Lecture note

On
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (Th-2.a)
1st and 2nd Semester (Diploma Course)
(As per the syllabus prepared by the SCTE&VT,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha)

IDEAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Retang, Bhubaneswar
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CHAPTER-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF PERIODS & MARKS

Periods as
EXPECTED
UNIT TOPIC per
MARKS
Syllabus
1 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 03 07
2 SCALARS AND VECTORS 03 04
3 KINEMATICS 06 12
4 WORK & FRICTION 05 10

5 GRAVITATION 05 10

6 OSCILLATIONS & WAVES 06 07

7 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS 07 12

8 OPTICS 04 11

9 ELECTROSTATICS & MAGNETOSTATICS 07 15

10 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 06 12
ELECTROMAGNETISM &
11 ELECTROMAGNETIC 05 05
INDUCTION
12 MODERN PHYSICS 03 05

Total 60 110
 UNIT 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Learning Objectives:
1.1 Physical quantities - (Definition).
1.2 Definition of fundamental and derived units, systems of units (FPS, CGS, MKS
and SI units).
1.3 Definition of dimension and Dimensional formulae of physical quantities.
1.4 Dimensional equations and Principle of homogeneity.
1.5 Checking the dimensional correctness of Physical relations.

Physics explains the law of nature in a special way. This explanation includes a quantitative
description, comparison, and measurement of certain physical quantities. To measure or compare a
physical quantity we need to fix some standard unit and dimension of the quantity. In this chapter we will
discuss the basic concept of Units and Dimensions and its application to various physical problems.
1.1 Physical quantities
Law of physics can be expressed through certain measurable quantities which are called as Physical quantities.

Physical quantities are divided into two categories.

(1) Fundamental Quantities
(2) Derived Quantities

1.1.1 Fundamental Quantities

Fundamental quantities are those that do not depend on any other physical quantities for their measurements. There
are different systems of units which will be discussed in the coming sections. In each system of units,
there are a set of defined fundamental quantities and fundamental units. Mass (M), length (L) and
Time (T) are some of the examples of fundamental quantities.

1.1.2 Derived Quantities

The physical quantities which are expressed in terms of other physical quantities are called as Derived Quantities.

2
Example- Velocity=Length/Time; Acceleration=Velocity/Time=Length/(Ti me)
2
Force = Mass X Acceleration = Mass X Length/(Time)

1.2 Unit
Unit is a standard which is used to measure a physical quantity.

1.2.1 Fundamental Units

Fundamental units are those units which are independent and not related to each other. The units of
fundamental quantities are called as Fundamental Units. Example – The unit of length is meter. So, meter is an
example of fundamental unit. Similarly, second is the fundamental unit of time and kg is the fundamental unit of
mass.
 1.2.2 Derived Units
The units of the physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called as Derived
Units.

2
Example- Area = length X breadth = metre X metre = (metre) Velocity =
displacement/time=metre/second

1.2.3 Systems of Units

A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived for all physical quantities is called a system of
units.
The following systems of units are commonly in use.
1.2.3(A) F. P. S. System

Fundamental quantities UNIT Symbol

1. Length Foot ft

2. Mass Pound Lb
3. Time Second S

1.2.3(B) C. G. S. System
Fundamental quantities UNIT Symbol

1. Length Centimeter c.m

2. Mass Gramme g

3. Time Second S

1.2.3(C) M. K. S. System
Fundamental quantities UNIT Symbol

1. Length meter M
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second S

1.2.3(D) SI Units (Systeme International d’Unites or International System of Units) In

C.G.S and M.K.S. system, there are three fundamental quantities e.g. mass, length, and time and
accordingly three fundamental units., which are insufficient to measure some physical quantities.
Therefore in 1971, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures decided a system of units which is
known as International System of Units and abbreviated as SI System. It is based on the seven
fundamental units and two supplementary units.
1.2.3(D)(i) Fundamental Units
The fundamental units used to measure in SI System,are given in the following table.

Fundamental Physical Name of the Unit Symbol of the

Quantity Unit

(1) Length Metre m

(2) Mass Kilogram kg
(3) Time Second S
(4) Temperature Kelvin K
(5) Electric Current Ampere A
(6) Quantity Of Substances Mole
(7) Luminous intencity mol
Candla cd

1.2.3(D)(ii) Supplementary units

The supplementary units of SI System, are given in the following table.
Supplementary Physical Quantity Name of the Unit Symbol of the Unit

(1) Angle Radian Rad

(2) Solid angle Steradian Sr

1.3.1 DIMENSIONS
Dimensions are the power to which the fundamental units/ quantities be raised in
order to represent a physical quantity.
Example:- (1) Area = length X breadth = L X L = [L2] = [M0L2T0]
Here 0, 2, and 0 are the dimensions of Area with respect to
mass, length and time.

Here 0, 1, and -1 are the dimensions of velocity with respect

to mass, length and time.

1.3.2 DIMENSIONAL FORMULA

Dimensional formula is a formula which tells us, how and which fundamental units must be used to express a
physical quantity.
Dimensional formula of a derived physical quantity is the “expression showing powers to which different
fundamental units are raised”.
Example:- (1) Volume(V) = length X breadth X height = L X L X L = [L3 ] => 𝑉 = [𝑀0𝐿3𝑇0]
This is the dimensional formula of volume.
And 0, 3, and 0 are the dimensions of volume with respect to mass, length and time.

(2) Momentum = mass X velocity =[𝑀1][𝐿1𝑇−1] = [𝑀1𝐿1𝑇−1]

(3) Force = mass X acceleration = [𝑀1][𝐿1𝑇−2] = [𝑀1𝐿1𝑇−2]
Sl. Dimensional
Physical Quantity Formula S.I Unit
No Formula
1 Area (A) Length x Breadth [M0L2T0] m2
2 Volume (V) Length x Breadth x Height [M0L3T0] m3
3 Density (d) Mass / Volume [M1L-3T0] kgm-3
4 Speed (s) Distance / Time [M0L1T-1] ms-1
5 Velocity (v) Displacement / Time [M0L1T-1] ms-1
6 Acceleration (a) Change in velocity / Time [M0L1T-2] ms-2
Acceleration due to
7 Change in velocity / Time [M0L1T-2] ms-2
gravity (g)
Linear momentum
8 Mass x Velocity [M1L1T-1] kgms-1
(p)
9 Force (F) Mass x Acceleration [M1L1T-2] N (Newton) (kgms-2)
10 Work (W) Force. Displacement [M1L2T-2] J (Joule) (kgm2s-2)
11 Energy (E) Work [M1L2T-2] J
12 Impulse (I) Force x Time [M1L1T-1] Ns
13 Pressure (P) Force / Area [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
14 Power (P) Work / Time [M1L2T-3] W (Watt)
Force x
Universal constant of
15 (Distance)2 [M-1L3T-2] Nm2kg-2
gravitation (G)
(Mass)2
16 Thrust (F) Force [M1L1T-2] N
1 1 -2
17 Tension (T) Force [M L T ] N
18 Stress Force / Area [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
Change in dimension / Original No dimensions
19 Strain No unit
dimension [M0L0T-0]
Angle (θ) Angular
20 Arc length / Radius No dimensions Rad
displacement
21 Angular velocity(ω) Angle / Time rad s-1
Angular
22 Angular velocity / Time rad s-2
acceleration(α)
23 Wavelength( 𝜆 ) Length of a wavelet [M0L1T0] M
Number of vibrations/second
24 Frequency(f) or [M0L0T-1] Hz or s-1
1/time Period
Angular momentum Moment of inertia x Angular
25 [M1L2T-1] kgm2s-1
(J) velocity
1.4.1 Dimensional Equation
When the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is expressed in the form of an equation by writing
the physical quantity on the left hand side and the dimensional formula on the right hand side, then the
resultant equation is called Dimensional equation.
Example:- Work(W) = Force X displacement
= [𝑀1𝐿1𝑇−2][𝐿1]
= [𝑀1𝐿2𝑇−2]
=> W = [𝑀1𝐿2𝑇−2] ---------- (i)
This equation is known as dimensional equation.
1.4.1 Use of dimensional analysis
Dimensional analysis has following three uses.
(i) To convert the value of a physical quantity from one system to another.
(ii) To derive a relation between various physical quantities.
(iii) To check the correctness of a given relation.

1.4.2 Principle of Homogeneity

It states that the dimensional formula of every term on both sides of a correct relation must be same.
OR,
The dimensions of each of the terms of a dimensional equation on both sides should be the same.

1.5 Checking the dimensional correctness of Physical relations.

To check the correctness of a relation, we find the dimensional formula of every term on both sides of the
relation. If the dimensions are same then the relation is said to be dimensionally correct.

Example (1):- To check the correctness of given relation.

Solution: - Given relation is

Dimensional formula of s = Displacement = [𝐿1] = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇0] - (i)
Dimensional formula of ut = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1] [𝑇1] = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇0]------------ (ii)

Dimensional formula of (iii)

From the above equations we get dimensional formula of every term are same. Therefore, according to
Principle of Homogeneity the given relation is dimensionally correct.
Example (2):- To check the correctness of given relation.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Solution:- Given relation is 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Dimensional formula of v = final velocity = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1] (i)
Dimensional formula of u = initial velocity = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1] (ii)
Dimensional formula of at = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−2] [𝑇1] = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1] (iii)
From the above equations we get dimensional formula of every term are same. Therefore, according to
Principle of Homogeneity the given relation is dimensionally correct.
Example (3):- To check the correctness of given relation.
𝑣2 − 𝑢2 = 4𝑎𝑠
Solution:- Given relation is 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 = 4𝑎𝑠
Dimensional formula of 𝑣2 = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1]2 = [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2] --------- (i)
Dimensional formula of 𝑢2 = [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−1]2 = [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2] ----------------- (ii)
Dimensional formula of 2as= [𝑀0𝐿1𝑇−2][𝐿1] = [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2]-- (iii)
From the above equations we get dimensional formula of every term are same. Therefore, according
to Principle of Homogeneity the given relation is dimensionally correct.

Question:- To check the correctness of following relation.

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

where g=acceleration due to gravity and l=length of thread, t= time period.

LHS: [T] = [M0L0T1]
𝑙 𝑙 [𝐿1]
RHS: 2𝜋√ = √ = √ = √[𝑇2] = [𝑇] = [M0L0T1]
𝑔 𝑔 [𝐿𝑇−2]

From the above equation we get that the dimensional formula of the terms on both the sides are same.
Therefore according to Principle of Homogeneity the given relation is dimensionally correct.
 VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Name two quantities which are dimensionless in nature.

Ans. Angle and strain.
2. Name two quantities which have dimensional formula [ M1L-1T-2]
Ans. Pressure and Stress.
3. Obtain the dimension of (i) pressure (ii) Kinetic Energy
Ans.(i) [ M1L-1T-2] and (ii) [ M1L2T-2]
4. What is meant by a unit?
Ans. Unit is a standard which is used to measure a physical quantity.
5. Write the dimensional formula of force and work.
Ans. Force = [ M1L1T-2] and Work = [ M1L2T-2]
6. Write down the dimensional formula for Gravitational constant. [W-18, 19]
Ans. [ M-1L3T-2]
7. Write the fundamental units in S.I. system. [S/W- 18, S- 19, W-20]
Ans: Meter, Kilogram, Second, Kelvin, Ampere, Mole & Candela.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

𝑙
1. Check the correctness of the equation, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ . [W- 16, 17, 19; S-19]
𝑔

2. Prove that the dimensions of kinetic energy and potential energy are same.

3. Check the correctness of the following [ W-18, 20]

I. 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
1
II. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡2
2
 UNIT 2
SCALARS AND VECTORS
Learning objectives
2.1 Scalar and Vector quantities (definition and concept),
Representation of aVector – examples, types of vectors.
2.2 Triangle and Parallelogram law of vector Addition (Statement
only). SimpleNumerical.
2.3 Resolution of Vectors – Simple Numerals on Horizontal and
Vertical components.

2.4 Vector multiplication (scalar product and vector product of

vectors).

We have come across with different types of physical quantities, in one

dimensional motion, only two directions are possible. So directional aspect of the
quantities like position, displacement, velocity and acceleration can be taken care
by using positive and negativesigns. But in the case of motion in two dimensions
(plane) or three dimensions (space), an object can have large number of directions.
In order to deal with such situation effectively, we need to introduce the concept
of scalar and vector quantities.
In this chapter we shall discuss the definition of scalar and vector
quantities, its applications to solve different physical problems and how they
can be multiplied.

2.1 Scalar Quantities and Vector Quantities

The physical quantities are classified into two categories
(i) Scalar Quantities
(ii) Vector quantities.

2.1.1 Scalar quantities

The quantities which have only magnitude are known as scalar
quantities.
Example- mass, length, volume, time, distance, speed, density,
energy, temperature, electric charge, electric potential etc.

2.1.2 Vector quantities

The quantities which have both magnitude and direction are
known as vector quantities.
Example- Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,
electric field, magnetic field, magnetic moment etc.
 2.1.3 Vector
A directed line segment is called as vector. When it is written
over the head of a physical quantity, then it represents a vector
quantity.

2.1.4 Representation of a vector

A vector „𝐴→‟ can be represented by an arrow
OP‟ of finite length directed from initial point
O to the terminal point P. The length of
arrow represents the magnitude of vector
and the arrow head denotes the direction of
the vector.A vector is written with an
arrow head over its symbol like „𝐴→‟. The
magnitude of given vector is represented by
modulus of vector (|𝐴→|) or simply „A‟.

2.1.4 Types of vector

There are different types of vectors.

(i) Null vector:-

It is a vector having zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction. It

is represented by a point or dot (•). When a null vector is added or
subtracted from a given vector, the resultant vector is same as the
given vector. Dot product of a null vector with any other vector is
always zero. Cross product of a null vector with any other vector
is also a null vector
Unit vector
Any vector whose magnitude is one unit is called as a unit vector. A unit
vector only specifies the direction of given vector. A unit vector in the
direction of vector „ A̅→ ‟ is written as A
̂ and is read as „A cap‟.

→
̂ =A
A
A

In three dimensional coordinate system, unit

vectors along positive X, Y and Z-axes are
usually represented by
𝒊^, 𝖩^ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌̂ respectively. These unit vectors are mutually
Perpendicular to each other (Fig.2.2)

(ii) Collinear vectors

Vector having a common line of action are called as collinear
vectors. There are of two types of collinear vectors.

(a) Parallel vectors ( =00)

Two vectors acting along same direction
irrespective of their magnitude are called as
→̅ ‟ and „𝐁
parallel vectors. Vectors „𝐀 ̅ →‟ shown
in fig. 2.3 are parallel vectors. Angle
between them is zero.

(b) Anti-parallel vectors

( =1800):-Two vectors acting along
opposite direction irrespective of their
magnitude are called as anti-parallel
vectors. Vectors „ 𝐀̅ → ‟ and „ ̅𝐁→ ‟ shown in
fig 2.4 are anti-
Parallel vectors. Angle between them is 1800.

(iii) Perpendicular vectors ( =900)

Two vectors are said to be perpendicular
when they are normal to each other (irrespective
→̅ ‟ and „̅𝐁→‟ shown
of their magnitude). Vectors „𝐀
in fig 2.5 are
Perpendicular vectors. Angle between them is 900.
(iv) Equal vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if they possess
Same magnitude and direction. ‟ and „ ̅𝐁→ ‟
Vectors „ 𝐀
Shown in fig. 2.6 are equal vectors. All equal
vectors are parallel vectors.

