitz defined it as those regions of the chromosome that remain
condensed during interphase and early prophase and form the so-called chromocentre.
Heterochromatin is characterized by its especially high content of repetitive DNA sequences
and contains very few, if any, structural genes. It is late replicating (i.e., it is replicated when
the bulk of DNA has already been replicated) and is not transcribed. It is thought that in
heterochromatin the DNA is tightly packed in the 30 nm fibre. It is established now that
genes in heterochromatic region are inactive.
During early and mid-prophase stages, the heterochromatic regions are constituted into three
structures namely chromomeres, centromeres and knobs. Chromomeres may not represent
true heterochromatin since they are transcribed.
Centromeric regions invariably contain heterochromatin; in salivary glands, these regions of
all the chromosomes fuse to form a large heterochromatic mass called chromocentre. Knobs
are spherical heterochromatin bodies, usually several times the diameter of the concerned
chromosomes, present in certain chromosomes of some species, where present, knobs serve
as valuable chromosome markers.
Heterochromatin is classified into two groups: (i) Constitutive and (it) Facultative.
(i) Constitutive heterochromatin remains permanently in the heterochromatic state, i.e., it
does not revert to euchromatic state, e.g., centromeric regions. It contains short repeated
sequences of DNA, called satellite DNA.
(ii) Facultative heterochromatin is essentially euchromatin that has undergone
heterochromatinization which may involve a segment of chromosome, a whole chromosome
(e.g. one X chromosome of human females and females of other mammals), or one whole
haploid set of chromosomes (e.g., in some insects, such as mealy bugs).
Chemical Composition:
Chromatin is composed of DNA, RNA and protein. The protein of chromatin is of two types:
the histones and the non-histones. Purified chromatin isolated from interphase nuclei consists
of about 30-40% DNA, 50-65% protein and 0.5-10% RNA: but there is a considerable
variation due to species and tissues of the same species.
DNA:
The amount of DNA present in normal somatic cells of a species is constant for that species;
any variation in DNA from this value is strictly correlated with a corresponding variation at
the chromosome level. Gametes of a species contain only half of the amount of DNA present
in its somatic cells. The amount of DNA present in somatic cells also depends on the phase of
cell cycle.
Protein:
Proteins associated with chromosomes may be classified into two broad groups: (i) basic
proteins or histones and (ii) non-histone proteins.
Histones constitute about 80% of the total chromosomal protein; they are present in an almost
1:1 ratio with DNA (weight/weight). Their molecular weight ranges from 10,000-30,000 and
they are completely devoid of tryptophan. Histones are a highly heterogenous class of
proteins separable in 5 different fractions designated as H 1, H2a, H2b, H3 and H4 after Ewin
(1975).
Histones play a primary function in chromosome organisation where H 2a, H2b, H3 and H4 are
involved in the structural organization of chromatin fibres, while fraction H 1 holds together
the folded chromatin fibres of chromosomes.
Non-histone proteins make up about 20% of the total chromosome mass, but their amount is
variable and there is no definite ratio between the amounts of DNA and non-histones present
in chromosomes.
There may be 12 to more than 20 different types of non-histone proteins which show
variation from one species to the other and even in different tissues of the same organism.
This class of proteins includes many important enzymes, such as DNA and RNA polymerases
etc.
The Function of Chromosomes

1. It is universally accepted that DNA is the genetic material, and that in eukaryotes almost
all the DNA is present in chromosomes. Thus, the most important function of chromosomes
is to provide the genetic information for various cellular functions essential for growth,
survival, development, reproduction, etc., of organisms.

2. Another very important function of chromosomes is to protect the genetic material (DNA)
from being damaged during cell division. Chromosomes are coated with histones and other
proteins which protect it from both chemical (e.g., enzymes) and physical forces.

3. The properties of chromosomes ensure a precise distribution of DNA (genetic material) to


the daughter nuclei during cell division. Centromeres of chromosomes perform an important
function in chromosome movements during cell division which is due to the contraction of
spindle fibres attached to the centromeric regions of chromosomes.

4. Gene action in eukaryotes is believed to be regulated through histone and non-histone


proteins associated with chromosomes.

5. Chromosomes are the thread-like structure found in the nuclei of both animal and plant
cells. They are made of protein and one molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

6. As the genetic material passes from parents to child, the chromosomes are responsible for
containing the instructions that make the offspring unique while still carrying traits from the
parent. In most organisms, one chromosome is inherited from the mother and the other is
inherited from the father; to ensure that offspring carry traits from both parents. It's crucial
that certain cells, like reproductive cells, have the correct number of chromosomes in order to
function properly.

7. The structure of chromosomes helps ensure the DNA remains tightly wrapped around the
proteins; otherwise, DNA molecules would be too large for the inside of the cells.

8. Organisms grow by undergoing cell division to produce new cells and replace older, worn-
out cells. During this cell division, DNA must remain intact and keep its even distribution
throughout the cells. Chromosomes are important to this process to ensure the DNA is
accurately replicated.

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