Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Table of Contents

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT MANUAL ............................................................................ 1

RECOMMENDED CIRCUIT DESIGN SOFTWARE (Pre-Lab and Lab
designs) ........................................................................................................................ 1
Pre-Lab design and testing (using Proteus or Multisim software) ...................... 1
CONTROL ENGINEERING LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS .................................................. 2
Experiment Number 2: 400L .................................................................................... 2
Experiment Number 3: 400L .................................................................................... 2
Experiment Number 4: 400L .................................................................................... 2
Experiment Number: 2 .............................................................................................. 3
Experiment Title: Characteristics of Armature & Field Controlled DC Servomotor ........ 3
Experiment Number: 3 .............................................................................................. 7
Experiment Title: Analog Computer Simulation of second order linear system (Mass-
Spring Dashpot) ................................................................................................................ 7
Experiment Number: 4 ............................................................................................ 10
Experiment Title: Open-Loop DC Motor Control ............................................................ 10
Additional Control Engineering Experiments ............................................................... 17
EXPERIMENT A1: CHARACTERISTICS OF ARMATURE AND FIELD CONTROLED D.C
SERVOMOTOR. ............................................................................................................... 17
EXPERIMENT A2: OPEN LOOP D. C MOTOR P-CONTROL .............................................. 17
EXPERIMENT A3: CLOSED LOOP D.C. CONTROL WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ................ 17
EXPERIMENT A4: THE PID CONTROLLER SYSTEM ........................................................... 17
EXPERIMENT A1. CHARACTERISTICS OF ARMATURE AND FIELD CONTROLED D.C
SERVOMOTOR. ............................................................................................................. 18
1.2 Working Principle of Servo Motor ............................................................................ 18
1.4 Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory.......................................................... 19

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | i

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

1.5 Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory ................................................................. 21

Experiment A2 - Open Loop Temperature Control ...................................................... 24
2.1 Temperature control using lamp, amplifier and NTC thermistor ......................... 24
Experiment A3 - DC Motor Closed Loop Control with Negative Feedback .................. 29
3.1. DC motor control response and status ............................................................. 30
Experiment A4: The PID controller system .................................................................. 41
COMMUNICATIONS LABORATORY (400L) .................................................................... 49
Experiment 1: ........................................................................................................... 49
AM Amplitude Modulation............................................................................................. 49
Experiment 2: ........................................................................................................... 49
Amplitude Demodulation (AM Detection) ..................................................................... 49
Experiment 3: ........................................................................................................... 49
Frequency Modulation (FM Modulation) ....................................................................... 49
Experiment 4a: ......................................................................................................... 49
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)............................................................................... 49
Experiment 4b: ......................................................................................................... 49
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) ........................................................................................ 49
Experiment 5: ........................................................................................................... 49
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) ....................................................................................... 49
Experiment 5: ........................................................................................................... 49
Oscillators ....................................................................................................................... 49
Experiment 1 – AM Amplitude Modulation ................................................................... 50
Experiment 2 – Amplitude Demodulation (AM Detection) ............................................ 68
Experiment 3 - FM Modulation ...................................................................................... 75
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS........................................................................ 89
Experiment 4a: PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM) ............................................ 89

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | ii

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Definition of the Key Terms ............................................................................................ 94

PAM Procedure............................................................................................................... 95
Experiment 4b: PULSE TIME MODULATION (PTM) ....................................................... 98
Experiment 5: PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) ....................................................... 105
EXPERIMENT 6: OSCILLATORS .................................................................................... 110
Experiment 6.1 – Crystal Oscillator .............................................................................. 110
Experiment 6.2 - RC Oscillator ...................................................................................... 113
Experiment 6.3 - Wein Bridge Oscillator ..................................................................... 124
FPGA BASED EXPERIMENTS 400L ............................................................................... 131
EXPERIMENT 1: Design of 2-to-4-Line Decoder Using FPGA ..................................... 131
EXPERIMENT 2: Design of 4-to-1-Line Multiplexer using FPGA ................................... 135
MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER BASED EXPERIMENTS SUITABLE FOR
EEG 401, EEG 423, USING PIC16F84A ( A microcontroller manufactured by
Microchip Inc.)............................................................................................................ 139
MODULE 1. ................................................................................................................... 139
EXPERIMENT 1. : LED FLASHER ................................................................................... 141
EXPERIMENT 2. SEQUENCE FLASHING OF LEDS ........................................................ 146
Electrical Machines Laboratory (EEG 411) ................................................................. 149
Experiment 1 – DC Motor Control with Asymmetrical Single Phase Bridge .. 149
Experiment 2 – Tests on Synchronous Generator .............................................. 155
Experiment 3 – MMF and Flux Density Distributions Produced by Electrical
Machine Windings ................................................................................................. 162
Experiment 4 – The Synchronous Machine on ................................................... 166
Experiment 5 – Automatic Voltage Regulation on an Alternator ..................... 172
Experiment 6 – Half-Wave Thyristor Controller ............................................... 184

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | iii

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT MANUAL

Every experiment should conform to the format below:

1. Experiment number and Title

2. Aim and Objectives of the experiment
3. Theory of the experiment
4. Circuit Diagram
5. Pre-Lab design and simulation
6. Materials/Equipment required for experiment
7. Experimental Procedure
8. Introduction to Circuit Design Software (CDS)
9. Design Problem
10. Experimental Results (Table)
11. Discussion/Conclusion
12. My Contribution
13. Suggestions for improvements in experiment

RECOMMENDED CIRCUIT DESIGN SOFTWARE (Pre-Lab and

Lab designs)
1. ADVANCED DESIGN SYSTEM (ADS) – AGILENT/KEYSIGHT

2. PROTEUS – LABCENTER ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

3. MULTISM – NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Pre-Lab design and testing (using Proteus or Multisim software)

For every experiment, a pre-lab is required as follows:-
1. Design the electronic circuit as shown
2. Simulate the circuit
3. Plot the response of the circuit
4. Compare the response to those in the experiment

---- Please contact Dr. Ogboi F.L, for any correction / update ---

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 1

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

CONTROL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENTS

Experiment Number 2: 400L

Characteristics of Armature & Field Controlled DC Servomotor

Experiment Number 3: 400L

Analog Computer Simulation of second order linear system

Experiment Number 4: 400L

Open-Loop DC Motor Control

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 2

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

CONTROL LABORATORY

400 Level Experiments

Experiment Number: 2
Experiment Title: Characteristics of Armature & Field Controlled DC
Servomotor
2.1 Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are to

1. identify DC- motor system

2. describe the constructional features of dc servomotors
3. draw armature controlled speed- torque characteristics curve for given DC
servomotor.
2.2 Description
A dc motor is used from the Modular Servo equipment Type MS 150. The
field coils are connected by an 8-way socket as shown in Fig, 5.3

Fig. 5.3: Connection of the servo motor for armature voltage control

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 3

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

By varying V1 or V2 from zero to positive voltages the field current is

increased and a magnetic field is set up in the motor in one direction by increasing
V1 and in the opposite direction by increasing V2. The external rheostat between
sockets 5 and 8 is used in varying the sensitivity of the field current to variation on
V1 or V2. The 8-way socket connects the armature of the motor to sockets 4 and 7 as
shown in Fig.5.3. Another 8-way socket connects the servo amplifier to the power
supply unit.
+15V

V2

Fig. 5.4: Potentiometer variation

2.3 Static Characteristics

2.4 Measurement Set-Up
In the armature control connection, one must work with a constant magnetic
field and variable (control) voltage on the armature. In order to obtain constant
field set V1 at zero voltage (common, dotted line linkage in Fig. 5.3) and insert an
ammeter on the collector of the other transistor by using the red socket on top of the
servo amplifier, and then set a potentiometer as shown in Fig. 5.4 so that a current of
1A flows in the field. The armature is powered from a controlled voltage of
the variable power supply (MCP-M10-SP3003L) connected to sockets 7 and
4.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 4

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

2.5 Statics Characteristics Plot

A tachogenerator with a constant equal to 40 radsec-1/volt is mounted on the
shaft of the motor. Connect a voltmeter to the tachogenerator output. The static
characteristics can now be drawn on a graph paper, plot the values of the variable
power supply output voltage on the abscissa (x-axis) and the corresponding values of
the speed (in radians per second, radsec-1) on the ordinate (y-axis) (by reading the
output voltage of the tachogenerator). This is shown in Fig.5.5. The small non
linearity near the origin is due to voltage drop at the brushes and at the armature
resistance. The latter is due to the current which is needed in order to supply the
coulomb friction torque.

Fig. 5.5: Graph of speed (radsec-1) against armature voltage (V)

2.6 Field Controlled Armature

To measure the field current 1f connect all meter to the black socket on top of
the servo amplifier. To obtain the motor speed, measure the tachometer output
voltage VT and convert it to speed ω rad/sec.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 5

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

For various values of 1f measure ω and tabulate your readings as 1f VT ω. Plot

graph of ω vs 1f.
For a field controlled motor snow that the developed torque is proportional to
the field current (i.e T = K1 1f where K1 is a constant).
Hence, the – 1f characteristic can be regarded as a speed-torque characteristic.
In the above experiment the only load at the motor shaft is that due to friction torque.
Now mount, light and eddy current brake on the output shaft of the motor
which increases the viscous friction, but does not affect the coulomb friction. Repeat
the measurements in the above experiment and on the same graph as write a general
discussion of the results.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 6

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment Number: 3
Experiment Title: Analog Computer Simulation of second order linear
system (Mass-Spring Dashpot)

3.1 Discuss the four linear components of an analogue computer: summer,

integrator, inverter and potentiometer.
Show that the systems in Gif. 1 below are analogous by showing that the differential
equations describing their dynamics are of the form:
A1X + A2 X + A3X = U ................... (1)
Hence identify the analogies.