(v) Negative vector

A vector is said to be negative vector of
another one if they possess same magnitude and
→̅ ‟ and „ ̅ 𝐁→ ‟ shown
opposite direction. Vectors „𝐀
in fig. 2.7 are negative vector to each other. All
negative vectors are anti-parallel vectors.
 Co-initial vectors

A number of vectors are said to be co-

initial when they have common initial point.
→̅ ‟, „̅𝐁→‟, „𝐂→ ‟, „𝐃
Vectors „𝐀 ̅ →‟ and „𝐄→̅ ‟ shown in
fig 2.8 are co-initial vectors, started
from a common point P.

(vi) Co-planar vectors

A number of vectors are said to be co-planar when

they →̅
are lying in the same plane. Vectors „𝐀

‟, „̅𝐁→‟, „𝐂→‟,„̅𝐃→‟ and „𝐄→̅ ‟ shown in fig 2.9 are

co-planar vectors, present ithe same plane.

(vii) Position Vector

Vectors that indicate the position of a point in

acoordinate system is called as position vector.
Let point
P(x,y,z) present in three coordinate system then„ 𝐑‟ is the
Position vector of point P from the origin O (0,0,0)
as shown in the fig 2.10.
Position vector can be written as
𝐑̅ → = 𝒙𝒊^ + 𝒚𝖩^ + 𝒛̂𝒌

2.2 Addition of vectors

Vectors cannot be added according to the simple algebra,
because vectors have magnitude along with direction. So vector can
be added as follows.

2.2.1 Triangle law of vector addition

It is a law for the addition of two vectors. It can be stated as follows:
“If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude
And direction by two adjacent sides of a triangle taken in same order, then
the resultant vector is represented in magnitude and direction by third side
of that triangle taken in opposite order”
𝑅⃑` = 𝐴` + 𝐵
⃑`
It can be mathematically proved that:
𝐑 = √𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝟐𝑨𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
 2.2.2 Parallelogram’s law of vector addition
Two vectors can also be added by using parallelogram’s law of
vector addition. It can be stated as follows:

“If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude

And direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a
point, then the resultant vector is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point”.

2.3 Resolution of Vectors in a plane-

The process of splitting a vector into various parts or components is called

resolution of vector.
Resolution of a vector is the process of obtaining the component vectors which
when combined according to the law of vector addition, produce the given vector.
̅
Let ̅ 𝐎̅ ̅ 𝐏→̅ (=𝐑̅ → ) be the position vector of point P(x,y) in XY-
plane(Fig. 2.13).From P draw the perpendiculars PQ and PB on X-
axis and Y-axis respectively. It makes an angle with X-axis.
Let 𝒊^ and 𝖩are the unit vectors along x-axis and Y-axis respectively.
Consider →̅ resolves into two components horizontal 𝑹𝒙̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ → along
̅̅
X- axis and vertical component ̅ 𝑹𝒚̅ ̅ → along Y-axis.
According to triangle law of vector addition in triangle OPQ we can
write
̅ = 𝑹̅̅ 𝒙→ + ̅𝑹
→𝐑 𝒚→
=> ̅→𝐑= 𝒊^𝑹 + 𝖩^𝑹𝒚 ---------- (i)
𝑶𝑸
In the OPQ, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝑶𝑷
=> 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜃 = 𝐑𝐱
𝐑
=> 𝐑𝐱 = 𝐑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜃 ------------- (ii)
Again in OPQ, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑸𝑷 = 𝑶𝑩
𝑶𝑷 𝑶𝑷
=> 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜃 =
𝐑𝐲
𝐑
=> 𝐑𝐲 = 𝐑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜃 --------------- (iii)
Now putting the values of equation (ii) and (iii) in equation (i), we get:
𝐑= 𝒊^𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝖩^𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
2.4 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

There are two ways in which two vectors can be multiplied together.

(i) Scalar Product or Dot product

(ii) Vector Product or Cross product

2.4.1 Scalar product or Dot product

Dot product between two vectors is defined as

the product of their magnitude and the cosine of the
smaller angle between them.

It is written by putting a dot (•) between two

vectors. The result of this product does not possess any
direction. Hence it is also called as Scalar product.

Consider two vectors ̅ 𝐀→̅̅ drawn from a point and

and
inclined to each other at angle as shown in the Fig.2.14.

Dot product

𝐀̅ → ∙ ̅𝑩̅→ = 𝑨𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
 For , θ=900

⃑𝐴⃑⃑ `. 𝐵
⃑` = AB cos 𝜃 = AB cos900 = AB X 0 = 0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠900 = 0]
Thus the dot product of two non-zero vectors, which are
perpendicular to each other is always zero.
̂ are mutually perpendicular to each other
Since i^, 𝖩^ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘
̂=𝑘
i^ ∙ 𝖩^ = 𝖩^ ∙ 𝑘 ̂ ∙ i^ = 0

For , θ=00
⃑𝐴⃑⃑ `. 𝐵⃑⃑⃑ ` =AB cos 𝜃 = AB cos 00 = AB x 1 = AB [𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 = 1]

̂ ∙𝑘
i^ ∙ i^ = 𝖩^ ∙ 𝖩^ = 𝑘 ̂ =1

(i) Dot product in terms of rectangular component

LetAx, Ay, Azand Bx, By, Bzare the rectangular components of

1 1
cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos (𝛼 − 𝛽)two vectors A̅→ a nd
2 2
̅B→ respectively.
Then A̅→ = Axı^ + AyJ^ + A z k̂
And B̅ → = Bxı^ + By J^ + B z k̂
̅ → = (𝐀𝐱𝐢^ + 𝐀𝐲𝐣^ + 𝐀 𝐳 𝐤̂ ) ∙ (𝐁𝐱𝐢^ + 𝐁𝐲𝐣^ + 𝐁 𝐳 𝐤̂ )
𝐀∙ 𝐁

= 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙(𝒊^ ∙ 𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒚(𝒊^ ∙ 𝖩^) + 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒛(𝒊^ ∙ 𝒌̂ )

+ 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒙(𝖩^ ∙ 𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒚(𝖩^ ∙ 𝖩^) + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒛(𝖩^ ∙ 𝒌̂ )

Since, 𝒊^ ∙ 𝖩^ = 𝖩^ ∙ 𝒊^ = 𝟎,
̂
+ 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒙(̂𝒌∙ 𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒚(𝒌∙ 𝖩^) + 𝒊^ ∙ ̂𝒌= 𝒌̂ ∙ 𝒊^ = 𝟎,
𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒛(̂𝒌∙ 𝒌̂ ) 𝖩^ ∙ 𝒌̂ = 𝒌 ̂ ∙ 𝖩^ = 𝟎,
̂∙𝒌
𝒊^ ∙ 𝒊^ = 𝖩^ ∙ 𝖩^ = 𝒌 ̂=𝟏
= 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙(𝟏) + 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒚(𝟎) +
𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒛(𝟎)

+ 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒙(𝟎) + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒚(𝟏) +
𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒛(𝟎)

+ 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒙(𝟎) + 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒚(𝟎) +
𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒛(𝟏)

→̅ ∙ ̅𝐁→ = 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒚 +

=> 𝐀
𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒛

Therefore dot product of two vectors is defined as the sum of the

product of their rectangular components along the three coordinate axes.
Problem -1
If 𝐴`= 3ı^ + 2J^ + 5 k̂ and 𝐵
⃑` = 4 ı^ + 3J^ + 7 k

Find the dot product between A & B

Solution:- Here given Ax=3, Ay=2, Az=5 and Bx=4, By=3, Bz=7

We know that , A̅→ ∙ B̅→ = Ax Bx + 𝐴𝑦By + 𝐴z𝐵z

= (3 X 4)+( 2 X 3) +( 5 X 7 )

= 12 + 6 + 35 = 5

Problem(2):-
Find the dot product between A̅→ = 2ı^ + 5J^ + ̂kand ̅B→ = 3ı^ − J^ + k

Solution:- Here given Ax=2, Ay=5, Az=6 and Bx=3, By=-6, Bz=1

We know that A̅→ ∙ ̅ B→ = 𝐴𝗑𝐵 + 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴z𝐵z

= 2 X 3 + 5 X (-6) + 6 X 1

= 6-30+6=-18
Problem(3):-
Find the dot product between A&B ⃑⃑𝐴⃑→ = 5ı^ + 2J^ + 3k̂ and 𝐵
⃑→ = 2ı^ − 3J^

Solution:- Here given Ax=5, Ay=2, Az=3 and Bx=2, By=-3, Bz=0

We know that A̅→ ∙ ̅ B→ = 𝐴𝗑𝐵 + 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴z𝐵z

= 5 X 2 + 2 X (-3) + 3 X 0

= 10-6+0=4

Problem (4):-
Find the dot product between A̅→ = ı^ + 2 k̂ and ̅B→ = 3ı^ + 4J^ + k

Solution:- Here given Ax=6, Ay=0, Az=2 and Bx=3, By=4, Bz=6

We know that A̅→ ∙ B̅→ = + + 𝐴z𝐵z

=6 X3+0X4+2X6

= 18+0+12=30

Problem (5):-
Find the dot product between A̅→ = 3ı^ + 2J^and ̅B→ = 4ı^ + 3J^

Solution:- Here given Ax=3, Ay=2, Az=0 and Bx=4, By=3, Bz=0

We know that A̅→ ∙ B̅→ = + + 𝐴z𝐵z

=3 X4+2X3+0X0

= 12+6+0=18

2.4.2 Cross product or Vector product

Cross product of two vectors are defined as a single vector whose
magnitude is equal to the product of their individual magnitude and sine of
the smaller angle between them and is directed along the normal to the
plane containing
It is written by putting a cross (×) between two
vectors. The resultant of this product possesses a
direction. Hence it is also called as vector product.

Consider two vectors 𝐀 →̅ drawn from a point

and̅̅𝐁
and inclined to each other at angle as shown in
the Fig.2.15.

→̅ and ̅ 𝐁→ is given by
Cross product of 𝐀

𝐀× ̅→𝑩= 𝑪̅ → = 𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒏

Where 𝒏̂ is the unit vector of

̅𝑪→
directed
̅ →̅̅ and ̅𝐁→.
perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐀

Right hand thumb rule:-

Imagine the normal to the plane

(PQRS) containing 𝐀̅ → and ̅𝐁→to be held
by your right hand with the thumb
erect. If the fingers curl directed from
𝐀→̅ to 𝐁
̅ →then the direction of the thumb
→̅ × ̅ 𝑩̅ → .
gives the direction of 𝐀

For two perpendicular vectors ̅→Aand

̅ ̅ B̅→ , the angle between them =900
A̅→ × B
̅ → = AB sin 𝜃 𝑛
̂ = AB sin90 0 𝑛̂ = (AB)(1)𝑛̂ = A B𝑛̂ [𝑠i𝑛900 = 1
=> |A× B̅ →| = AB
Thus, the magnitude of the cross productof two perpendicular
vectors is equal to the product of their individual magnitude.
Since 7^, 𝖩^ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ̂ are unit vectors mutually perpendicular to
each other (Fig.2.2).

𝒊^ × 𝖩^ = 𝖩^ × 𝒊^ = − 𝒌̂
̂
𝒌
̂𝒌× 𝖩^ = −𝒊^
𝖩^ × 𝒌̂ =
𝒊^ ̂ = −𝖩^
𝒊^ × 𝒌

𝒌̂ × 𝒊^ =
 For two parallel vectors̅A̅→and ̅ B→̅ , the angle between them =00
A× B ̅ → = AB sin 𝜃 𝑛̂ = AB sin0 0 𝑛̂ = (AB) (0) 𝑛 ̂ = (0) 𝑛̂ = 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
[𝑠i𝑛00 = 0]

Cross product of two equal vectors is always a null vector.

|7^ × 7^| = |𝖩^ × 𝖩^| = | 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ | = 0

Cross product in terms of rectangular component

LetAx, Ay, Azand Bx, By, Bzare the rectangular components
of two vectors A̅→ a nd ̅B→respectively.
Then A̅→ = Axı^ + AyJ^ + A z k̂
And ̅B→ = Bxı^ + By J^ + B z k̂

∴→
𝐀 × →= (𝐀 𝐱𝐢 ^ 𝐲^ 𝐳 ^ 𝐱^ 𝐲
+ 𝐀 𝐣 + 𝐀 𝐤) × (𝐁 𝐢 + 𝐁 𝐣 + 𝐁 𝐤)
𝐳
= 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙(𝒊^ × 𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒚(𝒊^ × 𝖩^) +
𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒛(𝒊^ × 𝒌̂ )

+ 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒙(𝖩^ × 𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒚(𝖩^ × 𝖩^) +

𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒛(𝖩^ ×
̂)𝒌 Since 𝒊^ × 𝖩^ = 𝒌̂ , ^ × 𝒊^ = −𝒌̂ ,
𝒊^ × 𝒌̂ = −𝖩̂, ̂𝒌× 𝒊^ = 𝖩^,
+ 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒙 (̂𝒌× 𝒊^) + ( 𝒌̂ × 𝖩^) + (𝒌̂ ×
𝒌̂ ) 𝖩^ × 𝒌̂ = 𝒊^, 𝒌 ̂ × 𝖩^ = −𝒊^,
𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒚 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒛 | ^ × ^| = | ^ × ^| = |̂ × ̂| =
𝒊 𝒊 𝖩 𝖩 𝒌 𝒌 𝟎
= 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙(𝟎) + 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚(𝒌̂ ) + 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒛(−𝖩^)
+ 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒙 (−𝒌̂ ) + 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒚(𝟎)
+ 𝑨𝒚𝑩𝒛(𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒙(𝖩^)
+ 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒚(−𝒊^) + 𝑨𝒛𝑩𝒛(𝟎)

=> A× ̅B→ = (𝐴𝑦𝐵z − 𝐴z𝐵𝑦)7^ + (𝐴z𝐵𝗑 − 𝐴𝗑𝐵z)𝖩^ + (𝐴𝗑𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝗑)𝑘

The cross product in terms of rectangular component of two can also be

written in the form of determinant, as follows

ı^ J^ k ̂
̅ → × ̅B→ = 𝐴𝑦
A 𝐴z
|A𝗑 |
𝐵𝗑 𝐵 𝐵z
𝑦
 Problem(1):-
Find the Cross product between 𝐴` =3ı^ + 2J^ + 5 k̂ and 𝐵
⃑` = 4ı^ + 3J^ +7k

Solution:- Here given Ax=3, Ay=2, Az=5 and Bx=4, By=3, Bz=7

⃑` = (𝐴𝑦𝐵z − 𝐴z𝐵𝑦)i^ + (𝐴z𝐵𝗑 − 𝐴𝗑𝐵z)𝖩^ + (𝐴𝗑𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝗑)̂𝑘

We know that, 𝐴` × 𝐵

= (2 × 7 − 5 × 3)i^ + (5 × 4 − 3 × 7)𝑗^ + (3 × 3 − 2 × 4)𝑘

= (14 − 15)i^ + (20 − 21)𝑗^ + (9 − 8)𝑘̂

= −i ^ − 𝑗^ + 𝑘̂

Problem(2):-
Find the cross product between 𝐴` = 2ı^ + 5J^ + 6̂k and 𝐵
⃑` = 3ı^ − 6J^ + k̂

Solution:
Given, Ax=2, Ay=5, Az=6 and Bx=3, By= -6, Bz=1

We know that ,
𝐴` x 𝐵⃑` =ı^ {5 × 1 − 6 × (−6)} − 𝑗^ (2 × 1 − 6 ×
3) + 𝑘̂ {2 × (−6) − 5 × 3}

=ı^ (5 + 36) − 𝑗^ (2 − 18) + 𝑘̂ (−12 − 15)

=ı^ (41) − 𝑗^ (−16) + 𝑘̂ (−27)

=41ı^ + 16𝑗^ − 27𝑘̂

 POSIBLE SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Define Scalar and Vector Quantity? Give one example of each of them.