Fig:1 Mechanical System and the Electrical Analogy

The dynamic performance of the mechanical system shown in fig 1(a) above obey
the equation:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑀𝑀 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝑘𝑘 � 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐹𝐹
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 7

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

(Where M = mass, k = spring force constant, f = damping coefficient, F = applied

force and V = velocity of mass).
If the mass in Fig. 1(a) is given an initial displacement 01 and then released, or
switch S in Fig. 1(b) is opened at t = 0, then eqn. 1 becomes.
𝑑𝑑2 0 𝑑𝑑0
𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘0 = 0, then eqn. (1) becomes
A1X + A2X + A3X = 0 ..................... (2)
The aim of this experiment is to solve eqn. (2) using an analogue computer in which
the variables are represented by appropriate voltages and hence can be displayed on
an oscilloscope.
If we divide eqn. (2) by A, it may be rewritten in the form:
X + αX + βX = 0
OR X = – (αX + βX).................... (3)
(Where α = A2/A1 and = A3/A1)
Hence, the following steps give the strategy for solving eqn. (3)
Multiply X by α to get αX
Multiply X by β to get βX
Add the results of 1 and 2 to obtain X = – (αX + βX)
Integrate X to obtain X
Integrate X to obtain X
An analogue computer program, which implements the above steps, is shown in Fig.
2.
Apparatus Required
Analogue Computing Module (ACM349.
D.C. Power Supply Unit (regulated) PS 01 – 100.
2 – Channel Oscilloscope.
Connecting Wires

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 8

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Fig:2 Analogue Computer Wiring Diagram of the System

Procedures
The front panel of the Analogue Computing Module ACM349 in simulation process
(i.e the summer invert, integrator and potentiometers)
Wire the circuit on the ACM 349 Module.
Connect the ACM 349 Module to the + Power Supply Unit PS01 – 100 (noting the
appropriate colour code on the connecting sockets).
Switch on the oscilloscope and set it on X – deflection mode.
Check that your connections are right and switch on the mains supply to the power
supply unit.
Connect the output of the Module to the oscilloscope.
Set P2 to zero and the module to compute, and for various settings of P2 say interval
of 10, determine the frequency ω1 of the output waveform. (This may be done by
timing about 10 compete oscillations of the dot on the oscilloscope).
Tabulate your readings and plot the graph of ω vs P1.
For a fixed setting of P1, study and describe the effect of slightly increasing P2.
Briefly explain the significance of both P1 and P2 and use this to discuss the results of
this experiment.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 9

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment Number: 4
Experiment Title: Open-Loop DC Motor Control

4.1 Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are to
1. operate a DC motor with reaction to voltage reference.
2. Measure the speed with a dynamo
3. create a mechanical load on a DC motor and testing the influence on its speed
(retarding the controlled parameter).

4.2 Equipment Required

 TPS – 3011
 Voltmeter
 Banana wires
 PC + SESCOPE software

4.3 Discussion
4.3.1 DC Motor Control and Rotation Measurement
The TPS-3011 includes 2 variable voltage outputs called Vref1 and Vref 2. They are
located in the SESLAB module. These voltages are controlled by two potentiometers
when the SESLAB is operated manually. These outputs cannot drive consumers such
as motors or lamps, so we will connect them to the system power amplifier and the
power amplifier will drive the consumers.
The power amplifier output will be connected to the DC motor. Changes in the
voltage reference will cause changes of the voltage supplied to the DC motor, and
corresponding changes in the DC motor speed. We will observe how the system
reacts.
When a DC motor is driven mechanically, it acts as a dynamo. It creates a voltage on
its output terminals and can supply current. The motor, which is driven by the analog
output, is mechanically coupled so that it turns the dynamic motor.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 10

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

4.3.2 DC Motor Load Response

We will connect the electrical output from the dynamo to the voltmeter in the TPS-
3011. The dynamo will supply voltage proportion to its rate of rotation or in other
words proportional to the speed of the DC motor.
A variable resistor and an ON/OFF switch are used as an electric variable loads when
they are connected in series to the dynamo output terminals and the switch is ON.
Turning the resistor changes the electrical load on the dynamo.
More power is now required to turn the dynamo. The mechanical load on the DC
motor, which drives the system, increases or decreases relatively to the position of
the variable resistor. By pressing the pushbutton and changing the position of the
resistor, we create a variable disturbance of the controlled parameter, which is the
motor speed. We will observe how the system reacts to this.
If the system is connected to a PC and in auto mode, it simultaneously samples the
input and output signals and automatically displays them graphically.

4.3.3 DC Motor Speed Response and Status

A step signal is a signal, which changes all at once, with zero transition time between
one state and the other. Any system has a reaction time including our motor. For
control purposes, we need to know how the controlled variable reacts to a step signal.
We will apply such a signal to the motor and observe the graphs, which show us how
the motor reacts to this signal.

4.4 Electrical Measurements

In the following experiments, we will measure the DC (Direct Current) voltages.
These measurements can be taken with a simple voltmeter.
These measurements can also be taken with the SESCOPE software, as described in
the preface. If you are going to use the SESCOPE software for measuring, first
perform the exercise described in the preface before executing the following
experiments.
4.5 Procedures
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3011 to the power supply.
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains
Step 3: Connect the Vref 1 output to the power amplifier input
Step 4: Connect the power amplifier output to the motor M+ terminal.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 11

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 5: Connect the motor M-terminal to GND

Step 6: Turn ON the trainer

Step 7: Set the power amplifier gain potentiometer to 1.
At this position, the output voltage of the power amplifier is equal to its input
voltage.
Step 8: Change Vref 1 and observe how it affects the motor.
You can see that only on a certain voltage the motor starts to rotate.
Step 9: Set the voltmeter to DCV at the 20V range.
Step 10: Connect the voltmeter’s probes between the outputs of the power
amplifier and GND.
If you use the SESCOPE software, connect the amplifier output to the CH1
input and perform the measuring as described in the preface.
Step 11: Change Vref 1 to maximum voltage.
Step 12: Raise the amplifier gain gradually, while measuring the amplifier
output voltage and stop when the voltage reaches 4.5V.
Step 13: Change Vref 1 until the amplifier output voltage is 0V.
Step 14: Raise Vref 1 slowly and find out on which voltage level at the power
amplifier output the motor starts rotating.
Step 15: Continue raising Vref 1 and then lower it slowly.
Find out on which voltage of the power amplifier output the motor stops and register
it.
Is this voltage level the same as the one you measured at step 12, smaller or bigger?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 12

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

It should be smaller because the motor dynamic friction when it rotates is smaller
than the motor static friction when it does not rotate.
Step 16: We will not measure the motor speed, using the dynamo.
Connect the D-terminal of the dynamo to GND.
Connect the D+ terminal of the panel voltmeter input.

Step 17: Raise and lower the Vref 1 and observe how it affects the motor speed
and the dynamo voltage.
Step 18: Make a white mark on the rubber band, which couples the dynamo to
the DC motor.
Step 19: Count the number of revolutions per minute for different values of
power amplifier output voltage and especially for the dynamo output voltage.
Step 20: Change the Vref 1 step by step, measure (with a multitester) VP, VD
and ω, and fill in the following table:

VP Power 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Output
Voltage
VD Dynamo
Voltage
ω Speed
RPM
Gm Motor
Gain

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 13

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Note:
If you use the SESCOPE for measurements, you will find oscillations on the
dynamo signal voltage. It is because this signal is a rectified AC voltage.

Step 21: Calculate the Gm for every step and add it to the table.
𝜔𝜔
𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝

Step 22: Draw your results in the following graph:

w

Step 23: we use the dynamo as a tachometer.

Connect the multitester to the dynamo terminals.
Connect the Vref 1 until VD (the dynamo voltage) is equal to 0.5V.
Step 24: Measure (count) the speed of the motor in RPM (Rounds Per Minute).
Count rounds during 10 seconds and multiply it by 6.
Step 25: Continue this way and fill in the following table:

VpV 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

ωPRM

This table can be used as a conversion table for measuring the motor speed.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 14

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 26: Beneath the motor there is a load module with a variable resistor
(potentiometer) and an ON/OFF switch.

Connect the load terminals to the dynamo terminals.

Step 27: Turn OFF the ON/OFF switch.

Turn the load potentiometer maximum counter clockwise. What is the
dynamo voltage?

Step 28: Change Vref 1 until VD (the dynamo voltage) is 2.5V.

Step 29: Turn ON the ON/OFF switch.
What is the dynamo voltage now?
Step 30: Turn the load potentiometer gradually counter clockwise.
Turn the load potentiometer maximum clockwise. What happens to the dynamo
voltage?

The variable resistor is now connected in parallel to the dynamo and loads the
dynamo. An electrically loaded dynamo becomes a mechanical load proportionally to
the current, which is drawn from it. The motor needs to work harder. Because we
have not changes the voltage supplying the motor, its speed will naturally fall.
What this demonstrates is interference with the controlled parameter, and how it
affects the behaviour of the system.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 15

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Smaller resistor means bigger electric load and higher current.to be collated and
present in tabular form

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 16

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Additional Control Engineering Experiments

EXPERIMENT A1: CHARACTERISTICS OF ARMATURE AND

FIELD CONTROLED D.C SERVOMOTOR.

EXPERIMENT A2: OPEN LOOP D. C MOTOR P-CONTROL

EXPERIMENT A3: CLOSED LOOP D.C. CONTROL WITH

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

EXPERIMENT A4: THE PID CONTROLLER SYSTEM

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 17

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

EXPERIMENT A1. CHARACTERISTICS OF

ARMATURE AND FIELD CONTROLED D.C
SERVOMOTOR.
1.1 Introduction

Electric motors used in electromechanical control systems are generally

referred to as servomotors. Their speed can be easily controlled, and the
direction of rotation is determined by the polarity of the applied voltage.
D.C servomotors are usually separately excited. There are two types of
excitation;

i. Armature control with fixed field and

ii. Field control with armature current fixed.

1.2 Working Principle of Servo Motor

A servo motor is basically a DC motor along with some other special
purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you
will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement and an
intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the
potentiometer makes the servo to rotate according to our wishes. As we
know, a small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque
generated by its rotation will not be enough to move even a light load.
This is where the gear system inside a servomechanism comes into the
picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the motor
(fast) and at the output; we will get an output speed which is slower than

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 18

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

original input speed but more practical and widely applicable. Say at
initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer
knob is such that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port
of the potentiometer. This output port of the potentiometer is connected
with one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier. Now an
electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector
amplifier. Now difference between these two signals, one comes from
potentiometer and another comes from external source, will be amplified
in the error detector amplifier and feeds the DC motor.

1.3 Aims

1.3.1 To investigate the characteristics of the direct current servomotor.

1.4 Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure1 below shows the schematic diagram for an armature
controlled DC servo motor. Here the armature is energized by amplified
error signal and field is excited by a constant current source.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 19

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing

saturation curve. In this portion of the curve, for huge change in
magnetizing current, there is very small change in mmf in the motor
field.
The variable d.c voltage supply controls the armature current which can
thus be varied. The field current should be constant. This may measured
by connecting an ammeter in series with the field circuit. Adjust the
potentiometer so that a current of 1A flow the in the field. The
tachogenerator which is mounted on the motor shaft has a constant of 40
rads sec/volts, and this used to convert the measured voltage to motor
speed.
Test 1. Measure the characteristics of armature voltage on No-load, and
plot the graph;
Test 2. Measure the characteristics of armature voltage on load with the
Eddy current brake disk mounted on the motor shaft and locate the
magnet assembly correctly. Set the brake to 10 unit and then increase the
input voltage vc. Leave the input vc constant and swing the brake back to
ascertain the treasured voltage and subsequent values then tabulating the
brake scale reading TB, tacho voltage VT, and motor speed ɯ. Plot the
graph of ɯ verses TB.

Again, at saturation the field flux is maximum. As we said earlier, the

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 20

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

general torque equation of DC motor is, torque T ∝ φIa. Now if φ is

large enough, for every little change in armature current Ia there will be a
prominent change in motor torque. That means servo motor becomes
much sensitive to the armature current.
As the armature of DC motor is less inductive and more resistive, time
constant of armature winding is small enough. This causes quick change
of armature current due to sudden change in armature voltage. That is
why dynamic response of armature controlled DC servo motor is much
faster than that of field controlled DC servo motor. The direction of
rotation of the motor can easily be changed by reversing the polarity of
the error signal.

1.5 Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure2 below illustrates the schematic diagram for a field controlled
DC servo motor. In this arrangement the field of DC motor is excited be
the amplified error signal and armature winding is energized by a
constant current source.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 21

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Test 1. The armature voltage is kept constant at 10 volts and the field
current is varied then the speed will run like a series d.c motor as
illustrated in the graph below.
To measure the field current IF connect the ammeter to the black socket
on top of the servo Amplifier. To obtain the motor speed, measure the
tachometer output voltage VT and convert it to speed ɯ rad
seconds/volts.
Test2. Now mount lightly an eddy current brake on the output shaft of
the motor which increases the viscous friction, but does not affect the
one coulomb friction. As one adjust the brake the plot the new readings
for speed and field current. For both armature and field control write a
general discussion of the results.
The field is controlled below the knee point of magnetizing saturation
curve. At that portion of the curve the mmf linearly varies with
excitation current. That means torque developed in the DC motor is

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 22

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

directly proportional to the field current below the knee point of

magnetizing saturation curve as illustrated below.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 23

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment A2 - Open Loop Temperature Control

Objectives:

• Operating an incandescent lamp in reaction to the voltage reference.

• Measuring temperature with a temperature sensor.
• The influence of ambient conditions on the temperature sensor.
• The lamp-thermistor reaction to a step signal.
Equipment Required:

• TPS-3011
• Voltmeter
• Banana wires
• PC + SESCOPE software

Discussion:

2.1 Temperature control using lamp, amplifier and NTC thermistor

In this experiment, as in the previous experiment we will connect the

Vref1 of the SESLAB to the power amplifier input and the power
amplifier output to a lamp. In this way, rotation of the potentiometer will
influence the light intensity of the TPS-3011's incandescent lamp to
vary.

A temperature sensor (thermistor) is positioned adjacent to the lamp.

This sensor absorbs heat from the lamp and reacts electronically. The
sensor's electronic circuit presents a voltage, which is in direct
proportion to the sensor temperature.

The environment also affects the thermistor. We will cool it down and
watch its reaction to this disturbance. Another problem we may find. The
thermistor

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 24

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

is connected to an electronic amplifier. This amplifier, also amplify

changes in the source voltage. When we turn the lamp ON and OFF it
affects this voltage and the thermistor output.

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3011 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.

Step 3: Connect the Vref1 output to the power amplifier input.

Step 4: Connect the power amplifier output to the lamp L+ terminal.

Step 5: Connect the motor L- terminal to GND.

Power
SESESLAB Lamp
Amplifier
L+
Vref1 A L

L-

Step 6: Turn ON the trainer.

Step 7: Set the power amplifier gain potentiometer to 1.

At this position, the output voltage of the power amplifier is equal

to its input voltage.

Step 8: Change Vref1 and observe how it affects the lamp.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 25

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 9: Set the voltmeter to DCV at the 20V range.

Step 10: Connect the voltmeter's probes between the outputs of the
power amplifier and GND.

If you use the SESCOPE software, connect the amplifier output to

the CH1 input and perform the measuring as described in the preface.

Step 11: Change Vref1 to maximum voltage.

Step 12: Raise the amplifier gain gradually, while measuring the
amplifier output voltage and stop when the voltage reaches 4.5V.

Step 13: change Vref1 until the amplifier output voltage is 0V.

Step 14: We will now measure the light intensity, using the
photoresistor.

Connect the TH terminal of the panel voltmeter input.

Step 15: Raise and lower the Vref1 and observe how it affects the
lamp and the thermistor voltage.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 26

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Note:

The temperature reaction is very slow. You have to wait until the
voltage stabilized.

Step 16: Change the Vref1 step by step, measure (with a multitester)
VP and VTH, and fill in the following table:

VP PowerOutput 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Voltage

VTH ThermistorVoltage

GTH Gain

Step 17: Calculate the GTH for every step and add it to the table.
VTH
G TH =
VP

Step 18: Draw your results in the following graph:

VTH V

0 VP V
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Step 19: Turn the Vref1 to maximum.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 27

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 20: Connect the multitester probes between the TH terminal and
GND.

Measure the TH voltage.

Step 21: Touch the thermistor with a metal ruler or a cold metal

Instrument. Don’t push it. How this affects the TH voltage?

Step signal reaction:

Step 22: disconnect the power amplifier from the lamp and let it cool
for 2 minutes.

Step 23: Connect the power amplifier input to the Vref2 output
instead of the Vref1 output.

Step 24: Connect the SESCOPE CH1 probe to the amplifier output.

Step 25: Connect the SESCOPE CH2 probe to the dynamo output
(D+).

Step 26: If you use the SESLAB SESCOPE and SESCOPE software,
set the time base to 50ms/cm.

Step 27: Connect the power amplifier output to the lamp (L+).

Step 28: Observe the signals.

There is no reaction to the step signal because the lamp and the
thermistor do not have enough time to cool.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 28

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment A3 - DC Motor Closed Loop Control with

Negative Feedback
Objectives:
• Repeating the open loop control experiment in order to compare it
with a closed loop reaction.
• Realizing a negative feedback control diagram to control a DC
motor.
• Changing the amplification of the amplifier and the feedback and
testing their influences.
• Disturbing the controlled variable and checking the stability of the
system.
• Checking the steady state and the steady state error.
• The dynamic reaction to a step signal.
Equipment Required:
• TPS-3011
• Voltmeter
• Banana wires
• PC + SESCOPE software

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 29

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Discussion:
3.1. DC motor control response and status
In this experiment, we will first revise open loop control of the DC
motor briefly. We will make the following connections:

Power
Amplifier Motor
Vm
Vr A Gm ω

Vref1
Dynamo
Tachometer
Vd
Hd

Figure 3.1

The objective of this experiment is to repeat the measurement of Gm and

Hd as we did in the experiment in chapter 1. Vref1 is connected to the
power amplifier and the power amplifier drives the motor according to
Vref1. The motor translates its voltage into rotational speed ω. The
tachometer translates the rotational speed ω into feedback voltage Vd,
which is measured by the voltmeter. We will find that this feedback
voltage is approximately 0.6Vm (60% of the motor voltage).