Ans.
2.1.1 Scalar quantities
The quantities which have only magnitude are
known as scalar quantities.
Example- mass, length, volume, time etc.
Vector quantities
The quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector quantities.
Ex- Displacement, velocity, force etc.

2. State the triangle law of vector addition. [w-18,S-19]

Ans.
“If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are rep resented in magnitude and direction
by two adjacent sides of a triangle taken in same order, then the resultant vector is
represented in magnitude and direction by third side of that triangle taken in opposite order”.

3. Find the dot product between 𝐴`= 3ı^ + 2J^ + 3 k̂ and 𝐵

⃑` = 5ı^ − 3J^
Ans.
Given, Ax=3, Ay=2, Az=3 and Bx=5, By= -3, Bz=0
We know that 𝐴`. 𝐵⃑` = 𝐴𝗑𝐵𝗑 + 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴z𝐵z
= 3 X 5 + 2 X (-3) + 3 X 0 = 15-6+0= 9

4. State the parallelogram law of vector addition . [w-18,19]

Ans.
“If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude
And direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the
resultant vector is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through that point”.
 UNIT-3
KINEMATICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

3.1 Concept of Rest and Motion.

3.2 Displacement, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration & Force

(Definition, Formula, Units & Dimension).

3.3 Equation of motion under gravity (Upward & Downward motion).

3.4 Circular motion -: Angular Displacement, Angular velocity &

Angular Acceleration (Definition, Formula, & Units).

3.5 Relation between (i) linear and angular velocity

(ii) Linear and angular acceleration.

3.6 Define Projectile, Examples of projectile.

3.7 Expression for Equation Trajectory, Time of Flight, Maximum Height

And Horizontal Range for a projectile fired at an angle θ.

Condition for maximum Horizontal Range.

Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk, run,

and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves into
and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and veins. We
see leaves falling from trees and water flowing down a dam.
Automobiles and planes carry people from one place to the other.
Motion is change in position of an object with time. In this chapter
we are going to discuss basic concept of kinematics (i.e., study
of motion of bodies without the consideration of the force
involved).
3.1 CONCEPT OF REST AND MOTION
REST- Body is said to be rest if its position does not change w.r.t to surrounding.

MOTION- A body is said to be in motion if its changes its position w.r.t the

Surroundings.

3.2 Displacement, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration & Force

(Definition, Formula, Units & Dimension).

DISPLACEMENT- Displacement is a vector connecting between initial and

Final Position of the body and directed away from initial position towards

Final position.

Unit S.I- meter (m)

Dimension [S] = [𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇0]

Speed (v)- The distance travelled by the body in unit time is called speed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠
⸫ Speed = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

 S.I unit is meter/sec (m/s)

 Dimension- [v] = [𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇−1]

Velocity (𝑣 )

The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠
⸫ Velocity = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

 S.I unit is meter/sec (m/s)

 Dimension- [𝑣 ] = [𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇−1]

Acceleration ( 𝑎 )

The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
⸫ acceleration =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑑𝑣
⇒𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡

 Its S.I unit is m/𝑠2

 Dimension- [𝑎 ] =[𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇−2]
Force (𝐹 )

Force is an external agent capable of changing state of rest or state of motion

of a body.

⸫ Force = mass × acceleration

⇒F = m×a

 Its S.I unit is kg m/𝑠2 or N and CGS unit is g cm/𝑠2 or dyne

 Dimension- [F] = [𝑀1𝐿1 𝑇−2]

3.3 Equation of motion under gravity (Upward & Downward motion).

Upward
Considering body thrown upward from a point o with initial velocity

u at time t = 0. It reaches a point p after t sec and acquire a velocity v

due to the uniform acceleration due to the gravity (g).

The equation of motion under gravity in upward direction

We can write

(a) v = u − gt

(b) h = ut – ½ g𝑡2

(c) 𝑣2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ

This is the maximum height reached by the object when thrown an initial velocity u.

Downward motion

Considering a body falling freely from a point O with initial velocity u.

It reaches a point P after t sec and acquire a velocity v due to

Uniform acceleration due to gravity g.

Here v = final velocity, h = height of the object

The equation of motion under gravity in downward direction

1
We can write (a) v = u + 𝑔𝑡, (b) ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + a𝑡2
2

(c) 𝑣2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ
3.4 Circular motion -: Angular Displacement, Angular velocity &

Angular acceleration

A body is said to be in circular motion if it moves in such a way that its

Distance from a fixed point remains constant.

Angular displacement(∆𝜃)

 Angular displacement of a body is defined as the angle turned

by its radius vector.

 It is a vector quantity and its direction along the axis of rotation.

⸫ ∆θ = ∆𝑠
𝑟
 Its S.I unit is radian (rad).

Angular velocity(𝜔)

 Angular velocity of a body is defined as the rate of change of angular

displacement.

 It is a vector quantity and its direction is along the direction of displacement.

 Its S.I unit is radian/sec (rad/s)

Angular acceleration(𝛼)

 Angular acceleration of a body is defined as the rate of change of

angular velocity.

 It is a vector quantity and acts along the axis of rotation.

 Its S.I unit is radian/𝑠𝑒𝑐2(rad/𝑠2).
3.5 Relation between linear and angular velocity
We know that,

the angular velocity 𝜔 = 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠
⇒𝜔=1
𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
⇒𝜔= 1 𝑣 ,( ; 𝑣 = )
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒𝑣 = 𝜔 ×𝑟

Relation between linear and angular acceleration:-

We know that
𝑑𝜔
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
⇒α==1
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒α=1 𝑎 , (; a = 𝑑𝑣 )
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒a=𝛼×𝑟

3.6 Projectile motion

Projectile is a body thrown with an initial velocity in the vertical plane and then

It moves in two dimensions under the action of gravity without being propelled

by any mechanical work.

Example-

(1) a cricket ball thrown into the space.

(2) A fruit falling from a tree.

(3) A bullet fired from a gun

(4) A bag dropped from an aeroplane.

3.7 Projectile fired at an angle θ with the horizontal.
Considering a projectile fired from a point O with a velocity u at an angle θ with

horizontal. The projectile rises to the maximum height H at the point P and

falls back at Q, lying on the same level of projection.

Here u has two components i.e. u cosθ (horizontal component) and u sinθ (vertical component)

(1) Equation of trajectory

It is an equation with horizontal and vertical components of the projectile.

For horizontal component

1
Applying equation of motion, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡2
2

1
⇒ = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡 + × 0 × 𝑡2 , (; s= x, u= ucosθ,a=0)
2
𝑥
⇒𝑡= ……..(1)
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

For vertical equation of motion

Applying equation of motion, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑡2
2

⇒𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑡 − 1 𝑔𝑡2 , (; s = y, u = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, a= -g)

2
𝑥 1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. − 𝑔( )2, (; t = 𝑥 )
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑢2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 × 𝑥2 …………(2)

This is the equation of trajectory

(2) Maximum height:-

It is the maximum distance travelled by the projectile in vertical direction

Here , 𝑠 = 𝐻, 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑎 = −𝑔

Applying equation of motion,

𝑣2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠

⇒ 0 − 𝑢2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = −2𝑔𝐻
𝑢2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
⇒ 𝐻= ………………(3)
2𝑔

(3) Time of flight :-

(a) Time of Ascent (t)

It is the time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height

from the point of projection.

Here, 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑎 = −𝑔,

Applying the equation of motion,

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

⇒ 0 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 𝑡
𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⇒𝑡= ……………..(4)
𝑔

(b) Time of Descent(t)

It is the time taken by the projectile to reach the level of projection

From the maximum height.

Total time of Flight(T)

It is the total time taken by the projectile to come back to the ground

from which it was projected.

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇 = 2𝑡 ⇒ 𝑇 = 2 …………………….(5)
𝑔
(4) Horizontal Range(R)

It is the distance travelled by the projectile in the horizontal direction

during its time of flight. The horizontal range is travelled due to horizontal

component of velocity which is uniform.

𝑅 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⇒𝑅 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 × 2
𝑔

𝑢22𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 ................................

⇒𝑅 = = (6), [sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃. cos 𝜃]
𝑔 𝑔

⋇⋇ condition for maximum horizontal range(𝑅max)

2 sin 2𝜃
We know that, R = 𝑢
𝑔

When sin 2θ is maximum, horizontal range will be maximum,

⇒ Sin 2θ = 1

⇒ Sin 2θ = sin 90

⇒ 2θ = 90 ⇒ θ = 45𝑜

Then, we can write,

2
(𝑅max ) = …………………… (7)
𝑢
𝑔

⸫ The maximum horizontal range travelled by the projectile fired at an angle θ = 45𝑜.

Possible Short Questions

1. What is the condition for maximum horizontal range? [ 17,19-W,19-S ]
2 sin 2𝜃
Ans. We know that, R = 𝑢
𝑔

When sin 2θ is maximum, horizontal range will be maximum,

⇒ Sin 2θ = 1

⇒ Sin 2θ = sin 90

⇒ 2θ = 90 ⇒ θ = 45𝑜

⸫ The maximum horizontal range travelled by the projectile fired at an angle θ = 45𝑜.
2. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.

[ 18,19,20-W,19-S]

Ans. We know that,

the angular velocity 𝜔 = 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠
⇒𝜔=1
𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
⇒𝜔= 1 𝑣 ,( ; 𝑣 = )
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒𝑣 = 𝜔 ×𝑟

3. Derive the relation between linear and angular acceleration. [2020-W]

Ans. We know that

𝑑𝜔
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
⇒α==1
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒α=1 𝑎 , (; a = 𝑑𝑣 )
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

⇒a=𝛼 ×𝑟

4. A body possessing an initial velocity of 10 m/s moves an acceleration

2 m/𝑠2. Calculate its velocity at the end of 4 sec.

Ans.

Given, = 10 m/s , a = 2 m/𝑠2 , t = 4 s, v = ?

Applying equation of motion

v = u + at

⇒ v = 10 + 2× 4 =18 m/s.

Possible Long Question

1. Derive expressions for equation of trajectory, time of flight, maximum
height and horizontal range of a projectile fired with initial velocity at
an angle θ with horizontal. [ 16,17,18,19-W,19-S ]
 UNIT- 4
WORK AND FRICTION
Learning objectives
4.1 Work – Definition, Formula & SI units.
4.2 Friction – Definition & Concept.
4.3 Types of friction (static, dynamic), Limiting Friction
(Definition with Concept).
4.4 Laws of Limiting Friction (Only statement, No
Experimental Verification).
4.5 Coefficient of Friction – Definition & Formula, Simple
Numerical.
4.6 Methods to reduce friction.

4.1 WORK

Work is said to be done if the force applied on a body displaces the body and the
force has a component along the direction of displacement. Work is a scalar
quantity and is the dot product of two vectors Force and Displacement.

W = 𝐹→.𝑠→ = 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Where, W = work done
F = magnitude of the force
s = magnitude of the displacement
θ = angle between the force and displacement
 If, θ = 0°, then W = 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = + 𝐹𝑠.
Here, Force and Displacement are in the same direction and work
done is positive,which means work is said to be done upon the body.

Example: An object falling freely under the action of gravity,

Kicking a football, A car moving forward etc.

 If θ = 90° , then W = 𝐹𝑠 cos 90 ° = 0,

Here, Force and Displacement are perpendicular to each other and no work is done.

Example: A person carrying a box over his head and walking in

the horizontal direction. In this case, work done by the force of gravity
is zero.

 If θ = 180°, then W = 𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 180° = −𝐹𝑠.

Here, Force and Displacement are in the opposite direction and
Negative work is done means work is done by the body.
 Example: Work done by the force of friction is negative.

Pushing a car up a hill, when it is sliding down, Brakes applied

to a moving car, Object pulled over a rough horizontal surface etc.

 When the force is applied without any displacement, then also work
done is zero. W = F x 0 = 0
Example: A person sitting on a chair and studying a book, Pushing a wall etc
 Unit

The SI unit of work is Joule (J) and the CGS unit is Erg.

The SI unit and dimensions of work and energy are same.

Dimension

[W] = [𝐹][𝑠][𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] =[ 𝑀𝐿𝑇−2 × 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2𝑇−2

. Examples of work. (a) Positive work-The work done by the on this

force lawn
is Fd cos θ . here cos θ, the component of the force is in the
direction of
motion.
(b)Zero work- A person holding a briefcase does no work on it, because
there is no motion. (c) Zero work- The person moving the briefcase
horizontally at a constant speed does no work on it, as Force and Displacement
act Perpendicular to each other.(d) Positive work- Work is done on the
briefcase by carrying it up stairs at constant speed, because there is a
component of force F in the directio n of the motion. (e) Negative Work-
Here the work done on the briefcase by the generator is negative, because F
and d are in opposite directions.

4.2 FRICTION
Let us say there is an almirah placed on the floor. One person tries to push it.
He exerts force, the almirah does not move in the beginning. Then, the person
increases force little by little and at one point the almirah starts to move.

Let us analyse this situation. When the person is applying force, the force must
have some effect (the force must create acceleration). But apparently there is
no effect. Why is it happening? It is because when the person is applying force,
the floor is exerting an equal amount of force on the almirah. Hence, the effect
of force is getting cancelled. When the person is increasing the force, the
force on the almirah by the floor is increasing too. However, there is a limit
to the force by the floor. Once, it is reached, the almirah starts to move.
However, when the almirah is moving, the floor is still applying force on the
almirah. The force tries to oppose the motion of the almirah. In this example,
the force on the almirah by the floor arising because of the contact between
them is frictional force.

In this chapter, we will formally discuss the concept of friction, the types of
friction and the laws regarding friction.

Definition:

The force which opposes or tend to oppose the relative motion between two
surfaces in contact is called as force of friction.

Figure 4.2

Force of friction is created because of the inter-locking of two surfaces in contact.

4.2 TYPES OF FRICTION
Friction can be classified into four types.

1. Static Friction- Static Friction is the opposing force exists between a

surface and object at rest. Example- A book on a table.
2. Kinetic (dynamic) friction-Dynamic Friction is the opposing force
created when two solid surfaces slide/ move over one another.
Example- writing on paper or pushinga chair across the floor. Walking
on the road.
3. Rolling friction - Rolling friction is the opposing force created between
moving surfaces when one rolls over another. Example- Car moving
on road, Rolling a ball down the lane
4. Fluid friction (viscosity)- Fluid friction is the opposing force created
when something tries to move on or through the gas or liquid. Example-
Pushing up water backward while Swimming.
In this chapter we will focus on static and dynamic friction and the laws regarding them.
 1. Static Friction
The force of friction which comes into play when there is no relative
motion between two surfaces in contact is called as force of static friction.
Force of static friction is equal and opposite to the applied force till the
body is at rest.
For example, a person or a group of persons are trying to push a heavy
object. Initially, a small force is applied, and the magnitude of force is
increased gradually. The magnitude of static friction increases gradually

too. As long as the object is in static condition, the floor exerts an equal and
opposite force on the object. As in the below figure, the applied force is
towards the right, hence the frictional force is towards the left.

Figure 4.3

Static friction is a self-adjusting force.

The maximum value of static friction is called the limiting friction.
ƒ𝐿 = 𝜇𝑠𝑅 (1)

Where, ƒ𝐿 − force of limiting friction

𝜇𝑠 − coefficient of static friction
𝑅 − Normal reaction

Once the limiting friction is reached, the body starts to move, and kinetic
friction comes to picture.
 Figure 4.4

2. Kinetic (dynamic) Friction

The force of friction, which comes into play when there is relative motion
between two surfaces in contact is called as force of kinetic friction or
dynamic friction or sliding friction. The direction of the frictional force is
always opposite to the direction of motion, for which the relative slipping is
opposed by the friction.