We will add an electrical load to the dynamo, which is converted into a

mechanical load and we will see how the dynamo voltage Vd falls
drastically while the output voltage Vm remains constant.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 30

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Now we will close a negative feedback loop in the system, as in figure

3.2.

Power
Amplifier Motor

+ Ve Vm
Vr A=1 Gm ω
-
Feedback Dynamo
Amplifier Tachometer
Vb Vd
β=1 Hd

Figure 3.2

At this stage we will use amplification A=1 and feedback amplification

β=1. We will calculate the general amplification formula. We will run
the system and test its reaction to disturbance of the controlled variable.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 31

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3011 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.

Step 3: Connect the Vref1 output to the power amplifier input.

Step 4: Connect the power amplifier output to the motor M+ terminal.

Step 5: Connect the motor M- terminal to GND.

Adder
IN1 Power
Vref1 Motor
Amplifier
+ Out M+
IN2 A M
-

+ M-
IN3 -

The Adder does not affect the system because there are no other signals
besides Vref1. Its output is equal to its IN1 input.

Step 6: Turn ON the trainer.

Step 7: Set the power amplifier gain potentiometer to 1

At this position, the output voltage of the power amplifier is equal to its
input voltage.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 32

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 8: Change Vref1 and observe how it affects the motor.

You can see that only on a certain voltage the motor starts to
rotate.

Step 9: Set the voltmeter to DCV at the 20V range.

Step 10: Connect the voltmeter's probes between the outputs of the
power amplifier and GND.

If you use the SESCOPE software, connect the amplifier output to

the CH1 input and perform the measuring as described in the preface.
Step 11: Lower Vref1 to 0V.

Note that Vref1 changes from –5V to +5V.

Step 12: Raise Vref1 slowly and find out at which voltage level the
motor starts rotating.

Step 13: Continue raising Vref1 and then lower it slowly.

Find out on which voltage of the power amplifier output the motor stops.

Is this voltage level the same as the one you measured at step 12, smaller
or bigger?

It should be smaller because the motor dynamic friction when it rotates

is smaller than the motor static friction when it does not rotate.

Step 14: We will now measure the motor speed, using the dynamo.

Connect the D- terminal of the dynamo to GND.

Connect the D+ terminal of the panel voltmeter input.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 33

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

SESESL Adder
IN1
Vref1 Power Motor Dynamo
Amplifier
+ Out
IN2 M D
-

IN3 +
-
Voltmeter

Step 15: Raise and lower the Vref1 and observe how it affects the
motor speed and the dynamo voltage.

Step 16: Make a white mark on the rubber band, which couples the
dynamo to the DC motor.

Step 17: Count the number of revolutions per minute for different
values of power amplifier output voltage and especially for the dynamo
output voltage.

Step 18: Set the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 19: We use the dynamo as a tachometer.

Connect the multi-tester to the dynamo terminals.

Change the Vref1 until VD (the dynamo voltage) is equal to 0.5V.

Step 20: Measure (count) the speed of the motor in RPM.

Step 21: Continue this way and fill in the following table:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 34

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

VD V 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

ω PRM

This table can be used as a conversion table for measuring the motor
speed.

When needed, raise the power amplifier gain to reach the dynamo high
voltages.

Step 22: Beneath the motor there is a load module with a variable
resistor (potentiometer) and an ON/OFF switch

Connect the load terminals to the dynamo terminals.

SESESL Adder
IN1 Power
Vref1 Motor Dynamo
Amplifier

+ Out
IN2 M D
-

IN3 +
-

Load

Step 23: Turn OFF the ON/OFF switch.

Turn the load potentiometer maximum counter clockwise.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 35

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 24: Change Vref1 until VD (the dynamo voltage) is 2.5V.

Step 25: Turn ON the ON/OFF switch.

What is the dynamo voltage?

Step 26: Turn the load potentiometer counter clockwise.

Turn the load potentiometer clockwise almost to the maximum.

What happens to the dynamo voltage?

The variable resistor is now connected in parallel to the dynamo

and loads the dynamo. An electrically loaded dynamo becomes a
mechanical load proportionally to the current, which is drawn from it.
The motor needs to work harder. Because we have not changes the
voltage supplying the motor, its speed will naturally fall.

What this demonstrates is interference with the controlled

parameter, and how it affects the behavior of the system.

Smaller resistor means bigger electric load, higher current and

higher mechanical load.

Step 27: Repeat steps 23-26 with different voltages of the dynamo.

Step 28: Turn Vref1 maximum clockwise.

Step 29: Measure the power amplifier output voltage.

Step 30: Lower the power amplifier to 1 and raise its gain slowly
until this voltage is equal to 3.5V.

Step 31: Turn OFF the Load ON/OFF switch.

Step 32: Measure the dynamo voltage and record it.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 36

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 33: Turn the load potentiometer ¾ of its path clockwise.

Step 34: Turn ON the Load ON/OFF switch.

Step 35: Record the dynamo voltage. It should drop more than 0.5V.

Step 36: Turn OFF the Load ON/OFF switch.

Step 37: We will close the loop now.

Connect the D+ of the dynamo to IN2 of the adder.

SESESL Adder
IN1 Power
Vref1 Motor Dynamo
Amplifier
IN2 + Out
M D
-

IN3 +
-

Load

Step 38: Turn the IN2 switch to position order to get a negative
feedback.

Step 39: Observe the following:

The power amplifier input voltage will drop and so its output.

The motor rotates slower. The dynamo voltage decreases.

Step 40: Increase the power amplifier gain until the power amplifier
output voltage return to 3.5V.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 37

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 41: Measure again the Dynamo voltage.

It will return to the voltage you recorded on step 32.

It may oscillate a little because of the closed loop.

Step 42: Turn ON the Load ON/OFF switch. The Dynamo voltage will
drop a little but less than without the negative feedback.

Step 43: Measure the power amplifier output voltage. It increases.

Explain why.

Step signal reaction:

Step 44: Change the load ON/OFF switch to OFF position.

Step 45: Turn ON your oscilloSESCOPE or use the SESCOPE

software as described in the preface.

Step 46: Set the trigger level to 1.2V and the trigger mode to Fall.

Step 47: Set the time base to 50ms/cm.

Step 48: Connect the Vref2 output to the IN1 input instead of Vref1.

Step 49: Disconnect the dynamo output from the IN2 input.

Step 50: Connect the CH2 probe to the dynamo output.

SESESL Adder
IN1 Power
Vref2 Motor Dynamo
Amplifier

+ Out
IN2 M D
-

IN3 +
-

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 38

Load
 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 51: Lower the power amplifier gain to 1 and raise Vref2 to
maximum.

Step 52: Set the SESCOPE to Free Run. You should get signals as
follows:

Voltage to the motor

Dynamo voltage (speed)

Step 53: Measure with the cursors the time in which the dynamo
voltage reaches 0.7 of the maximum voltage.

This is the time constant of the system.

Step 54: Turn the load switch to ON position.

Step 55: Change the load potentiometer and check how it affects the
dynamo voltage.

Step 56: Turn the load switch to OFF position.

Step 57: Connect the dynamo output back to IN2 input.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 39

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

SESESL Adder
IN1 Power
Vref2 Motor Dynamo
Amplifier
IN2 + Out
M D
-

IN3 +
-

Load

Step 58: Observe the signals.

The dynamo voltage is decreased because of the negative voltage

The difference voltage between the voltage reference and the

feedback

voltage is the error voltage, which is amplified by the power

amplifier in

order to produce the motor voltage.

Step 59: Raise the power amplifier gain gradually.

You can see that the dynamo voltage increases and comes
closer to the voltage reference.

Step 60: Turn the load switch to ON position.

Step 61: Change the load potentiometer and check how it affects the
dynamo voltage.

Step 62: Turn the load switch to OFF position

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 40

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment A4: The PID controller system

The problem with the PI system is that from the moment is stabilizes, its
reaction ability is low. The dominant factor in its output voltage is the
integral and not the error. A small change in the feedback voltage creates
a small reaction at the input and a slow one at the output.

To improve the system's reaction, we add a factor to the original

equation, which relates to the change speed in the error (caused by the
change in the feedback signal). Fast change in the feedback creates a
bigger change in the output signal and a faster correction.

de
Vo = Pe + I ∫ edt + D
dt

+ Vo
Vref PI PD
Controlled
System
βVo
β

Figure 4.1
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3011 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.

Step 3: Connect the Vref1 output to the power amplifier input.

Step 4: Connect the power amplifier output to the motor M+

terminal.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 41

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 5: Connect the motor M- terminal to GND.

Adder
IN1 Power
Vref1 Motor Dynamo
Amplifier

+ Out M+
IN2 A M D
-

+ M- Do D-
IN3 - CH1

CH2

The adder dose not influences the system because there are not other
signals except Vref1. Its output equals its IN1 input.

Step 6: Turn ON the trainer.

Step 7: Turn the power amplifier gain to 1.

In this state, the power amplifier output voltage equals its

input voltage.

Step 8: Set the trigger voltage to 1.2V and the sample mode to Fall.

Step 9: Set the time base to 50ms/cm.

Step 10: Connect the CH2 SESCOPE input to the dynamo output.

Step 11: Raise the Vref2 to maximum.

Step 12: Observe the signals and check if the following signal was
received:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 42

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Voltage to the motor

Dynamo voltage (speed)

Step 13: Connect the dynamo output to the IN2 input.

Step 14: Check that the IN2 switch is on –1 (negative feedback).

Step 15: Observe the signals.

Step 16: Raise the power amplifier gain and check for each gain the
Ve difference between the reference voltage Vref2 and the dynamo
voltage (before the reference voltage drops to 0).

Step 17: Lower the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 18: Connect the CH2 SESCOPE input to the power amplifier
output.

Here you get a picture with overshooting, undershooting and

oscillations.

Step 19: Raise the power amplifier.

The overshooting will increase and also the undershooting.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 43

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Explain that.

Step 20: Add the upper B feedback amplifier to the system.

Motor Dynamo

Adder
IN1 Power M D
Vref2
Amplifier
Out M+ M- D+ D-
IN2 + A
-

IN3 + Feedback
- Amplifier

B CH2

Step 21: Return the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 22: Raise the feedback amplifier and check the dynamo voltage
(speed) behavior and the power amplifier output at various gains of the
power amplifier.

Step 23: Draw the dynamo output signal and the power amplifier
output signal in relation to the reference voltage at the following states:

a) Vr = 3.0V
A=1
B=1
b) Vr = 2.5V
A=2
B=1
c) Vr = 2.5V
A=3
B=2

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 44

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 24: Add the lower B feedback amplifier to the system. This
amplifier is actually and landing.

In 1 state the 0.1 (1:10) ratio is received, in 5 state the 0.5

(1:2) ratio

is received, and in 10 state the 1 (1:1) ratio is received.

Motor Dynamo

Adder
IN1 Power M D
Vref2
Amplifier
Out M+ M- D+ D-
IN2 + A
-

IN3 + Feedback
- Amplifier

B CH2

Step 25: Return the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 26: Change the feedback landing and check the dynamo voltage
(speed) behavior and the power amplifier input at various gains of the
power amplifier.

Step 27: Draw the dynamo output signal and the power amplifier
output signal in relation to the reference voltage at the following states:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 45

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

a) Vr = 3.0V
A=1
B=1
b) Vr = 2.5V
A=2
B = 0.5
c) Vr = 2.5V
A=3
Step 28: Add the PI amplifier to the system as described in the
following drawing:

PI Amplifier
KI
Motor Dynamo

Adder
IN1 Power M D
Vref2
Amplifier
M+ M- D+ D-
IN2 + A
- Out

IN3 +
- Feedback

B CH2

We see the signals, which refer to the oscillator signal at the adder
output, the PI output, the power amplifier output and the dynamo output.

A recommended states table for KI, KP, A and B will be added to the
experiment.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 46

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The PI allows overcoming the steady state error, but decreases the
system's reaction to errors changes or changes in the controlled variable.

Step 29: Return the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 30: Change the feedback landing and check the dynamo voltage
(speed) behavior and the power amplifier input at various gains of the
power amplifier.

Step 31: Draw the dynamo output signal and the power amplifier output
signal in relation to the reference voltage at the following states:
a) Vr = 3.0V
A=1
B=1
b) Vr = 2.5V
A=2
B = 0.5
c) Vr = 2.5V
A=3
B = 0.1

Step 32: Add the PD amplifier to the systems as described in the

following drawing:

PD Amplifier PI Amplifier
KD KI
Motor Dynamo

Adder
IN1 Power M D
Vref2
Amplifier
M+ M- D+ D-
IN2 + A
- Out

IN3 +
- Feedback

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering B CH2 Page | 47

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

We see the signals, which refer to the oscillator signal at the adder
output, the PI output, the power amplifier output and the dynamo output.

Step 33: Return the power amplifier gain to 1.

Step 34: Change the feedback landing and check the dynamo voltage
(speed) behavior and the power amplifier input at various gains of the
power amplifier.

Step 35: Draw the dynamo output signal and the power amplifier
output signal in relation to the reference voltage at the following states:

a) Vr = 3.0V
A=1
B=1
b) Vr = 2.5V
A=2
B = 0.5
c) Vr = 2.5V
A=3
B = 0.1

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 48

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

COMMUNICATIONS LABORATORY (400L)

Table of Contents

Experiment 1:
AM Amplitude Modulation

Experiment 2:
Amplitude Demodulation (AM Detection)

Experiment 3:
Frequency Modulation (FM Modulation)

Experiment 4a:
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Experiment 4b:
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

Experiment 5:
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Experiment 5:
Oscillators

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 49

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 1 – AM Amplitude Modulation

Aim:
The aim of the experiment is to generate amplitude modulated wave (AM) with
different modulation coefficients
Objectives:
The specific objectives for this experiment are to:
i. create a modulating and carrier wave,
ii. measure the power and frequency of modulating and carrier waves,
iii. measure the power of the modulated wave,
iv. determine the modulation coefficients at the different modulated outputs, and
v. find signal efficiency for at different coefficients.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Define Modulation.
2. Why is Modulation necessary in communication system?
3. What is a Baseband signal?
4. What do you understand by carrier signal? State the frequency range of a
carrier signal.
5. Define Amplitude Modulation.
6. What is modulation coefficient? State its expression.
7. Write an expression for the total power of the Amplitude Modulated wave.
8. What is the efficiency of AM signal? State is formula
9. What are the applications of AM system?
10. What is the major shortcoming of an AM signal?

Theory
In order to transmit information, we assemble the information signals having the
frequency in the audio range (20 Hz to 10 KHz) on a radio wave the high frequency

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 50

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

wave (10KHz to 1000GHz). This assembling operation is called modulation. The

radio wave is used as a "carrier" wave, which carries the information.
The wave we assemble on the carrier wave is called information or "modulating
wave"
The transmitted wave composed of the "carrier wave" and the "modulating wave"
and it is referred to as "modulated wave".

Therefore, amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which amplitude of the carrier
wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal. The
envelope of the
modulating wave has the same shape as the base band signal provided the following two req
uirements are satisfied;

1. The carrier frequency fc must be much greater then the highest frequency component
s fm of the message signal m (t)

i.e. fc >>fm

2.
The modulation index must be less than unity. If the modulation index is greater than unity, t
he carrier wave becomes over modulated.

There are three parameters that determine the information carried by a sine wave –
its amplitude, its phase and its frequency. We can change each of those carrier wave
parameters (the high frequency wave) according to the changes in the modulating
wave (the information wave). As said, earlier this operation is called modulation and
the wave created is called modulated wave.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 51

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

When we change the amplitude of the carrier wave according to the modulating
wave, it is called Amplitude Modulation (AM).

Figure 1.1 shows the modulating wave, which is called the modulating signal wave;
the high frequency wave, which is called the carrier wave; and the modulated wave,
which is called the carrier (AM) wave. It can be seen that the modulated wave is in
effect the signal wave "riding" on the carrier wave.

From figure 1.1, it can be seen that the AM wave contains the information in its
envelope or shape, which is carried by the carrier wave at a high frequency.
Therefore, the AM wave enables information at low frequencies to be transmitted at
much higher frequencies, as may be required.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 52

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1.1: Modulating, Carrier and Amplitude Modulated Waves

We shall now develop the mathematical expressions that represent AM signals.

Assuming that the modulating signal is a sine wave in fm frequency:

Vm(t) = Vm cos(ωm t)

and the carrier wave is in fc frequency:

Vc(t) = Vc cos(ωc t)

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 53

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The expression representing the modulated wave is:

VAM(t) = ((Vc + Vm cos(ωm t))cos(ωc t) = A(t)cosωc t (1.1)

where:
Vc - amplitude of carrier wave
Vm - amplitude of modulating signal wave

ωc = 2π . fc , ωm = 2π . fm
Equation (1.1) describes a sine wave whose frequency fc (ωc) is that of the carrier
wave and whose amplitude A(t) is behaving as another sine wave whose frequency is

fm (ωm) with the average value of VC.

By extracting Vc from the brackets we obtain:

 V 
VAM (t ) = Vc  1 + m cos ωm t  cos ωc t = Vc (1 + m cos ωm t ) cos ωc t
 Vc    
A( t )
(1.2)

where m is called the modulation coefficient:

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
m= , and Vm = mVc
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐
The modulation coefficient shows the relationship between the original carrier wave
amplitude and the modulating signal wave amplitude. Figure 1.2 shows AM waves
with the same carrier and signal frequencies but with different modulation
coefficients.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 54

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

From the wave forms we can see a true AM, which is received if the modulation
coefficient is in the range between 0 and 1.
For m > 1 the envelope of the wave no longer resembles the signal waveform.
Usually, the modulation coefficient is indicated by percentages. For example, a wave
with m = 0.3 is called 30% modulated wave.