Hence, ƒ = 𝜇𝑘𝑅 --------------------(2)

Where, ƒ𝑘 − force of kinetic friction

𝜇𝑘 − coefficient of kinetic friction
𝑅 − Normal reaction

4.4. LAWS OF LIMITING FRICTION

Statements about factors upon which the force of limiting friction between
two surfaces depends, are termed as laws of limiting friction. They are
stated as below.
i. The direction of force of friction is always opposite to the direction of motion.
ii. The force of limiting friction depends on the nature and state of
polish of the surfaces in contact and act tangentially to the
interface between the two surfaces.
iii. The magnitude of limiting friction ƒ𝐿is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the normal reaction R between the two surfaces in
contact.
ƒ𝐿 𝖺 R
iv. The magnitude of the limiting friction between two surfaces is
independent of the area and shape of the surfaces in contact as
long as the normal reaction remains same.
4.5. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The frictional force (ƒ) is directly proportional to the normal reaction
force (R) and the proportionality constant µ is called the coefficient of
friction.
 ƒ
𝜇=
𝑅
Hence, the coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the friction
force to the normal force.
The coefficient of friction is determined experimentally.
As the unit and dimension of frictional force and normal force are same, 𝜇
is unit and dimensionless.
The coefficient of friction depends on the nature of the bodies in contact,
their materialand the surface roughness.

Example 1:
A box of mass 30 kg is pulled on a horizontal surface by applying a
horizontal force. If the coefficient of dynamic friction between the box and
the horizontal surface is 0.25, find the force of friction exerted by the
horizontal surface on the box.
Answer:
Mass m = 30 kg, = 0.25
Normal Reaction R = mg

ƒ𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘𝑅 ⇒ = 𝜇𝑘𝑚𝑔 = 0.25 × 30 × 9.8 = 73.5 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛

Example 2:
A body of mass 10 kg is placed on a rough horizontal surface at rest.
The coefficient of friction between the body and the surface is 𝜇 = 0.1. Find
the force of friction acting on the body.

Answer:
Since, the body is at rest, the force of static friction will come into play
which is equal to applied force.
Since, applied force is zero, the force of static friction is zero.

Example 3:

Find the force of friction in situation as shown in the below figure. Take g = 10 m/s2

Figure 4.5
The magnitude of limiting friction ƒ𝐿 = µ𝑅 = 0.1 × 5g = 5N
We see, the applied force is smaller than the force of limiting friction i.e., 𝐹 < 𝐹𝐿
So, the force of static friction = magnitude of applied force = 2 N.
4.6 METHODS TO REDUCE FRICTION
The following methods can be used to reduce friction when friction creates
hurdle in theperformance of machines or for similar necessary reasons

i. By polishing or rubbing
The roughness of a surface can be reduced by rubbing or polishing
it. The polishing makes a surface smooth and reduces friction.

ii. Lubrication or use of talcum powder

Friction can be reduced by using lubricants like oil and grease or
talcum powder as they form a thin film between different parts of a
machine. This film covers up the pores & the lumps present on the
surfaces of different parts, and hence improves the smoothness.

iii. By converting sliding friction to rolling friction:

Rolling friction is lesser than sliding friction. Hence, ball bearings can
be placed between the moving parts of a machine to avoid direct
contact between them. This reduces friction.

iv. Streamlining:
The objects that move in fluid, for example, bullet train, ship, boat
or aeroplane, the shape of the body can be streamlined to reduce the

friction between the bodyand the fluid.

 Possible short questions (2 marks each)
1. Define work. Write its unit. [ W-18]
Ans. Work is said to be done if the force applied on a body
displaces the body and the force has a component along the
direction of displacement. Work is a scalar quantity and is the
dot product of two vectors Force and Displacement.

Unit
Joule (J) in S.I System
Erg in CGS System
2. What is dynamic friction? [ W-20 ]
Ans. The force of friction which comes into play when there is relative motion between two
Surfaces In contact is called as dynamic friction.
3. Define coefficient of friction. Write its unit and dimension.
Ans. It is defined as the ratio of force of limiting friction to the normal reaction.
It has no unit and no dimension.
4. Define Static friction and limiting friction.
Ans.The force of friction which comes into play when there is no relative motion in
between two surfaces is known as Static friction.

Possible Long questions (5 marks each)

1. State the laws of limiting friction. [W-16,17,18,19]

2. Write down the methods to reduce friction. [W-18,9,20]
 UNIT 5
GRAVITATION
Learning objectives

5.1 Newton’s Laws of Gravitation – Statement and Explanation.

5.2 Universal Gravitational Constant (G)- Definition, Unit and Dimension.
5.3 Acceleration due to gravity (g)- Definition and Concept.
5.4 Definition of mass and weight.
55 Relation between g and G.
5.6 Variation of g with altitude and depth (No derivation – Only Explanation).
5.7 Keller’s Laws of Planetary Motion (Statement only).

We throw a ball upward, it goes to a certain height, then it comes back

towards the earth. The ripened fruit of a tree comes down in a straight line.
The fruit does not go side wise or diagonally. So, the question is what makes
these objects fall. Is there something which is pulling the fruit? Is it earth that
is pulling? Now, again the question is if earth can pull a fruit, can it pull the
moon too? So, in a sentence, is the nature of force acting between the earth and
moon and that between earth and fruit same? Thinkers, philosophers, scientists
have pondered over these questions deeply and have gifted us with simplified
ideas about the laws of nature. In this chapter we will discuss the basic and
fundamental classical laws in the field of gravitation.

5.1 Newton’s Law of gravitation

Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two point-objects and the distance

between them be r. Then, F α m1m2

Fα 1
𝑟2

⟹ F = m1m2 ------------ (1)

G r2

Where, G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67× 10−11𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚2𝑘𝑔−2

 force of attraction increases and with increasing distance between them,
the force of attraction decreases.

5.2 Universal gravitational constant (G)

The universal gravitational constant can be understood and defined
from the mathematical expression of gravitational force (equation 1).

If m1= m2= 1 unit and r = 1 unit, then |𝐹→| = 𝐺

(1 unit mass = 1 kilogram or 1 gram or 1 pound; 1 unit distance = 1 meter

or 1 centimeter or1 feet depending on the system of unit)

Definition:

The universal gravitational constant can be defined as the Gravitational force

of attraction between two unit masses placed unit distance apart in the
universe.

Unit:
From equation
F × r2
G=
m1m2

Dimension:
[𝐺] = [𝐹][𝑟] [MLT−2]×[L [M−1L3T−2]
2 2] =
[𝑚1]×[𝑚 = [M2
2] ]

5.1. Acceleration due to gravity (g):

5.1.1 : Gravitational force of earth

The Earth by virtue of its mass, attracts each body towards its centre. This is
the reason an object thrown upward falls back in a straight line and a projectile
projected with certain initial velocity also falls back to earth after traversing a
curved path.
 Galileo Galilei after performing a series of experiment showed that all
object falls with a constant acceleration if left to fall freely. The numerical

value of g is approximately 9.8 m/s2 in SI, 980 cm/s2 in C.G.S or 32 ft/s2 in

F.P.S system near the Earth‟s surface. The value changes with altitude and
depth from the surface of earth.

5.3.2. Unit and dimension:

The unit of g is m/s2in SI unit and the dimension is same as that of acceleration i.e.
[M0L1T-2].

5.2. Mass and weight:

Mass

 Mass of any object is the amount of matter that an object possesses.

 Mass is constant irrespective of place and time.
 Mass can never be zero
 The unit of mass is g, kg etc.
 Mass is a scalar quantity.

Weight (W)

 Weight of an object is the measurement of the gravitational force acting

on the object; W = mg.
 The value of weight depends on the value of „acceleration due to
gravity‟ at the place and is not constant.
 Weight can be zero where acceleration due to gravity becomes zero.
 The unit of weight is Newton and Dyne .
 Weight is a vector quantity. It is directed towards the centre of earth.
5.5 Relation between g and G:

Suppose the mass of the Earth = M, Mass of the object on the surface of

the earth = m, Radius of earth= R.

Figure 5.2

Then, the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on the mass m by Earth is
Mm
F=G (2)
R2

If the acceleration of the object is g, then according to Newton‟s 2nd Law,

F = mg (3)

Equation 4 describes the relationship between acceleration due to

gravity (g) and universal gravitational constant (G).
Example 1

A mass of 2 kg experiences a weight of 18N on a planet. What is the value

„g‟ on the planet?

Answer:
18 18
Weight = mg = 18 N, g = = = 9 ms-2
𝑚 2

Example 2

Find the force of gravitational attraction between two neutrons whose

centres are 10−12m apart. Given G =6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2𝑘𝑔−2, mass of
neutron = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

Answer:

Here, m1 =m2= 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑟 = 10−12m, G =6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2𝑘𝑔−2

𝑚1𝑚2 −11 (1.67 ×10−27)2 −40
So, 𝐹 = = 6.67 × 10 −24 = 1.8× 10 𝑁
10
𝐺 𝑟
2
Example 3
Two bodies of masses 2 kg (body A) and 5 kg (body B) are placed
separated by adistance of 0.4 m. Assuming the only forces acting between
them are due to gravitational interaction, find their initial accelerations.

Answer:

The two bodies will experience gravitational force F which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction
= 6.67 × 10 − 12 1 = 41.7 × 10−10 N
2× 5
𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚
⇒𝐹
𝑟2 0.42

If a1and a2 are the initial accelerations of body A and B respectively,

a =𝐹 41.7 = 20.85 × 10 −10 m/s2

1 =
𝑚1 ×10 −10
𝐹
2

×41100.−71
a2 = = = 8.34 × 10−10 m/s2
𝑚2 5
Example 4:

A body weighs 90 kg wt on the surface of the earth. How much will it

weigh on the surface of the mars if its radius is ½ and mass 1/9 of the
earth.

Answer:

Given, Mass of Mars = Mm =1/9 Mass of Earth =

1/9 Me Radius of Mars = Rm = ½ Radius of = 90 kg wt

Earth = ½ Re

Weight of body on the earth= We = mge =

𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑅2
m
𝑒

Weight on mars, Wm = mgm = ?

Where ge and gm are acceleration due to gravity on earth and mars, respectively.
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑒 4 𝐺𝑀 4
𝑔 = 𝑚= 9 = × 𝑒 = = 𝑔
𝑚 2 𝑅2
𝑅𝑚 9 𝑒
2 9 𝑅𝑒
𝑒
4
where Me and Mmare the masses of earth and mars, respectively and Re
and Rmare the respective radii.
4
So, 𝑤𝑚 = = = 4 × 90 = 40 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑡.
𝑚𝑔𝑚 9 𝑒
9
5.6 Variation of g with altitude and depth

a: Variation with altitude

Let us represent earth as shown in the below figure.

 An object of mass m is placed at P at a height h

from the Earth‟s surface. Let us denote g = acceleration due to

gravity at the Earth‟s surface.

GM
So, g = R2

where, M = mass of

earth R = Radius of

earth

Now, the value of acceleration due to gravity at a height h from the Earth‟s surface = g'
𝐺𝑀
So, g′ = = = g = (1 + ) ℎ −2
(𝑅)2+ ℎ 𝐺𝑀 2 2
ℎ (1+ℎ ) 𝑅
𝑅2(1+ )
𝑅 𝑅
−2
If h<<R, then, only the first two terms of the binomial expansio n( 1 o+f ) ℎ are
𝑅
considered and higher powers of h can be neglected.

ℎ 2ℎ
− ≅1−
i.e. (1 + ) 𝑅
2
𝑅

2ℎ
So, g′ ≅ (1 − ) (5)
𝑅

From equation 5, it is clear that the acceleration due to gravity decreases

withincreasing height.
b: Variation with depth:

Let us represent earth as follows. Let the surface of earth (the sphere) be called S.

Let g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth

and g′ =acceleration due to gravity at depth d below the surface of earth

Now, 𝑔 = 𝐺𝑀
𝑅2
Here, M = 4 𝜋𝑅3𝜌,
3

where, 𝜌 =mass density of earth,

R = radius of earth
𝐺 4 3
So, 𝑔 = = 4 𝜋𝑅𝜌𝐺 --------- (6)
𝑅2 × 3 𝜋 3
4
Similarly, = 3 (𝑅 − 𝑑) - ------------ (7)

𝑔′Dividing equation 7 by 6,

g′ =
R−dg
R
d
⟹ g′ = g (1 − )
 R
Hence, the value of acceleration due gravity decreases with increasing depth.

So, the value of acceleration due to gravity is maximum at the surface of the earth.

At the centre of the earth, where d= R, g′ becomes zero. So, the weight
of the body (mg‟) becomes zero at the centre of the earth.

Example 5:

A body has a weight 81N on the surface of the earth. How much will it
weigh when taken to height equal to half of the radius of earth?

Answer:

Let F1 be the weight (gravitational attraction on the body due to earth) of

body on the earth surface.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
F= (8)
1 𝑅2

Here, M= mass of earth, m = mass of the body and R= radius of the earth

When, taken to a height R/2 from the surface, the distance „x‟ of the body
𝑅
from the centre of earth is x = 𝑅 + = 3𝑅
2 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 4 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Weight F2 at this place is = 2 = 𝑅2 -------------------- (9)
𝐹2 = 𝑥 3𝑅
( )
2
29
Dividing equation 9 by 8,

𝐹2 = 4
𝐹1 9
As F1= 81N. F2 = 4 × 81𝑁= 36 N
9
Example 6:

A mass of 5 kg is weighed on a balance at the top of a tower 20 m high. The

mass is then suspended from the pan of the balance by a fine wire 20 m
long and is reweighed. Find the change in the weight in milligram. (Given
radius of earth = 6330 km).

Answer:

m = 5 kg, h = 20 m =

0.02 km R = 6330 km
𝐹
Now, g = 1 − 2ℎ ⟹ 𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 2ℎg ⟹ 𝑔 − 𝑔′ = 2ℎg
g 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
2×5×0.02×g
So, change in weight =m g – mg’ =2𝑚ℎg = = 3.09 × 10−4 N
𝑅
 5.7 Kepler‟s Law of Planetary Motion:

Keller’s laws of planetary motion are the laws describing the motion
of planets around the sun.

1st law (Law of Elliptical orbit):

All the planets revolve in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one
of its foci.The point at which the planet is close to the sun is known as
perihelion and the point at which the planet is farther from the sun is known
as aphelion.

In the figure, AA‟ is the major axis of the ellipse with length 2R and
BB‟ is the minor axis with length 2b.

Since the focus of an ellipse is not equidistant from the point of

orbit, the distance of planet varies from certain minimum to maximum
value. Here, the rotation is the reason of season change from summer
(nearer the sun) to winter (farther from the sun) and repetition of same
year after year.

The first law explains the change of season.

2ndlaw (Law of areal velocity)

The areal velocity of the planet is constant. That means, the line
joining the sun to the planet sweeps equal area in equal interval of time.

According to the
law :

If the planet moves from X to Y in time t and from A to B in the same

time interval t later, then the area OAB = area OXY.

=> AB x OA = XY x OX

From the figure it is clear that : OA <

OX Therefore ; AB > XY

Since the areal velocity is constant, the time taken by planet to move
from A to B = the time taken by planet to move from X to Y.

Since AB > XY , the planet moves faster when travels from A to B and
moves slower when travels from X to Y. Thus the orbital velocity of planet
is not uniform. It is maximum when the planet is nearest to sun ( summer
season ) and minimum when the planet is away from the sun at a
maximum distance ( winter season ).
 3rd law (Law of time period)

The square of the time period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi major axis of the ellipse.