When Vm = Vc, a modulation coefficient of 1 is received, where the modulated wave

power changes from twice VC to 0.
If Vm > Vc (m > 1), we get excess modulation, where the information is distorted.
If we wish no distortions in the signal and no interruptions in the signal transmission,
we aim for a modulation coefficient smaller than 1.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 55

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1.2: AM Waveforms for Various Modulation Coefficients

We shall now analyze the reaction to an AM wave.

The modulated wave equation is:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 56

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

By expanding equation (1.3), we obtain the following expressions:

The equation shows that the AM wave is composed of three frequency components
at frequencies 𝜔𝜔c-ωm, ωc and ωc+ωm.

Figure 1.3: Frequency Components of an AM Wave Modulated by a Sine Wave

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 57

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

These are called the Lower Side Band, Carrier and Upper Side Band respectively as
shown above.
Recalling that mVc = Vm, we see that each of the sidebands contains the original
information (the modulating signal) at a shifted frequency (ωc±ωm instead of the
original ωm), which represent the sum and difference of the carrier and signal
frequencies.
Therefore, amplitude modulation is, in fact, a process of shifting the information
signal to two different frequencies equally spaced around the carrier frequency.
Using the
Fourier Transform, it can be shown that this holds for any wave signal, not only pure
sine waves.
Frequency spectrum band is shown in the following as containing the basic
components of an amplitude modulated wave

Figure 1.4: Information and AM Wave Spectrums

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 58

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Two important properties of AM can be seen in figure 1.4:

1) There is symmetry about the carrier frequency.

2) The bandwidth required to transmit an AM signal is exactly twice the bandwidth

of the modulating signal.

The second property is very significant when comparing AM with other modulation
techniques, as transmission bandwidth is always a characteristic parameter.
Another important parameter is the average transmitted power, defined as:

Where T is the wave's time cycle (multiples of 2π radians)

The power is a function of the square voltage. Since the voltage changes during the
signal cycle, we perform an integral (actually the unit sum) on the square voltage.
We should divide the integral result by the resistance dropping on the voltage, but
because we are only interested in the signal form, we can assume that the resistance
is 1.

The average power of a sine wave is:

From equation (1.4) and (1.5) we get:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 59

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

By using trigonometric equalities and the equation (1.5) we can prove that:

and that:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 60

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The first expression derived in equation (1.6) is the Average Carrier Power, which
we shall call Pc. The second expression is the Average Sideband Power, which we
shall call Pm. Therefore:

Hence:

Equation (1.7) shows the second characteristic of AM: the average side band power
(which is the information power) is much less than the carrier power.
For instance, 30% modulation gives:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 61

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

We can say here that, the sideband power is divided equally between two sidebands.
If the total transmitted power is 1W for example, then:

This is a major disadvantage of AM, but it is counter-balanced by other

considerations, mainly simplicity of electronic realization.
The module we will use throughout this experiment is TPS-3421. It includes sine,
triangle and square waves signal generator based on the XR-2206 component. In the
trainer, this component is connected only as a sine signal generator. The generator's
signals can be modulated as AM or FM by an external signal generator. The circuit
diagram for the experiment is shown below

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 62

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1.5: Circuit diagram

The generator frequency is determined by the C30 capacitor (which determines the
frequency to 500Hz – modulating frequecy) or the C31 capacitor (which determines
the frequency to 455KHz – carrier frequecny).
The selection between the capacitors is done by the High/Low switch as indicated on
the trainer.

The modulator has four inputs for modulated signals – one for AM and three for FM.
In this experiment, we will do an Amplitude Modulation (AM). Supplying DC
(Direct

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 63

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Current) or an alternating signal to the AM input changes the signal amplitude

accordingly.
First, we connect the modulator input to an alternate DC power source. We will
change it gradually and check its influence on the output signal amplitude. We will
check the modulator linearity and the relations between the amplitude and the input
voltage.

Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• A multimeter
• Oscilloscope
• Audio signal generator
• Banana wires

Procedure for carrying out AM Experiment

Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.

Step 3: Connect the scope's probe to the modulator output.

Step 4: Set the modulator switch to the Low position.

You should notice at the modulator output a sine signal in low frequency
(about 30Hz).

Step 5: Set the switch to the High position.

You should notice at the modulator output a sine signal in high frequency
(about 800KHz).

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 64

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 6: Connect an output of an alternate power source Vvar to the AM input of the
modulator as shown in the manual.

Step 7: Change the potentiometer and you will notice how the signal power changes
accordingly.

Step 8: Draw a table with voltages from 0V to +9V as shown in the manual. Near
each voltage, write the carrier wave amplitude.

Step 9: Calculate ∆Vc for each voltage (the difference between the previous
measurement and the next measurement).

Step 10: Calculate Ka for each ∆Vc.

ΔVC
Ka =
ΔVi

Step 11: Plot a graph of the carrier voltage against the modulating voltage in
your graph book

Step 12: Disconnect the power source output from the modulator AM input.

Step 13: Connect the audio signal generator to the modulator AM input.

Step 14: Set the generator signal to a sine wave in 1000Hz.

Step 15: Set both the trainer and the generator to receive a 50% modulated
wave.

Step 16: Draw in your graph book the signal received at the modulator output.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 65

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 17: Change the signal of the modulated wave to a triangle wave in
1000Hz frequency

Step 18: Draw in your graph book the signal received at the modulator output

Step 19: Set the generator signal to a sine wave at 1000Hz again.

Step 20: Change the generator magnitude to receive different modulation

coefficients of:

M = 0.25, m = 0.5, m = 0.75, m = 1, m > 1

Step 21: Draw in your graph book the signal of each modulation coefficient.

Step 22: Calculate Vc and Vm for every modulation coefficient.

Step 23: Compute the values of Vc-Vm, Vc+Vm for every signal.

Step 24: Calculate the signal efficiency for every coefficient.

Step 25: Set the generator signal to 4KHz

Step 26: Change the carrier wave frequency to low frequency (30KHz) by
moving the High/Low switch to Low.

Try to synchronize on the modulated wave.

Step 27: Draw the synchronized signal in your graph book.

Step 28: Explain the signal shape you've got.

Experimental Results

Complete the table as required in steps 8, 9 and 10. Draw also all the waveforms seen
on the oscilloscope in your graph book. Note: all graphs must be neatly drawn to
scale.
Show your computation in steps 22, 23 and 24 in tabular form.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 66

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Post Lab Questions

1. What will happen, if modulation index is greater than 100%?
2. What happens to AM signal if m<1 & m=1?
3. A commercial AM station is broadcasting with an average transmitted carrier
power
of 10kW; the modulation index is 0.707 for a sinusoidal message signal. Find the tra
nsmission power and efficiency.

4. Based on your results in step 24, give a statement on why AM is not frequently
used.
5. After synchronization, as required in step 27, explain the signal shape you got

Discussion of Results

Students are to give a concrete discussion of their observation in the course of the
experiment

Conclusion

Students are to give concluding remarks and make appropriate recommendation

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 67

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 2 – Amplitude Demodulation (AM Detection)

Aim:
The aim of the experiment is to create an amplitude-demodulated wave (AM
detection) from an amplitude modulated wave.
Objectives:
The specific objectives for this experiment are to:
i. create an amplitude modulated wave,
ii. demodulate the modulated signal with an envelope detector,
iii. analyze the effect of the detector time constant on the quality of detection,
and
iv. determine the input signal frequency influence on the signal shape after
detection.
Pre Lab Questions
1. Define Amplitude Demodulation
2. Briefly explain how demodulation is carried out.
3. briefly discuss the different types of AM Demodulator.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 68

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Theory

Detection means the extraction of the information (the detecting the modulating
wave) from the modulated wave.A simpler method of detection and by far the most
common one is envelope detection. This method is based on the fact that the
information is contained in the envelope of the AM waveform. The principle of
envelope detection is shown in figure 2.1.

V V V

t t t

D
AM In R C Information Out

Figure 2.1: Principle of Envelop Detection

The AM signal is half-wave rectified (usually by a diode) and then the high-
frequency carrier component is filtered out leaving the signal.

The components functions:

D A diode, which cuts the modulated wave and leaves only its positive part. The
information exists equally in the positive and negative parts of the modulated wave.
Thus, there is no practical meaning to the diode directions.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 69

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The diode also takes care that the capacitor voltage will unload in the source voltage
direction when the input voltage is lower than the capacitor voltage. The capacitor
should unload only at a RC rate.

R, C A link which enables a very fast charge to the capacitor voltage, while the
capacitor voltage discharges it slower than the rate of the carrier wave changes.

The information wave will be in the frequencies range between several Hz up to

about 20KHz (audio wave). The carrier wave will be in the frequencies range
between hundreds and thousands KHz.

Thus, there is a major difference between the information wave frequency and the
carrier wave frequency.

This difference allows us to choose this kind of RC link, which the duration of
loading and unloading of the capacitor will be fast in relation to the changes rate in
the information wave and slow in relation to the changes rate in the carrier wave.
Thus, the capacitor voltage, follow the information wave without being influenced by
the changes in the carrier wave.

From the mathematical point of view;

fm – The information wave frequency.

1
Tm = – The cycle time to the information wave.
fm

fc – The carrier wave frequency.

1
TC = – The cycle time to the carrier wave.
fC

RC is the time-constant of the detector. In order to allow a good quality detection, we

must choose values for R and C so:

Tc << RC << Tm

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 70

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

For example, if:

fm = 1000Hz  Tm = 1msec

fm = 1000MHz  Tc = 10µsec
We can choose:

RC = 100µsec; which will be received by choosing values such as:

C = 0.1µF

R = 1KΩ
Practical Envelop Detector

R1 D1 R3 C3
+ -

VAM (t) R2 C1 C2 R4 Vm (t)

Figure 2.2: Practical Diode Detector

The important step in the detection is the filtering and a practical diode envelope
detector (shown in figure 1-9) usually has a π RC filter. The electrolytic capacitor at
the output (C3) filters the DC component of the signal and provides AC isolation for
the next stage, which is the output amplifier.

The TPS-3421 AM detector is an envelope detector. It is based on a diode, which

rectifies the signal and a parallel resistor-capacitor filter. The filter time-constant
determines the detection quality.

D5 and C24 comprise the AM detector. There is a switch in the trainer, which allows
us to change to detector time-constant. The switch selects between the two resistors
R1 and R2.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 71

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• A multimeter
• Oscilloscope
• Audio signal generator
• Banana wires

Circuit Diagram

D5
Sin Sout

C24

R2 R1

Figure 2.3: AM Detector

PROCEDURE

Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.

Step 3: Connect the CH2 scope probe to the modulator output.

Step 4: Set the High/Low switch to the High position.

You should notice at the modulator output a sine signal in about 800KHz.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 72

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 5: Connect the audio generator output to the modulator AM input.

Also connect to this input the scope CH1 probe

Refer to the manual for the connection guide

Step 6: Set the generator to a sine wave in 1KHz.

Step 7: Connect a wire from the modulator output to the detector AM input.

Step 8: Set the R1/R2 switch to the R1 position.

Step 9: Move the CH2 probe from the modulator output to the detector output.

You should get a low sine signal (which you need to amplify) similar to the
generator signal.

Step 10: Draw the signals in your graph book – the modulated one (at the
detector input) and the demodulated signal at the detector output.

Step 11: Change the generator signal to a triangle wave.

Step 12: Draw the signals in your graph book – the modulated one (at the
detector input) and the demodulated signal at the detector output.

Step 13: Set the R1/R2 switch to the R2 position.

You will notice that the signal is a bit distorted.

Step 14: Explain this phenomenon.

Step 15: Change the audio generator frequency to 20KHz (modulating wave).

Step 16: Repeat steps 11-15. Explain why there is a difference in the signal
shape at the detector output.

Step 17: Change the modulating wave frequency gradually.

Step 18: Set the audio generator frequency to 1000Hz.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 73

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 19: Move the High/Low switch to Low. The carrier wave frequency will
change to 30KHz.

Step 20: Draw the signals in your graph book – the modulated one (at the
detector input) and the demodulated signal at the detector output.

Step 21: Explain this phenomenon.

Step 22: Set the R1/R2 switch to the R1 position.

Explain how it affects the shape of the output signal.

Step 23: Change the audio generator signal to a sine signal.

Step 24: Check the signal shape in R1 position and in R2 position.

Experimental Results

Draw all the waveforms shown on the oscilloscope in your graph book very neatly.

Put all readings in tabular form

Post Lab Question

1. Explain the phenomenon as required in step 14

2. After changing the modulating frequency gradually as stated in step 17, in which
frequencies you get distortions at the detector output with the R1 resistor?

After setting R1/R2 switch to the R1 position, how does it affect the shape of the
output signal?

Discussion of Results

Students are to give a concrete discussion of their observation in the course of the
experiment.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 74

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Conclusion

Students are to give concluding remarks and make appropriate recommendation.

Experiment 3 - FM Modulation

Objectives:

• Creating a modulated FM wave.

• The influence of the input voltage on the signal frequency at the modulator
output.
• Measurement and calculation of the frequency deviation.
• Calculation of the modulation coefficient.
• Observing and analyzing modulated signals by a sine modulated wave.
• Measurement and calculation of the maximum frequency deviation.
Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• A multitester
• Frequency counter
• Oscilloscope
• Audio signal generator
• Banana wires
Discussion:

3.1 Frequency modulation and phase

The frequency modulated wave has a constant power and its frequency is changing
as a function of time:

V(t ) = VC ⋅ cos(2πf (t ))

Another description of a frequency modulated wave is as follows:

V(t ) = VC ⋅ cos(2π(f C + fd(t )t )) (1.8)

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 75

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

fd(t) indicates the frequency deviation from the carrier wave frequency, which comes
from the modulated wave. The frequency deviation depends on the modulated wave
power.

f d = K f ⋅ Vm (1.9)

Kf is the constant, which describes the connection between the frequency deviation
and the modulated wave voltage.

Vm (the maximum power of the modulating wave) will cause a maximum frequency
deviation. Thus, fd (not fd(t)) is called a maximum frequency deviation.

The wave described in equation (1.8) is hard to analyze. Mathematical dismantling of

this wave will give the customary equation of a frequency modulated wave:

V(t ) = VC ⋅ cos(2πf C t + β( 2πf m t ))

(1.
10)

Where:

Vc - The power of the carrier wave.

fc - The frequency of the carrier wave.

fn - The frequency of the modulating wave.

β - The modulation coefficient.

The modulation coefficient is the relation between the maximum frequency deviation
and the frequency modulating wave.

fd
β=
fm

There is no connection between fd and fm.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 76

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

fm is the frequency modulating wave. It determines the frequency change rate, but
not the maximum deviation frequency.

fd is the maximum frequency deviation, which is determined by the modulating wave

amplitude and not its frequency.

The change in the modulated wave frequency is in the range fc±fd. Thus, the
frequency change range is 2fd.

β allows us to analyze the wave mathematically and its spectrum.

Observing equation (1.10) we can see that it looks as follows:

V(t ) = VC (2πf C t + ∅(t )) (1.11)

Thus, this equation also suits phase modulation.

This is true, because phase modulation and frequency modulation, even though they
are created differently, they create a wave, which behaves similarly (mathematically
and practically).

3.2 Frequency Reaction

Fourier transform of a frequency modulation wave equation (or phase) shows that the
wave is composed of:

• Carrier wave in fc frequency and VC ⋅ J o (β) power.

• Waves in f C ± n ⋅ f m frequencies and VC ⋅ J n (β) power for n>0.
Jn(β) are Bessel functions of the first kind of order n and argument β. β appears in
brackets because the Bessel functions are dependent on β.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 77

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The Bessel functions are described in the following table:

β 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 β

n n

0 1.00 0.99 0.94 0.77 0.22 0.18- 0.25- 0

1 0.05 0.10 0.24 0.44 0.58 0.33- 0.04 1

2 0 0 0.03 0.11 0.35 0.05 0.25 2

3 0 0.02 0.13 0.36 0.06 3

4 0 0.03 0.39 0.22- 4

5 0 0.26 0.23- 5

6 0.13 0.01- 6

7 0.05 0.22 7

8 0.02 0.32 8

9 0 0.29 9

10 0.21 10

11 0.12 11

12 0.06 12

13 0.03 13

14 0.01 14

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 78

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Table 1 – Bessel Function of order n as modulation function

We see that the Bessel functions are not necessarily drops all the time as n grows. Jo
is also not necessarily the most powerful. Despite this, we can see that the Bessel
functions are getting smaller as n grows.

Certain β arguments have a final number of waves (β=0.5 for example) and some
have infinite number of waves.

The width of the frequency modulation wave band is described by the Carson
equation:

BWFM = 2(fd + fm)

The bandwidth equals the maximum frequency deviation + the frequency modulating
wave multiply by two, because:

fd
β= ⇒ fd = β ⋅ fm
fm

Let's put fd in the equation and we will get:

BWFM = 2(β ⋅ f m + f m ) ⇒ BWFM = 2(β + 1)f m

3.3 Measuring the frequency deviation

Frequency modulated wave changes its frequency all the time. If we present one
cycle of the signal on the scope screen, we get different waves in the range between
the following two lines:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 79

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

t
1 2

T2

T1
The First Cycle Time This time difference is
relative to the frequency
deviation multiply by 2

Figure 1-11

All the waves start at the same point on the scope (according to the synchronization),
but end at a different place. If we tune the waves by changing the synchronized Level
to the middle of the signal, we get a difference in the end time of the waves, which is
dependent on the wave frequency deviation. The maximum time difference between
the waves depends on the maximum frequency deviation (in fact in 2 ⋅ f d ).

You can calculate the maximum frequency deviation fd as follows:

1 1
2f d = −
T1 T2
3.4 Creating a frequency modulated wave

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 80

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

There are many different practical methods of frequency modulation. Some are
derived from a differential equation whose solution are FM signals, while others
involve modulation of a square wave or a triangular wave and then filtering the result
through an appropriate filter.

The method we shall discuss is based on a Voltage Controller Oscillator (VCO).

A VCO is an oscillator circuit, whose frequency of oscillation is determined by a DC

or low frequency AC voltage or current. One way to obtain a VCO is to replace the
capacitor in the resonance circuit of an oscillator with a Voltage Variable
Capacitance capacitor (VVC), whose capacitance is a function of the voltage applied
across it.