𝑇2𝛼 𝑅3
Where T = time period of the orbiting planet and R = semi-major axis of the elliptic orbital

R2

R1

If two planets revolve around sun in two separate orbits with respective
semi major axes as R1 and R2, then the time period of the planets are
related to R1 and R2 as shown in given figure.
 POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Define universal Gravitational constant. [W-18,20,S-18,19]

Ans. The universal gravitational constant is defined as the Gravitational
force of attraction between two unit masses placed unit distance apart in
the universe.
2. Write the S.I unit and dimension of universal Gravitational constant. [ W-18,20 ,S-18,19]
Ans. unit
S.I unit is N. 𝑚2/𝑘𝑔2 or N. 𝑚2.𝑘𝑔−2

Dimension

[G]=[𝑀−1𝐿3𝑇−2]

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. State and explain Newton’s law of Gravitation. [S,W-19]

2. Derive the relation between g and G. [W-16,17,18,19]
3. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. [W-16,17,18,19, S-19]
4. Explain the variation of acceleration due to gravity (g) with [W-17,20 ]
(i) Altitude (ii) Depth
 UNIT 6

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

6.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) - Definition & Examples.

6.2 Expression (Formula/Equation) for
displacement, velocity, acceleration of abody/
particle in SHM.
6.3. Wave motion – Definition & Concept.
6.4 Transverse and longitudinal wave
motion –Definition, Examples &Comparison.
6.5 Definition of different wave parameters
(Amplitude, Wavelength, Frequency,Time
Period.
6.6 Derivation of Relation between Velocity,
Frequency and Wavelength of awave
6.7 Ultrasonic – Definition, Properties & Applications.

6.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

Let us understand oscillation and simple harmonic motion by taking
real-life examples. In Raja festival, we swing. We sit comfortably at
rest, then go up in one direction to an extreme point and then in the
opposite direction to another extreme point. You might also have
seen simple pendulum especially in old types of wall clock (see
below figure) which moves to and fro about the center. The swing
and the pendulum are said to execute oscillation.

Figure 6.1a Figure 6.1b

 Definition:-
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is defined as the type of periodic
motion in which the restoring force is proportional to the displacement
from its mean position of rest and always directed towards the mean
position.

Let, a particle is displaced by a distance y from its mean position

and „F‟ is the restoring force tends to bring the body to its mean
position due to elasticity.
For a small displacement, the force is proportional to the displacement
and opposes the increase of displacement.
Hence, F 𝖺 (-) y,
Restoring force F = mass x acceleration
=> Ma = -K y,
K = Proportionality constant called force constant
=> a = - (K/m) y => a 𝖺 - y,
The negative sign shows that acceleration is always directed towards
the mean position as it opposes the increase in displacement.
Thus in Simple Harmonic Motion acceleration (a) is directly
proportional to the displacement (y) and is always directed towards the

Example:
i. Motion of simple pendulum
ii. Motion of a spring-block system
iii. Vibration of stretched string
iv. Bungee-jumping
v. Swing Cradle etc
6.2 EXPRESSION FOR DISPLACEMENT,
VELOCITY, ACCELERATION OF APARTICLE
EXECUTING SHM
Let us consider a particle moving in a uniform circular motion with a
constant angular velocity 𝜔.

The projection of the motion of particle makes a simple harmonic

motion along the diameter of the circle of reference. Figure 6.2
The projection of the particle at time t = 0 is O.
At an instant of time t, the projection of the particle at
P' is A. Then, OA = y = displacement of the particle at
time t
OP' = radius of the reference circle = r
Then, θ = angular displacement & 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐i𝑡𝑦 = 𝜔 = 𝜃 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝑡
a. Equation of Displacement:
𝑃𝑃𝐹 𝑦
In the right angled triangle OPP', sin = =
0𝑃𝐹 𝑟
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠i𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where, r = amplitude of SHM
 b. Equation of Velocity:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 (sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑟 𝜔cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑣= = (𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔 √1 − 𝑠i𝑛2𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔 √𝑟2 − 𝑦2

So, at mean position, y = 0, So, 𝑣 = 𝜔 √𝑟2 − 02 = 𝑟𝜔 which

is maximum. At extreme positions, y = ±𝑟, So, 𝑣 = 𝜔 √𝑟2 −
𝑟2 = 0 which is minimum.

Hence, a particle executing SHM has zero velocity at the extreme

positions and maximum velocity at the mean position.

c. Eq𝑑u𝑣atio𝑑n of Acceleration𝑑:
𝑎= = (𝑟𝜔 coos 𝜔)𝑡= 𝑟𝜔 (coos 𝜔)𝑡 = −𝑟𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⟹ 𝑎 = −𝜔2 (𝑟 𝑠i𝑛𝜔𝑡) = −𝜔2𝑦

Hence, 𝑎 −𝑦 (proved)

Now,|𝑎| = 𝜔2𝑦
At the mean position, y= 0, 𝑎 = 0; minimum
At extreme positions, y = ±, |𝑎| = 𝜔2𝑟; maximum

Hence, a particle executing SHM has zero acceleration at the mean

position and maximum acceleration at the extreme positions.

Example 1:
If a particle executes simple harmonic motion of period 8 s and amplitude
0.40 m, find the maximum velocity and acceleration.
Answer:
Here, T = 8 s. 2 = 2 =
So, m = T 8 4 rad s
−1

r = 0.40 m
Maximum velocity = or = = 0.3142 𝑚𝑠−1 −
0.40× 𝜋
2 2
4 2 × 0.40 = 0.2467 𝑚𝑠
Maximum acceleration = m r = ( )
4

6.3 WAVE MOTION

In the previous subsection we studied about the oscillation of single
particle. Now let us study a situation where there is a collection of
particles and the motion of one particle affects other. The simplest and
relatable example is when we throw a stone into a pond which creates a
 Figure 6.3

Now, the question is what is propagating? Is it the water particles

which are moving themselves? This can be tested by putting a small
paper on the water. We can see that the paper will execute an „up and
down‟ motion. Hence, it can be inferred that the water particles are moving
up and down where the disturbance is propagated outwards.
When there is a disturbance in a medium, due to elasticity of the
particle of the medium, the particles execute to and fro motion about their
mean position, as a result the energy as well as momentum transfer from
one particle to another and so on. In this way wave is produced.
When the wave propagates, the particles of the medium are not
moving along with the wave, but they are vibrating about the mean position.

6.4 TRANSVERSE AND

LONGITUDINAL WAVE MOTION
 The type of wave in which the particle of the medium vibrates
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is called transverse
wave.
 It results in the formation of crest and trough

Figure 6.4

 The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs is called as

wavelength (λ).
 Density of medium does not vary.
 Electromagnetic wave is a kind of transverse wave for which
Longitudinal wave:
 The type of wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate
parallel to the direction of propagation is called longitudinal
wave.
 It results in the formation of compression and rarefaction (figure 6.5).
 The distance between two consecutive centers of compressions or
rarefactions is called wavelength (λ).
 Density of medium is higher at compression and lowest at rarefaction.
 Longitudinal wave needs medium for its propagation.
 Example, Sound wave

Figure 6.5

Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave

1 In a transverse wave motion, 1 In a longitudinal wave motion, the
theparticles particles of the medium vibrate in
Of the medium/field vibrate in a direction parallel to the direction
a direction perpendicular to of propagation of the wave. For
the direction of propagation of example, sound wave.
the wave. For example,
electromagnetic wave.
2 The region of maximum upward 2 Longitudinal wave is propagated
displacement is called the crest via compression and rarefaction.
and the maximum downward
displacement is
called trough.
3 Electromagnetic wave is a kind of 3 Longitudinal wave needs a
transverse wave which may medium forits propagation.
travel without a material medium.
4 Density of the medium does not vary 4 Density of the medium is higher at
Compression and lower at rarefaction.
6.5 DEFINITION OF DIFFERENT WAVE PARAMETERS

Figure 6.6

Amplitude:
The amplitude of a wave is a measure of the maximum displacement of
the wave from its equilibrium position in either side. (Figure 6.6).

The amplitude is a measure of the intensity of the wave. To be particular,

intensity is the square of amplitude.
SI Unit --Meter
Dimension (L)

Wavelength (λ):
It is the linear distance covered during one full wave or
one full cycle. SI Unit Meter
Dimension - (L)

The distance over which the shape of a wave repeats is called its
wavelength. It is the distance between successive points of the same phase
on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, troughs, or zero crossings
(figure 6.6).

Time Period (T):

Time taken by a particle of the medium to describe or complete one full
wave is called Time- period.
SI Unit --- Second
Dimension - (T)
 Frequency (f):

It is the number of complete waves/full cycles described by the particle in 1 second.

⸫ frequency = 1 / Time period

SI Unit -- Cycles/Second = sec-1 = HERTZ (Hz)

Wave Velocity (v):

The linear distance covered or travelled by a wave per unit time (in
1 sec) SI UnitMeter /second
Dimension------ (L/T) or (LT 1)

6.6 RELATION BETWEEN VELOCITY, FREQUENCY AND

WAVELENGTH

The wave velocity (v) is defined as the distance covered by a wave

per unit time. We know, the distance covered in a time period T is the

wavelength λ
So, the distance covered in unit time is
𝑇
That means v =
𝑇
1
But, f =
𝑇
⟹ v = f𝜆 --------------- (6)
Equation 6 depicts the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength.

Example 2:
A broadcasting station radiates at a frequency 710 kHz. What is the
wavelength in meter? Given the wave velocity of waves = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

Answer:
f = 710 kHz = 710×
103𝑠−1.v = 3 × 108 v 3 × 108
= = 422.5
𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 f 710 × 10 3
6.7 ULTRASONICS
The branch of Physics which deals with study of ultrasonic waves is called
Ultrasonic.
The sound wave having frequency above 20 kHz or 20,000 Hz are
known as Ultrasonic waves.

The sound audible to human ear lies in the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20

kHz. The sound wave with higher frequency i.e., in the range of 20 kHz to several
GHz is called ultrasonic waves.

Properties:
 Ultrasonic waves possess high frequency and hence high energy.
 As ultrasonic waves are sound waves, they
require material medium for their
propagation.
 With high energy, ultrasonic waves produce
heatingeffect in the medium throughwhich
they pass.
 Ultrasonic wave can accelerate chemical reactions.

Application:-
 In sonar system, ultrasonic waves are used to estimate the depth of ocean.
 Ultrasonic is used to locate divers, fish and to
detect sunk ships and other under water
bodies. This is done by sending high intense
ultrasonic pulses and by detecting the reflected
wave.
 Ultrasonic is used in scanning to detect any anomaly in the internal organs.
 Ultrasonic waves can be used for localized
destruction of unwanted body cells or bacteria.
 Ultrasonic drills are used for shaping, cutting and machining of materials.
 Ultrasonic baths are heavily used in industries
and laboratories for cleaning remote parts of
machineries.
 Fine particles of dust, smoke and ash
coagulate when they are subjected to
ultrasonic
 POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTIONS
1. State two application of ultrasonic. [ 16,18,19-W,19-S ]
Ans- Echo sounding, Flaw detection, congratulation, ultra sonic welding and cleaning.

2. Define transverse wave. [2018(w) ]

Ans- This is the type of wave where vibration of the particles of a medium is normal to the
direction of wave propagation.

3. How are the velocity, frequency and time period of a wave related?
Ans- We know that
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Velocity = = ⋋=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇

V = f× ⋋

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between transverses wave and the longitudinal wave.
[2017(w),2018(w),2019(w)]

2. Write down ultrasonic and write its properties.

[2018(w) , 2019(w),]

3. Obtain equations for

(i) Displacement
(ii) Velocity.
(iii) Acceleration of a body executing simple harmonic motion (S.H.M)
 UNIT-7
HEAT AND THERMODYANAMICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
7.1 Heat and Temperature – Definition and Difference.

7.2 Units of heat (F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S & S.I).

7.3 Specific Heat (concept,definition,unit,dimension and simple numerical).

7.4 Change of state (concept) and

Latent Heat (concept,definition, unit,dimension and simple numerical).

7.5 Thermal Expansion – Definition and concept.

7.6 Expansion of solids (concept).

7.7 Coefficient of linear, superficial and cubical expansion of solids –

Definition and Units.

7.8 Relation between α, 𝞫 and 𝞬.

7.9 Work and Heat – concept and Relation.

7.10 Joules Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (Definition and Unit).

7.11 First law of Thermodynamics (Statement and concept only).

7.1 Heat and Temperature
Heat

⇒ Heat is the form of energy which is transferred from one point to another

without any mechanical energy.

⇒ The part of internal energy which is transferred from one body to other due

to temperature difference Is called heat.

⇒ Energy possessed by the body due to its molecular vibration is called

heat energy.

Temperature

⇒ The degree of hotness or coldness is called temperature.

⇒ Temperature is the condition which determines the direction of hat flow

when two bodies are fixed together.

⇒ Temperature is a macroscopic quantity.

⇒ Units – Centigrade, Fahrenheit, Kelvin.

⇒ Dimension - [Temperature] = [𝑀0𝐿0𝑇0𝐾1].

Difference between Heat and Temperature

Heat Temperature

⇒ Heat is the form of energy which is ⇒ Temperature is the degree of hotness

transferred from one point to other or coldness of a body.

without any mechanical work.

⇒ It is the total energy of the constituent ⇒ It is the measure of average kinetic

molecules of an object. energy of the molecules of an object.

⇒ It is a cause. ⇒ It is an effect.

⇒ It is a derived quantity. ⇒ It is a fundamental quantity.

⇒ Its S.I unit is joule(J). ⇒ Its S.I unit is Kelvin(K).

7.2 Units of Heat
Heat is measured in following units.

System of units Units

F.P.S British thermal unit(Btu)

C.G.S Calorie (cal.)

M.K.S Kilo calorie (K.cal.)

S.I Joule(J)

7.3 Specific Heat

⇒ The amount of heat intake by the body depends upon mass of the body and rise in

temperature and nature of the substance.

Let H = Amount of heat intake by the body

m = mass of the body

∆θ = rise in temperature

Now Hαm , H α ∆θ

⸫ H α m ∆θ

⇒ H = m s ∆θ ; s = proportionality constant

= specific heat

⇒ If m =1 unit , ∆θ = 1 unit , then S = H

⸫ Specific heat of substance is defined as the amount of heat required to

rise the temperature of unit mass of substance through 1 𝑜 c.

⇒ Unit

Cal/g c , k.cal/kg c , J/ kg k (S.I.)

⋇ S (ice) = 0.5 cal/g ℃ = 0.5 k.cal/kg ℃ = 2100 J/kg k

⋇ S (water) = 1 cal/g ℃ = 1 k.cal/kg ℃ = 4200 J/kg k

⋇ S (steam) = 0.4 cal/g ℃ = 0.4 k.cal/kg ℃ = 1680 J/kg k

 1 2 −2
⇒ Dimension [𝑆] = [ 𝐻 ] = [𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 ] = [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2𝐾−1]
𝑚∆𝜃 𝑀1𝐾1

⇒ Specific heat of substance at its melting point and boiling point is infinity.
𝐻
⸫ S = = ∞ , (such that ∆θ = 0).
𝑚∆𝜃

Problem-1.

A substance of 4 kg requires 40 k.cal of heat for rise in its temperature of 15 ℃ to

25 ℃. Calculate the specific heat of the substance and gives its nature.

Ans. Given,

H = 40 k.cal , m = 4 kg , ∆θ = 25 ― 15 = 10 ℃ , S = ?
𝐻 40
We know, S = = = 1 k.cal / kg ℃
𝑚 ∆𝜃 4×10

⸫ the given substance is water.

⋇⋇ Out of solid and liquid, water has maximum specific heat.

⋇⋇ Out of solid, liquid and gas, Hydrogen has maximum specific heat.

Problem-2.

If the specific heat of gold is 129 J/kg.k.Then what quantity of heat is required to
raise the temperature of 100 gm of gold by 50 k ?

Ans. Given,

S = 129 J/kg.k , m = 100 gm = 0.1 kg , , ∆θ = 50 k

The amount of heat required, H = S m ∆θ = 129 × 0.1 × 50 = 645 J.

⸫ The heat is required 645 J.

7.4 Change of state :

⇒ Every substance exists in various forms of solid , liquid and gases called phases of matter.

⇒ conversion of one phase to another phase by pressure and temperature is known change

of state.

⇒ The transition from solid to liquid state is called Melting and transition from liquid to
Solid state is called Freezing.
⇒ The transition from liquid to gaseous state is called vaporization and transition from
gaseous state to liquid state is called Condensation.

⇒ The transition from solid to gaseous state is called Sublimation and the transition

From gaseous state to solid state is called Deposition.

LATENT HEAT(L):-

⇒ The amount of heat required to change the state of substance at constant

temperature is called latent heat.

⇒ This is so named as there is no change in temperature, when state of the substance

Changes.

⇒ let,

H = Amount of heat intake by the body.

m = mass of the body

During phase change we can write,

Hαm

⇒ H = mL , L = Latent heat.

⸫ L = H/m

⋇ The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of substance at

Constant temperature is called latent heat.

⇒ unit:- cal./g , k .cal./kg , J/kg (S.I.)

𝐻 𝑀1𝐿2𝑇−2
⇒ Dimension:- [𝐿] = [ ] = [ ] = [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2]
𝑚 𝑀1

⇒ Latent heat of fusion

The amount of heat required to change the unit mass of solid into liquid at its
melting point is called latent heat of fusion.

⋇ latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal./g = 336000 J/kg.

Latent heat of vaporization:-

The amount of heat required to change the unit mass of liquid into gas at its boiling
point is called latent heat of vaporization.

⋇ Latent heat of vaporization of water = 540 cal./g = 2268000 J/kg.

Problem-1:-

Calculate the power of a child if he can chew 20g of ice in 1 minute.

Ans.

Given, m = 20g, t = 1 min. = 60 sec.

H = ml = 20 × 80 = 1600 cal. = 1600 × 4.2 = 6720 J

6720
⸫ Power = w/t = = 112 watt.
60

Problem-2:-

Determine the latent heat of a 10 kg substance if the amount of heat required for a
phase change is 200 kcal.

Ans.

Given, m = 10 kg , H = 200 kcal.

200
We know that L = H/m = = 20 kcal./kg.
10

7.5 Thermal expansion:-

⇒ Most of substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. A change in the
temperature of a body causes change in its dimension.

⇒ The increase in dimensions of a body due to the increase in temperature is called

thermal expansion.

7.6 Expansion of solid:-

When a solid is heated, it expands due to increase in interatomic distance with rise in
temperature. According to increase in length, surface area and volume, there are three
types of expansion , such as linear, superficial and cubical expansion.

7.7 Coefficient of linear, superficial and cubical expansion of solids:-

1. Linear expansion:-
The expansion in one dimension is known as linear expansion.
 Fig. 7.3
Let, L0 = length of the conductor at 0 ℃.

Lt = length of the conductor at t ℃.

t = rise in temperature

∆L = increase in length = Lt − L0

Now ∆L ∝ L0

∝ t

⇒ ∆L = 𝛼 L0 t , 𝛼 = proportionality constant

= Coefficient of linear expansion

∆L Lt− L0
⇒ 𝛼= ⇒ 𝛼=
L0t L0t

⸫ Lt = L0 (1+ α t)

⋇ unit of α:- ℃−1 or 𝐾−1

⋇ value of α:- 0<α<1

⋇ Dimension of α:- [𝛼] = [𝑀0𝐿0𝑇0𝐾−1]

⋇ De𝑓𝑛 of α :-

Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as increase in length per unit

original length per unit rise in temperature.

2. Superficial expansion:-

The expansion of length and breadth is known as superficial expansion.

 Let, A0 = surface area of the conductor at 0℃.

At = surface area of the conductor at t℃.

t = rise in temperature.

∆A = increase in surface area = At − A0 .

NOW , ∆A ∝ A0

∝ t

⇒ ∆𝐴 = 𝛽 A0 t , where 𝛽 = proportionality constant

= Coefficient of superficial expansion

∆A
⇒ 𝛽 =
A0 𝑡

At−A0
⇒ 𝛽=
A0 t

⸫ At = A0 (1+𝞫t)

⋇ unit of 𝛽:- ℃−1 or 𝐾−1

⋇ Range of 𝞫:- 0<β <1

⋇ Dimension of 𝞫:- [ 𝛽 ] = [𝑀0𝐿0𝑇0𝐾−1]

⋇ De𝑓𝑛 of 𝛽 :- Coefficient of superficial expansion is defined as increase in surface

area per unit original surface area per unit rise in temperature.

3. cubical expansion:-

The expansion of length, breadth and height is known as cubical expansion.

Fig. 7.5
Let, V0 = volume of the conductor at 0 ℃.

Vt = volume of the conductor at t ℃.

t = rise in temperature

∆v = change in volume = Vt − V0

Now ∆v ∝ V0

∝ t

⇒ ∆v = 𝞬 V0 t
∆v Vt− V0
⇒𝞬 = ⇒ 𝞬 =
V0 t V0 t

⸫ Vt = V0 (1 + 𝞬𝒕)

⋇ unit of 𝞬 :- ℃−1 or 𝐾−1

⋇ Range of :- 0 < 𝞬 < 1

⋇ Dimension :- [𝛾] = [𝑀0𝐿0𝑇0𝐾−1]

⋇ De𝑓𝑛 of :- Coefficient of cubical expansion is defined as increase in volume

per unit original volume per unit rise in temperature.

7.8 Relation between α, 𝞫 and 𝗒:

1. Relation between α and 𝞫:-

We know that , At = A0 (1+𝞫t)

⇒ Lt2 = Lo2 (1+𝞫𝒕) , ( A=𝑳𝟐)

⇒ Lo2 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)2 = Lo2 (1+𝞫𝒕) , [Lt = L0 (1+ α t)]

⇒ 1+ 2α t + 𝜶𝟐𝒕𝟐 = 1+𝞫𝒕

⇒ 𝞫 = 2α + 𝜶𝟐𝒕

Assuming 𝛼 is very small then 𝜶𝟐 term is neglected.

⇒ = 2α .................. (1)
2. Relation between α and 𝞬:-

We know that, Vt = V0 (1 + 𝞬𝒕)

⇒ Lt3 = Lo3(1+𝞬t) , [ v = 𝑙3] ,

⇒ Lo3(1 + 𝛼𝑡)3 = Lo3(1+𝞬t) , [Lt = L0 (1+ α t)]

⇒ 1+3αt+3𝜶𝟐𝒕𝟐+𝜶𝟑𝒕𝟑 = 1+𝞬t

⇒ = 3α+3𝛼2𝑡 +𝜶𝟑𝒕𝟐

Assuming α is very small then higher order α term is neglected.

⸫ 𝞬 = 3 α .................... (2)

Now comparing (1) and (2) we get

𝛽 𝛾
α= = or α : 𝞫 : 𝞬 = 1:2:3
2 3

7.9 Work and Heat – concept and Relation:-

Work and Heat are two different ways of transferring energy from one system to
another.The distinction between heat and work is important in the field of thermodynamics.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems, while work is the transfer of
mechanical energy between two systems so work and heat are interconvertiable.It is a
matter of common experience that the two palms become hot if we rub them against each
other. In this case work done gets converted into heat. Also due to heat supply, the steam
engine works with mechanical motion.

7.10 Joules Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (Definition and Unit)

Work and heat are interconvertiable.

Let W = Amount of work done

H = Amount of heat produced

⸫ W∝H

⇒ W = JH , Where J = proportionality constant.

= joules mechanical equivalent of heat.

= 4.2 j/cal. = 4.2 × 107 erg/cal.

⋇ De𝑓𝑛 :- Joules mechanical equivalent of heat is defined as the amount of work

required to produced unit amount of heat.
7.11 First law of Thermodynamics:-
Considering certain amount of gas is taken in a cylinder of

non-conducting wall and conducting base with frictionless

movable piston. Let 𝑈1 is the initial internal energy of the

system and Q amount of heat be added to the system,

Then total energy of the system = 𝑈1 + 𝑄.

After gaining heat the gas tends to expand ,pushing the piston upward. As a result

Some work(W) is done by the gas and internal energy increases 𝑈1 𝑡𝑜 𝑈2.

Then total energy of the system at the end = 𝑈2+ W

Change in internal energy = ∆U = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

According to the law of conservation of energy

𝑈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑈2 + 𝑊

⇒ Q = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + W

⇒ Q = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊

Statement “ If the amount of heat supplied to a system is capable of doing some work,

then the amount of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of

increase in internal energy of the system and external work done by

the system”.
 Possible short Questions with answer
1. Define specific heat of a substance. [ 2020-W ]

Ans. Specific heat of substance is defined as the amount of heat required to

rise the temperature of unit mass of substance through 1𝑜 c.
𝐻
⸫ S=
𝑚∆𝜃

2. Write down the S.I unit and Dimension of specific heat. [ 2019 – W]

Ans. We know that,

𝐻
S=
𝑚∆𝜃

unit - J/ kg k (S.I )

Dimension- [𝑀0𝐿2𝑇−2𝐾−1]

3. Define joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat. [17, 18 –W, 18, 19 – S]

Ans. Work and heat are interconvertiable.

Let W = Amount of work done

H = Amount of heat produced

⸫W∝H

⇒ W = JH, Where J = proportionality constant.

= joules mechanical equivalent of heat.

De𝑓𝑛 :- Joules mechanical equivalent of heat is defined as the amount of work required
to produce unit amount of heat.

4. Define latent heat of vaporization. [ W-18, S -19]

Ans. The amount of heat required to change the unit mass of liquid into gas at its boiling
point is called latent heat of vaporization.

Latent heat of vaporization of water = 540 cal./g .

5. State first law of thermodynamic. [ W- 18,19 , S-19 ]

Ans. “If the amount of heat supplied to a system is capable of doing some work,
then the amount of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of

increase in internal energy of the system and external work done by the system”.

Possible long Question

1. Define the coefficient of linear, superficial and cubical expansion of solid,

and establish the relation between 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾. [ W- 19, 20, S – 19 ]

 UNIT-8
OPTICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
8.1 Reflection & Refraction – Definition.

8.2 Laws Reflection & Refraction (statement only)

8.3 Refractive index- Definition, Formula and simple numerical.

8.4 Critical angle and Total Internal Reflection-Concept, Definition &

Explanation.

8.5 Refraction through prism (Ray Diagram & Formula only- No derivation).

8.6 Fiber Optics – Definition properties & application.

Optics:-

Optics is a branch of physics that deals with the determination of

behaviour and the properties of light. You rely on optics everyday. Your

digital camera, wireless mouse, and even your Blu-ray disc of your

favourite movie are all technologies enabled by the science of optics.

As light presents a dual behaviour, which can be considered as a wave

or particle, basically there are two types of optics.

⋇ Physical optics– when considering the wave nature of light.

⋇ Geometric optics – when light is considered a particle.

8.1 Reflection and Refraction:-

Reflection:-

The phenomenon of light by virtue of which a ray of light

moving from a medium to another medium is sent back to the
same medium from the interface between the two media is called
as reflection.

Incident ray: The ray of light falling on the surface of a mirror is

called incident ray.
Reflected ray: The ray of light which is sent back by the mirror from
the point of incidence is called reflected ray.
Normal: A line perpendicular or at the right angle to the mirror
Surface at the point of incidence is called normal.
Point of incidence-The point at which the incident ray falls on
mirror surfaceis called point of incidence.

Angle of incidence:- The angle made by the incident ray and normal
is called angle of incidence.
Angle of reflection:- The angle made by the reflected ray and normal
is called angle of reflection.
Refraction:-
The phenomenon of light by virtue of which a
ray of light moving from one medium to another medium
undergoes a change in its velocity is called as refraction.

⋇ ⋇

Refracted ray: The ray of light which travels to the second

from thepoint of incidence is called reflected ray.
Angle of refraction: The angle made by the refracted ray with the
normal at point of incidence is called angle of refraction.
8.2 Laws of Reflection and Refraction:-
Laws of reflection:-
1. 1st law: The incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence are coplaner
and the plane is perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
2. 2nd law:-
Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
⸫ i=r
Laws of refraction:-
1. 1st law:-
The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence are coplaner
and the plane is perpendicular to the refracting surface.
2. 2nd law:-
The ratio of angle of sine of incidence to the angle of sine of refraction is a
constant quantity.

⸫ sin 𝑖 = constant = µ , where µ = refractive index

sin 𝑟

This law is also known as Snell’s law.

8.3 Refractive index:-

Refractive index is the property of a medium/material
that measure the optical density of that medium and
it describes how fast light travels through that medium.
Definition:-
Absolute refractive index is defined as the speed of light in
vacuum to the speed of light in given medium.

⸫ µ=𝐶 where, C = speed of light in vacuum

𝑉

V = speed of light in given medium

⋇⋇ It has no unit and no dimension.
Problem 1
Refractive index of water w.r.t air is 4/3, while that of glass is 3/2 . What
will be the Refractive index of glass w.r.t water?
Ans.
We know that , 1 𝜇𝑔
=
3
×
3
=
9
𝜇2= 𝜇2⁄𝜇1 = 𝜇𝑤 2 4 8

Problem 2

A ray of light of light travelling in water is incident at an angle of 30𝑜 on water glass surface.

Calculate the angle of refraction in glass, if Refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of glass is 3/2.

Ans. According to Snell’s law ,

𝜇1Sin 𝜃1 = 𝜇2 sin 𝜃2
4 3
⇒ × sin 30 = sin 𝜃
3 2 2

4
⇒ Sin 𝜃 2 = = 0.444
9
4
⇒ 𝜃2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛− = 26.4𝑜
9

8.4 Critical angle and Total Internal Reflection

Critical angle:-

When light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium then critical angle is

defined as the angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction in

rarer medium is 90𝑜.

 Here, i = c and r = 90𝑜

According to Snell’s law,

𝜇1Sin 𝜃1 = 𝜇2 sin 𝜃2

⇒ 𝜇1 Sin c = 𝜇2 Sin 90𝑜

⇒ Sin c = 𝜇2
, (Sin 90𝑜 = 1)
𝜇1
𝜇2
⇒ c = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−
𝜇1

⋇ If both are same medium, then 𝜇1= 𝜇2 =1

C = 90𝑜

Total internal reflection (TIR) :-

When light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium the angle of incidence

is greater than critical and it comes back to the original medium. This phenomenon

is known as total internal reflection ( T.I.R).

It is so named because 100 % light comes back to the original medium.

 Condition for TIR:-

 Light ray should travels from denser medium to rarer medium.

 Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.

8.5 Refraction through prism:-

Prism is triangular base made up glass.

Ray Diagram:-

i = angle of incidence

r = angle of refraction

e = angle of emergence

D = Angle of Deviation

A = Angle of prism

𝐷𝑚 = angle of minimum deviation

𝐴+𝐷 𝑚
sin( )
2
𝜇= 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐴
2
8.6 Fibre Optics:-
Optical fibre is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses

travelling along with a long fibre which is usually made of plastic or glass.Metal wires

are preferred for transmission in optical fibre communication as signals travel with fewer

damages. Optical fibres are also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fibre optical

cable uses the application of total internal reflection of light. The fibres are designed such that

they facilitate the propagation of light along with the optical fibre depending on the requirement

of power and distance of transmission.

Definition

An optical fiber is a dielectric cylindrical wave guide

consisting oftwo layers, i.e. Core and a surrounding cladding. The
refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the
cladding. Both are made up of thin, flexible, high quality,
transparent fiber of glass or plastic, where light undergoes
successive total internal reflections along the length of the fibre.
Properties
 Optical fibers are small in size and have lightweights
as compared to electrical cables. They are flexible and
have very high tensile strength. Thus, they can be
twisted and bent easily.
 Optical fiber provides a high degree of signal
securities as it is confined to the inside of fiber and
cannot be tapped and tempered easily. Thus, it
satisfies the need for security which is required in
banking and defense.
 Optical fiber communication is free from electromagnetic interference.
 Optical fiber material does not carry high voltage or
current. Hence, they are safer than electrical cable.
Application

 Communications- for transmitting audio and video signals

through long distances. Voice, data, and video transmission
are the most common uses of fiber optics, and these include,
telecommunications, local area networks (LANs), industrial
control system.
 Sensing — Fiber optics can be used to deliver light from a
remote source to a detector to obtain pressure, temperature,
or spectral information. The fiber also can be used directly as
a transducer to measure a number of environmental effects,
such as strain, pressure, electrical resistance etc.
Environmental changes affect the light intensity, phase and/or
polarization in ways that can be detected at the other end
of the fiber.
 Power Delivery — Optical fibers can deliver remarkably high levels of
power for tasks such as lasercutting, welding, marking, and drilling.
  Illumination — A bundle of fibers gathered together with a
light source at one end can illuminate areas that are difficult
to reach, for example in medical field, inside the human
body, in conjunction with an endoscope.
 Optical fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
The fibers in such decorative lamps are optical fibers.

Possible Short Questions with Answer

1. State the laws of reflection [W-19]

Ans. Laws of reflection:-

1st law: The incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence are coplaner
and the plane is perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
2nd law:-
Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
⸫ i=r

2. State the laws of refraction. [ W-18]

Ans. Laws of refraction:-

1st law:-
The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence are coplaner
and the plane is perpendicular to the refracting surface.
2nd law:-
The ratio of angle of sine of incidence to the angle of sine of refraction is a
constant quantity.

⸫ sin 𝑖 = constant = µ , where µ = refractive index

sin 𝑟

3. Write the formula for refractive index of prism. [ S -19]

𝐴+𝐷 𝑚
sin( )
Ans. 𝜇= 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐴
2
4. Draw the ray diagram of refraction through prism. [W-19]

Ans.

5. State two application of optical fiber. [w-16,17,18,19,S-19]

Ans.

 These are used for study of tissues and blood vessels far below the skin.
 These are used in the field of communications in sending video signals from
One place to another.

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. Define critical angel and total internal reflection.[w-16,17,18,19,S-19]

2. Define optical fiber and write its properties and applications.[w-19]

 UNIT-9
ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETOSTATICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

9.1 Electrostatic – Definition & Concept.

9.2 Statement and Explanation Coulomb’s law Definition of Unit charge.

9.3 Absolute & Relative Permittivity – Definition, Relation and Unit.

9.4 Electric potential and Electric potential Difference (Definition, Formula

& S.I Unit).

9.5 Electric field, Electric field intensity - Definition, Formula &

S.I Unit.

9.6 Capacitance - Definition, Formula & Unit.

9.7 Series and parallel combination of Capacitors (No derivation, Formula

for effective / combined / total capacitance & simple numericals).

9.8 Magnet, properties of magnet.

9.9 Coulomb’s law in magnetism – statement & explanation,

Unit pole –Definition.

9.10 Magnetic field & magnetic field intensity – Definition, Formula and unit.

9.11 Magnetic lines of force – Definition and properties.

9.12 Magnetic Flux & Magnetic Flux Density- Definition, Formula and unit.
9.1 Electrostatic:-All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a crackle when we take
off our synthetic clothes or sweater, particularly in dry weather. Have you ever tried to find any
explanation for this phenomenon? You might have heard that this is due to generation of static
electricity. This is precisely the topic we are going to discuss in this chapter. Static means anything that
does not move or change with time.

Electrostatics is the study of properties of stationary or slow-moving electric charges. Electrostatic

phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exerton each other. It deals with the study of forces,
fields and potentials arising from static charges.

Coulomb's law in Electrostatics

Coulombs law is a quantitative statement about the force between two-point charges. When the linear size of
charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, the size may be ignored, and the
charged bodies aretreated as point charges.

Statement- It states that “The force between two-point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges and acts alongthe line joining the two charges”.
Explanation:

The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have thesame sign, the electrostatic
force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.

Consider two-point charges ―q1‖, ―q2‖which are separated by a distance ―r‖, then the magnitude of the force
(F) between them is given by

𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1𝑞2
1
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹=𝛽
𝑟2
Where β is the constant of proportionality and its value depends on the nature ofthe medium in which
two charges are situated.

1
𝛽= = 9 × 109 𝑁 𝑚2/𝑐2
4𝜋𝜖0

9.3 Absolute & Relative Permittivity

Absolute permittivity is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜀0 (epsilon) and the relative permittivity is denoted by
Greek letter 𝜀𝑟.Relative permittivity is same as dielectric constant.

Definition- The relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio of the absolute permittivity of the
medium and the permittivity of free space.
𝗌
𝜀𝑟 =
𝗌𝑜

9.4 Electric potential

All of us know that the like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract eachother. Some work is always
involved in moving a charge in the area of another charge. What makes the charge to flow? This basically
happens because of the electric potential.

If two charged bodies are in contact, the charge starts flowing from one conductor toother. The condition,
that determines the flow of charge from one conductor to other in contact, is the electric potential. Earth is a
conductor that can hold an infinite charge and can give infinite charge without changing its potential. Its
potential is taken as zero potential.

Definition: The electrical potential is defined as the capability of the charged body todo work. When the body
is charged, either electrons are supplied to it, or they are removed from it. In both the cases, the work is
done. This work is stored in the body in the form of electric potential.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

Electric Potential Difference

When the current flows between two points A and B of an electric circuit as shown in the fig 9.3
below. We only consider the charge between the points A and B. This means it is not necessary
to know the exact potential at each point A and B. It is sufficient to know the potential difference
between the two points A and B which is defined as follows.
 Fig 9.3
Definition: The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to carry a unit
positive charge from one point to another in an electric field.In other words, the potential difference is
defined as the difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.

When a body is charged to a different electric potential as compared to the othercharged body, the two
bodies are said to have a potential difference. The potential difference between two points is said to be 1
volt if the work is done in moving 1-coulomb of charge from one point to other is 1 joule.

S.I unit for measuring the potential difference is volt and instrument used for measuring potential difference is a
voltmeter. While connecting voltmeter in the circuit, positive terminal of the voltmeter should be in
connection with the positiveterminal of the cell and negative with the negative of the cell.

9.4 Electric field and electric field intensity(E):

An electric field is the physical field that surrounds each electric charge andexerts force on all other
charges in the field, either attracting or repelling them. Electric fields originate from electric charges, or
from time-varying magnetic fields.

Electric field Intensity(Electric field strength): -

The electric field intensity at any point inside an electric field is defined as theforce experienced by the
unit positive charge (test charge) placed at that point.

The S.I unit of electric field intensity is Newton/Coulomb or N/C.

9.5 Capacitance
Capacitance is the property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors, that is measured by the amount of
separated electric charge that can be stored on it perunit change in electrical potential.

It is denoted as C and is the ratio of the amount of electric charge stored on the conductor to the difference in electric
potential.
𝑄
⸫ 𝐶=
𝑉
Hence capacity or capacitance of a conductor is defined as the amount of chargerequired to raise the
potential through one unit.

9.6 series and parallel combination of capacitors

We can combine several capacitors of capacitance C1, C2…… Cn to obtain a system with some effective
capacitance C. The effective capacitance depends on the way the individual capacitors are combined. Two
simple possibilities are discussed below.

In series combination

If positive terminal of first capacitor is connected with –ve terminal of 2nd capacitor is known as series
combination.

Effective capacitance

If n number of capacitor connected in series combination then effective capacitance is given by

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝐶𝑠 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛

In parallel combination

If +ve terminal of first capacitor is connected with +ve terminal of 2nd capacitor is known as parallel
combination.

Effective capacitance

If n number of capacitor connected in parallel combination then effective capacitance is given by

𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + ⋯ 𝑐𝑛
9.7 Magnet
The word magnet is derived from the name of an island of Greece called magnesia where magnetic ore
deposits were found. A magnet is a material orobject which is capable of producing magnetic field and
attracting unlike poles and repelling like poles.

There are three types of magnets, and they are as follows:

 Permanent magnet

 Temporary magnet
 Electromagnets

Properties of magnet
 When a magnet is dipped in iron filings, we can observe that the iron filingscling to the end of the
magnet as the attraction is maximum at the ends of the magnet. These ends are known as poles of
the magnets.
 Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
 Whenever a magnet is suspended freely in mid-air, it always points towards north-south direction. Pole
pointing towards geographic north is known as theNorth Pole and the pole pointing towards
geographic south is known as the South Pole.

9.8 coulomb’s law in magnetostatic

Statement-The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to
product of magnitude of their pole strength and inversely proportional to square of distance between
them.
Explanation
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1𝑚2
1
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑚1𝑚2 𝜇0
⇒𝐹 =𝛽 ,𝛽 =
𝑟2 4𝜋
Unit pole-
Unit pole is the pole which when placed in air at a distance of 1 metreapart from a similar pole
repels it with a force of 10-7Newton.
Magnetic field:

Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force
of magnetism acts. We can say magnetic field isthe area around a magnet, magnetic object, or a moving
electric charge in whichmagnetic force is exerted.

Magnetic field intensity (H):

Magnetic field strength, also called magnetic field intensity. Magnetic fieldintensity at any point inside the
magnetic field is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole at that point.The direction of field
is thedirection in which the unit pole would move if it is free to do so.

Magnetic lines of force:

Magnetic lines of force are the imaginary curves along whichthe unit north pole would move if it were
free to do so .
Properties of magnetic lines of force:
 Outside the magnet, lines of forces start from north pole and ends at south pole and inside the
magnet these are from south to north pole.
 Tangent drawn at any point on the lines of force gives the directionof the magnetic field at that
point.
 Magnetic lines of force never intersect with each other because if they do so at the point of
intersection there will be two directions of the magnetic fieldat that point which is impossible.
 The number of lines of force per unit area (area being perpendicularto lines) is proportional to
the magnitude of strength of the magnetic field (magnetic field intensity) at that point. Thus,
more concentrationof lines of force represents stronger magnetic field.
 The lines of force tend to contract longitudinally or length-wise i.e. they possess longitudinal
strain. Due to this property two unlike polesattract each other.
 The lines of force tend to exert lateral (sideways) pressure i.e. theyrepel each other laterally. This
explain the repulsion between two similar poles.
 Lines of forces are imaginary, but the field obtained is real.

9.12Magnetic flux(Ф):

Magnetic flux is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through acertain area.
It is denoted by ―Ф‖ and is given as

Ф = ̅ ̅→ · ̅𝐴→= B A Cos 𝜃

Where, B = Magnetic

FieldA= SurfaceArea

𝜃 = Angle between the magnetic field and normal to

the surface.

Unit: -

Its unit in S.I is Weber and in C.G.S is maxwell

1 Weber = 108 maxwell

Magnetic Flux Density(B): -

Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area
of a sectionthat is perpendicular to the direction of flux.

Mathematically, it is represented as

B =Φ
𝐴

Magnetic fluX
i.e. Magnetic flux density=
Area

Unit: -

Its unit in S.I is tesla

1 Gauss = 1 Maxwell/(1cm)2

1 Tesla =104 Gauss

 POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
1. Define unit pole.[W-17,19,S-19]
Ans-

Unit pole is defined as a pole which place in vacuum at a distance of 1 m from an

identical pole exert on it a force equal to 10−7 N.

2. Define Magnetic flux.[W-18]

Ans-

Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes a given area.
It is use ful tool for helping the describe the effect of magnetic force occupying a
given area.

3. Define unit charge [W-17,18,19,20]

Ans-

Unit charge is defined as the amount of charge which when placed in air at a distance of
1m from a similar charge repels with a force of 1 N .

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. State and explain coulomb’s law in electrostatics[W-19]

2. State and explain coulomb’s law in magnetism.[W-20]

3. State the properties of magnetic lines of force.[W-17,19]

 UNIT-10
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

10.1 Electric current – Definition, Formula and S.I Unit.

10.2 Ohm’s law and its application

10.3 Series and parallel combination of resistors (No derivation ,Formula for

Effective / Combined / Total / Resistance and simple numericals)

10.4 Kirchhoff’s laws (Statement and Explanation with Diagram)

10.5 Application of Kirchhoff’s laws to Wheatstone ’s bridge – Balanced

Condition of Wheatstone’s bridge.

10.1 Electric current:-
The current through a given cross-sectional area in a conductor is defined as thetime rate of flow of
charge throughthat area.
𝑄
⸫ 𝐼=
𝑡

 Electric current is a scalar quantity

 S.I unit is c/s or ampere(A)
 Dimension-[ I ] = [A] = [M0L0T0A1]

Ohm’s Law:
It states that at constant temperature current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

Mathematically,
𝐼∝𝑉

⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, R = proportionality constant = Resistance

Resistance is a material property which depends on the temperature and geometryof the conductor.
Application of Ohm’s Law:

 Ohm’s law is used for calculating the current if the resistance and potentialdifference are
known.
 The resistance of a material can be estimated by supplying a known amountof voltage and
measuring the current flowing through it.
 Ohm’s law is used to maintain the desired voltage drop across the electriccomponents.
Limitation: Ohm’s law is not applicable in diodes and transistor.

Combination of Resistors
(a) In series-
If +ve terminal of first resistor is connected with –ve terminal of second resistor is called series
combination.
Effective resistance
If n number of resistor of resistance is connected in series then effective resistance is given by
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
(b) In parallel

If +ve terminal of first resistor is connected with +ve terminal of second resistor is called
parallel combination.

Effective resistance

If n number of resistances are connected in parallel combination then effective resistance is

given by

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

10.4 Kirchhoff’s’ law

First law (kcl)

It states that the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point in a junction is zero.Explanation:- To
explain this law consider a number of wires connected at apoint P.Currents i1, i2, i3, i4, and i5 flow
through these wires in the directions as shown infigure 10.4.
To determine their algebraic sum of electric currents, we
assume thefollowing sign conventions

The currents approaching a givenpoint are taken positive

The currents leaving the given point are taken as negative

Second law (Kirchhoff’s voltage Law) (KVL)

It states that the algebraic sum of potential difference & emf (electromotive force)across a closed
loop is zero.

i.e. emf + p.d = 0 where p.d = potential difference

Explanation:

ABCD containing resistance r1,r2,r3,r4 and r5 in the parts AB, BC, CD, DA and AC respectively.
Also let i1, i2, i3, i4,i5 be the respective currents flowing in these parts in the directions shown by arrow
heads. Two sources of emf‟s E1, E2 are also connected in the mesh.

In order to use Kirchhoff’s voltage rule, we will assume the following signconventions.

While going along the loop if the current flows in that directionthen ittaken to be +ve otherwise –ve

While going along the loop if we will face first +ve terminal of the emfthen it is taken to be +ve
otherwise –ve.

10.5 Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone bridge is an electrical arrangement which forms the basis ofmost of the instruments
used to determine an unknown resistance.

Construction:- It consists of four resistance P, Q, R & S connected in the four arms of a square
ABCD. A cell of emf E is connected between the points A & C throughone way key K1. A sensitive
galvanometer of resistance G is connected between the terminals B & D through another one way
key K2. After closing the keys K1& K2,the resistance P, Q, R & S are so adjustable that the
galvanometer shows nodeflection. In this position the Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced.
Explanation-

It is an electrical device which is used to measure the

resistance of un known resistor.

It consist of four resistors of resistances (P,Q,R,S). Out of

these resistance R is unknown. Across the terminal A and
C an ideal cell is connected which supplies the current to
the circuit. Across the terminal B and D a galvanometer
is connected which is used to detected the current
through the arm BD.

When bridge is balanced condition there is no current

through the galvanometer that means potential difference
between B and D is zero.

Applying kcl at the junction point B

𝐼1𝑃 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑔)𝑄 + 𝐼𝑔𝐺

Applying kvl in the mesh ABDA

𝐼1𝑃 + 𝐼𝑔𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼1)𝑅……i

Applying kvl in the mess BCDB

(𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑔)𝑄 − (𝐼 − 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑔)𝑆 − 𝐼𝑔𝐺 = 𝑜………ii

The values of P, Q and R are so adjusted that the galvanometer
shows no deflection i.e., the current through galvanometer is zero.
In this condition B and Dare at same potential which is called as the
balanced condition of the bridge.

By putting ig = 0, equations (i) & (ii) becomes

P/Q =R/S
Conclusion
 Putting the value of P,S,Q then we can find the unknown resistance R.
 This instrument is named as post office box as it was used in post office to determine
the resistance of a wire for telegram purposes.

POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

1. State Ohm’s law.[W-18,S-19]

Ans-
At constant temperature for a given conductor the amount of current is
Directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends of the conductor.
Mathematically 𝐼∝𝑉

⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅,

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. State and explain Kirchhoff’s law of electricity.[W-16,17,19]
2. State Kirchhoff’s law and obtained balanced condition of whetstones bridge.
[W-18,19,20,S-19]
 UNIT- 11
ELECTROMAGNETISM
&
ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

11.1 Electromagnetism- Definition & concept

11.2 Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a uniform

Magnetic field, Flemings Left Hand Rule.

11.3 Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction (statement only)

11.4 Lenz’s law (statement)

11.5 Flemings Right Hand Rule

11.6 Comparison between Flemings Left Hand Rule and Flemings Right

Hand Rule.
11.1 ELECTROMAGNETISM:

Ampere and a few other scientists established the fact that electricity
and magnetism are inter-related. They found that moving electric
charges produce magnetic fields. For example, an electric current
deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity. This naturally
raises the question like: Is the converse effect possible? Can a moving
magnet produce electric current ? Does the nature permit such a
relation between electricity and magnetism ? The answer is a
resounding yes ! The experiments of Michael Faraday in England
demonstrated conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed
coils when subjected to changing magnetic fields.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A charged body is capable of producing electric charge in a neighbouring conductor. The

phenomenon of induction of electricity due to electricity is called electric induction. A magnet is
capable of producing magnetism in a neighbouring magnetic substance. This phenomenon of
production of magnetism due to magnetism is called magnetic induction. A current flowing through
a wire produces a magnetic field around itself. This phenomenon of production of magnetism due to
electricity is called magnetic effect of currents. The phenomenon of production of electricity due to
magnetism is calledelectro-magnetic induction.

11.2 Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a uniform

magnetic field.
A conductor has free electrons in it. When a potential difference is maintained across the two
ends of the conductor, the electrons drift from lower potential tohigher potential with a small
velocity. These electrons constitute a current throughthe conductor. When theelectrons (charged
particles) move in a magnetic field, they experience aforce F.
 Let, L= length of the conductor

I = Amount of current flowing through the conductor = q/t.

𝐵→ = Magnetic field intensity

Θ = Angle between L and B.

𝐹→ = Force acting on current carrying conductor on the given magnetic field.

We know F = qBv sin θ

= qB (l/t)sinθ.

F = (q/t) l B sinθ

F= I l B sin θ

𝐹→ = I (𝐿→ × 𝐵→ ) ,Vector form

⋇ Direction of 𝐹→ is always perpendicular to the plane of 𝐿→ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵→ obeying Right Hand Rule.

Flemings Left Hand Rule:-

⇒ This principle is used to determine the direction of force acting on the current carrying
conductor in the given magnetic field.

⇒ Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of left hand in which they are kept mutually
perpendicular. If the forefinger points the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger is the
direction of current then thumb will point the direction of force or motion of the conductor.

⇒ This rule is widely use in case of electric motor.

11.3 Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction:-

Faraday’s laws deal with the induction of an electromotive force (e.m.f) in an electriccircuit when
magnetic flux linked with the circuit changes. They are stated as follows.

⇒ 1st law (qualitative):-

Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f is induced in it.The
induced e.m.f exists in the circuit so long as the change in magnetic flux linked with it continues.

⇒ 2nd law (quantitative):-

The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the negative rate
of change ofmagnetic flux linked with the circuit.

If „d ‟ is the change in magnetic flux linked with a circuit, that takes
place in a timedt.
𝑑𝜱
Rate of change of magnetic flux = 𝑑𝑡

If „E‟ is e.m.f induced in the circuit as a result of this change,

𝑑𝜱 𝑑𝜱
E  or E=−𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

By selecting the units of „E‟, „ ‟ and „t‟ in a proper way, we can have
𝑑𝜱
K=1  E = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜱
If N = no. of turns in the coil then, E = − N
𝑑𝑡
⋇ Negative sign is due to direction of induced e.m.f, opposes the change inmagnetic flux.

11.4 LENZ‟S LAW

The direction of e.m.f induced in the circuit due to a change in magnetic flux linked with it.

“ It states that direction of induced e.m.f or induced current is such that it tends to oppose the
verycause which produces it.”
𝑑𝛷
⸫ E=−
𝑑𝑡

11.5 FLEMING‟S RIGHT HAND RULE

⇒ This rule is used to determine the direction of induced current.

⇒ “Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of Right hand in which they are kept
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger represents the direction of magnetic field
thumb represents motion of the conductor then middle finger represents the direction of induced
current”.

⇒ This principle is widely used in case of electric generator.

11.6 Comparison between Flemings Left Hand Rule and Flemings Right Hand Rule

Flemings Left Hand Rule Flemings Right Hand Rule

⇒ This principle is used to determine the ⇒ This principle is used to determine the

direction of force acting on the current direction of induced current.

carrying conductor in the given magnetic

field.

⇒ Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and ⇒ Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and

thumb of left hand in which they are kept thumb of right hand in which they are kept

mutually perpendicular. If the forefinger mutually perpendicular to each other. If

points the direction of magnetic field, the forefinger represents the direction of

middle finger is the direction of current then magnetic field and thumb represents

thumb will point the direction of force or direction of motion of the conductor

motion of the conductor. then middle finger represents direction of

induced current.

⇒ This rule is widely used in electric motor. ⇒ This rule is widely used in electric generator.
 Possible Short Questions
Q-1. State Lenz’s law. [ 16, 17, 18 - W, 19 – S & W ]

Ans. “The direction of induced emf or induced current is such that it tends to oppose the
Very cause which produces it”.
𝑑𝜱
⸫ E =−
𝑑𝑡

Q-2. State Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. [ 19-W (old) ]

Ans. “Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of Right hand in which they are
kept mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger represents the direction of magnetic
field thumb represents motion of the conductor then middle finger represents the direction of
induced current”.

Q-3. State Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. [ 19 – W (New)]

Ans. Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of left hand in which they are kept
mutually perpendicular. If the forefinger points the direction of magnetic field, the middle
finger is the direction of current then thumb will point the direction of force or motion of the
conductor”.

Q-4. State Faradays qualitative law of electromagnetic induction.

Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is induced in it.The induced
emf exists in the circuit so long as the change in magnetic flux linked with it continues.

Q-5. State faradays quantitative law of electro magnetic induction.

The induced emf is directly proportional to the negative

rate of change ofmagnetic flux linked with the circuit.

Possible long Question

Q-1. State and Explain Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.[ 17,18,19-W]

Q-2. Comparison between Flemings Left Hand Rule and Right Hand Rule.

[16, 17, 18, 19-W and 19,20-S]

Q-3. Find an expression for force acting on a current carrying conductor placed

In a uniform magnetic field. [ 18-W, 18 , 19 – S]

 UNIT-12
MODERN PHYSICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

12.1 LASER & Laser beam (concept and Definition).

12.2 Principle of LASER (population inversion & Optical pumping).

12.3 Properties and Application of LASER.

12.4 Wireless Transmission – Ground wave, sky wave, space waves

(Concept and Definition).

 12.1 LASER & Laser beam:-

⇒ The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

⇒ LASER is an optical device which produces light through a process of optical amplification based
on the principle of stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.

12.2 Principle of LASER:-

population inversion:-

The two photons interact with two more atoms in the metastable state E 2 and

soon, as a result the number of photons keeps on increasing. All the photons

have same phase, same energy and same direction, thus amplification of light

will beachieved.However,higher energy metastable state „E 2 ‟ must have

larger numbers of atoms than the number in the lower energy state „E 1 ‟ for all

the time to achieve the amplification and to obtain a stablelasing action. When

the higher energy state has more number atoms than the lower energy state,

this condition is called as population.

(i) Or
⇒ The redistribution of atomic energy levels that takes place in a system so that

laser action occurs is called population inversion.

⇒ Population inversion occurs when more electrons are in a higher energy state

than in a lower energy state.

(b). Optical pumping :-

⇒ The use of light energy to raise the atoms of a system from one energy level to another.
 ⇒ The process in which light is used to raise electrons from a lower energy level in an atom or

molecule to a higher energy level is called optical pumping.

⇒ Optical pumping is also used to cyclically pump electrons bound within an atom or

molecule to a well-defined quantum state.

Properties and Application of LASER:-

Properties of Laser Beam:

(i) Directionality: Light emitted from conventional sources spread in all directions. Laser beam is

highly parallel and directional. A narrow beam of light can be obtained from it.
(ii) Intensity: As the laser beam has the ability of focusing over an area as small
as 10-6 cm2, therefore, it is highly intense beam. Also, the constructive
interference between the coherent photons lead to a high amplitude and hence a
high intensity.
(iii) Mono-chromaticity: Light emitted from a laser is vastly more
monochromatic than that emitted from a conventional mono-chromatic sources
of light.
(iv) Coherence: The laser light is highly coherent in space and time. This
property enables us to realizea tremendous spatial concentration of light power.
PRINCIPLE BASED APPLICATIONS OF LASERS

(i)Laser in surgery: Laser beam can be carried from source using optical fibers
from one place to another and can be focused over an extremely small area. The
beam travels through optical fibers suffering total internal reflections. As the
beam is very powerful, it can cut the flesh and seal the blood oozing cells
instantly allowing the surgery to be carried out without wasting blood. In laser
surgery the cut is so fine that the patient does not feel the pain. Laser is used in
eye surgery to attach a detached retina.

Laser in industry: As laser beam is very high power beam, it is employed in

(ii)
melting, cutting, drilling and welding metals. A powerful laser beam can cut a
few cm thick iron sheet like a hot knife cutting butter.
 (III) Laser in other branches of science: One of the most important branch in
chemistry is the study of the nature of chemicals bonds. A suitable laser can be
employed to break the bond in a molecule by resonating it with the bond,helps to
determine the structure of the molecule.
In astronomy radio-astronomers are frequently using it to determine the
distances of planets and sub-planets.

(IV)Laser in warfare:Laser beams are capable of destroying enemy war planes.

America is employing laser beam in their star war programme in which they will
operate from artificial satellites to destroy enemy‟s inter-continental missiles etc.
A laser gun can kill human-beings without any shot sound.

12.4: WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

In electronic communication, radio waves propagate between a transmitter and a

receiver. The signal must reach the receiver without any distortion or noise.
Depending on the frequency of the signal andthe distance over which it is to be
transmitted, different methods are used. A wide range of research is going on to
shape and improve the quality and speed of transmission. Also, the electronic
components are being improved. Here, we will discuss the basic methods in a
brief manner.

a. Ground Waves:

 A ground wave is a radio wave that travels along earth‟s surface. This is
also known as surface wave.
 The nature of surface influences the propagation. The ground wave travels
better over a conducting surface for example, saline water.
 For an optimum propagation with surface wave, vertical polarization is used .
That is why self- radiating, vertical transmitters are used as antennas in long
and medium wave radio stations in amplitude modulated broadcast.
 The maximum range of coverage depends on the transmitted power and frequency (few
megahertz).
 The attenuation of ground waves increases rapidly with increase in frequency.
 Ground waves have the tendency to bend around the corners of the surface of earth or
obstructions during propagation which makes them more efficient and also these are not
affected by the changein atmospheric conditions.
 In submarine, propagation of very low frequency (30 Hz to 300 Hz) is needed. Hence,
ground waveis the only efficient method.
 As discussed above, the disadvantage of ground wave is high-frequency waves cannot be
transmitted as the energy losses are more because of the absorption of energy in the earth‟s
atmosphere.
 The transmission of ground wave is effective for few MHz and is not suitable above 30 MHz
b. Sky Waves:

 For the frequency range of few MHz to 30 MHz, radio wave is reflected back to earth from
the ionosphere of atmosphere and is utilized for long range communication. This mode of
propagationis known as sky wave propagation.
 The ionosphere extends from a height of about 70 km to 400 km above the earth‟s surface. It
contains a large number of charged particles which result from the absorption of sun‟s
radiation by the air molecule.
 The high frequency above 30 MHz can penetrate ionosphere due to high energy.
 However, as in the case of total internal reflection, the ionospheric layer can reflect the wave
with frequency about 3 MHz to 30 MHz towards the Earth‟s surface.
 The sky wave from the transmitter is directed towards the ionosphere. It bounces between the
ionosphere and earth to reach the receiver.
 For sky wave propagation, gaseous medium is required. Hence, communication with sky
wave isnot possible in space where atmosphere is not present.
c. Space Wave:

 High frequency electromagnetic waves (>40 MHz) cannot be propagated as ground wave
as they get attenuated and also cannot be propagated as sky wave as they penetrate the
ionosphere and escape.
 Such high frequency waves are propagated as space wave. In space wave propagation, the
wave emitted from the transmitter travels in a straight line towards the receiver antenna.
 Space wave method is used for satellite communication, line of sight (LOS) communication,
microwave linking and radar communication.
 TV signals having frequency above 50 MHz can propagate only via space wave.
 POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

1. Write down the properties of LASER. [W-18, S-19]

Ans- The properties of LASER are

 LASER beam is highly parallel and directional.

 It is highly intense beam.
 It is highly monochromatic.
 It is highly coherent in space and time

2. State the principle of LASER [2018-w new]

Ans-
 To explain the process of light amplification in a laser requires an
understanding of energy transition phenomenon in the atoms its active
medium.
 They include spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and non-radiative
decay.

3. Write down the important application of LASER.[2019-S]

Ans-
 For industry-
For drilling, For cutting, For welding.

 For medical Science-

For operation, For cancer treatment, For chemo therapy.

4. What does LASER stands for? [w-20]

Ans- LASER stand for

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1. Describe the properties and application of LASER. [W-16,18,19,S-19]

2. State the laws of photo electric emission.[W-17,19,S-19]