A VCO based on a Hartley oscillator is shown in figure 1-12.

Vcc

L1
C2

R1 L2
C3
P1
Q1

VV
C1 R2
R3Figure 1-12

If instead of controlling the frequency with a DC voltage, a low frequency signal is

connected to the VVc, and the frequency of the oscillator will vary according to the
low frequency signal, and an FM signal will be obtained.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 81

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

There are different VCO components. Some of them create a square wave and some
sinusoidal wave.

An ideal VCO is one where the frequency dependence on the voltage is linear.

Most of the time, the linear range of the VCO is limited to a relatively narrow range
of output frequencies and input voltages. Any way we don't need a too wide range
because it will enlarge the needed bandwidth of the transmitting signal.

A typical characteristics of VCO looks like these:

fout fout

Vi Vi

Figure 1-13

Sometimes, frequency change in a wide range (because the Vi change of the VCO)
also influences the wave power at the output. Again, in the narrow range of output
voltages, this change is negligible.

The circuit includes 3 FM inputs: FM1, FM2 and FM3.

The FM1 input is a direct coupling input. The input resistor is 33KΩ.

The FM2 input is coupled via 10KΩ resistor for FM fine tuning.

The FM3 input is coupled through a capacitor in order to inject an AC signal with a
DC voltage.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 82

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Questions:

1) What affects the β modulation depth coefficient - the power modulating

wave or the frequency modulating wave?
2) What are the frequencies and power of harmonies of a FM modulated
wave for:
β=05 and for: β=2

when the carrier wave is: VC ( t ) = 5 ⋅ cos( 2π ⋅ 450K ⋅ t )

3) What is the required bandwidth for the each β?

4) Calculate the modulation coefficient of the following signal:

t
1 2

T
T

T1 =
1
The modulating wave frequency is 2KHz.

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.

Step 3: Connect the scope probe to the modulator output.

Step 4: Move the High/Low switch to the High position.You should see a sine signal
in 800KHz frequency at the modulator output.

Step 5: Connect the voltage output Vvar to the modulator FM1 input.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 83

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 6: Check if you get the following system:

AM/FM Modulator
Scope

AM OUT

FM1 VCO
FM2 High
Vvar
FM3

Low

Step 7: Change the potentiometer and see how the signal frequency is changing
accordingly.

Step 8: Write a table with voltages in the range 0V up to +10V. By each voltage,
write the measured frequency.

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Vi 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

∆F

Kf

Step 9: For each measured voltage calculate ∆F (the difference between the previous
measure and the next one).

Step 10: Calculate Kf for each ∆F.

ΔF
Kf =
V

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 84

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 11: Draw a graph of the frequency dependence on the VCO voltage.

Vi

Step 12: Disconnect the variable voltage source from the FM1 input.

Step 13: Connect the Vvar output to the FM2 input.

Step 14: Change the potentiometer and see how the signal frequency is
changing accordingly.

Step 15: Write a table with voltages in the range 0V up to +10V. By each
voltage, write the measured frequency.

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Vi 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

∆F

Kf

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 85

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 16: For each measured voltage calculate ∆F (the difference between the
previous measure and the next one).

Step 17: Calculate Kf for each ∆F.

ΔF
Kf =
V
Step 18: Draw a graph of the frequency dependence on the VCO voltage.
f

Vi
Step 19: Disconnect the variable voltage source from the FM2 input.

Step 20: Connect the generator output to the modulator FM2 input in 1KHz
frequency.

AM/FM Modulator
Scope

AM OUT

FM1 VCO
Signal
FM2 High
Generator
FM3

Low

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 86

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The generator signal includes a 6V DC component. The DC component determines

the average frequency (carrier wave frequency).

The purpose of the FM2 resistance is to lower the DC influence.

Step 21: Gradually raise the generator signal power and observe the signal behavior
on the scope.

Step 22: Set the modulationg wave power to 1Vp-p.

Step 23: Change the scope's base time selector, so it will show only one signal cycle
on the screen.

Step 24: Calculate the maximum frequency deviation, the modulation coefficient and
the desired bandwidth.

Step 25: Repeat steps 21-24 and fill up the following table.

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Vp-p 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

fd

BW

Step 26: Change the carrier wave frequency to low frequency (30KHz) by
moving the High/Low switch to Low.

Try to synchronize on the modulated wave.

Step 27: Change the SESLAB switch from Manual to Auto.

Step 28: Connect the TPS-3421 to a PC and run the SESCOPE software.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 87

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 29: Connect the generator output (the modulating signal) to the SESLAB CH1
input.

Step 30: Connect the AM modulator output to the SESLAB CH2 input.

Step 31: Set the time base to 30µs/cm.

Step 32: Perform One Cycle sample.

Step 33: Measure the modulated signal frequency once at the maximum stage of the
modulating signal and once at the minimum stage of the modulating signal.

Step 34: Calculate the maximum frequency deviation, the modulation coefficient and
the desired bandwidth.

Experiment report:

1) Gather all you experiments results and measures. Above each result in the table write
the experiment name and draw the experiment circuit.
2) Compare the measured value to the written value.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 88

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

Experiment 4a: PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)
Aim:

The aim of this experiment is to generate a pulse amplitude modulated signal from
the message and sampling signals and thereafter recover the original message signal.

Objectives

The specific objectives are to:

i. create a message signal,

ii. determine the power and frequency of the message signal,
iii. create a sampling signal,
iv. determine the power and frequency of the sampling signal,
v. compare the frequencies of message and sampling signals,
vi. create a pulse amplitude modulated signal,
vii. produce a reconstructed message signal, and
viii. compare the frequencies of the reconstructed signal with original message
signal.

Pre Lab Questions

1. What do you understand by message signal?
2. Explain the term sampling.
3. State the Nyquist theorem.
4. What is sampling rate.
5. Briefly discuss the types of sampling techniques for transmitting signal using
PAM.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 89

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Theory

Representation of Analog and Digital Signals

Analog communication signals, such as the signal your AM radio receives, are
continuous and vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase. An example of Analog Signal
is shown in figure 3.1 below

Figure 4.1: Analog Signal

On the other hand, Digital signals are discrete, discontinuous pulses that have one of
two voltage levels. They are represented in bits as either 1s or 0s.
In these experiments therefore, we will learn the following basic pulse modulation
techniques:
1. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)

2. PULSE TIME MODULATION (PTM)

3. PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM

As we shall see in the course of this laboratory exercise, the signals below represent
the fundamental pulse modulation components.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 90

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 4.3 (a): Pulse Modulation Components (Message signal, sampling signal,
PAM signal, PWM signal and PPM signal)

Figure 4.3 (b): Pulse Modulation Components (Message signal and PCM signal)

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 91

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Generally, Pulse modulation produces discontinuous pulses that represent amplitude

samples of the analog message signal. As earlier pointed out, these pulse
modulations include;
• pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)
• pulse-width modulation (PWM)
• pulse-position modulation (PPM) and
• Pulse code modulation (PCM)
PWM and PPM are types of pulse time modulation (PTM).

Digital Signal Processing

Figure 4.4: Processing of Digital Signal

In pulse modulation, the message signal is the modulating signal; and the sample
signal is the carrier signal. The message signal modulates the sample signal to
produce the pulse modulated signal (PAM, PWM, or PPM).
Although pulse-modulated signals are discontinuous, these pulses are not true digital
signals.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 92

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

PAM, PWM, and PPM are, respectively, the pulse equivalents of AM, FM, and PM
of analog carrier signals. To understand digital communications, you must
understand pulse sampling and modulation.
For pulse-modulated signals to contain all of the intelligence in the analog message
signal, then sample frequency (fs) must be greater than two times the maximum
message signal frequency i.e. fs > 2fm. This theorem is called Nyquist Theorem.
Sampling rate is the rate at which the analog signal is sampled to produce the actual
representation of the original signal.
Note that, Pulse-modulated signals, such as PAM, PWM, and PPM, are not
transmitted directly but in most cases are used to frequency-modulate an analog
carrier. Whereas, PCM signal, which is a true digital code, can be transmitted by
digital computing methods.

Pulse Modulation Process

Figure 4.5: Pulse Modulation Process

In a receiver, a low-pass filter reconstructs (demodulates) PAM, PWM, and PPM

signals into a recovered message signal. PCM and DM signals are first decoded and
partially reconstructed before a low-pass filter recovers the message signal.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 93

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Definition of the Key Terms

Message signal – This is an analog signal that contains information (intelligence).

Carrier signal – This is a high-frequency transmission signal that is modulated by a

message signal; in pulse modulation, the carrier signal is the sample signal.

Amplitude samples – They are periodic pulses whose amplitudes are directly
proportional to a message signal

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – This is a modulation method in which the

amplitude of each pulse sample is proportional to the amplitude of the message
signal at the time of sampling.

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) – This is a type of pulse modulation where the timing
of the pulse varies with the message signal's amplitude.

Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) - This is a type of PTM where the pulse width
varies with the message signal's amplitude.

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) –This is also a type of PTM where the pulse
position varies with the message signal's amplitude.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) – It is a modulation process that produces binary

serial codes for amplitude samples of the analog message signal.

Circuit Block Diagram

For the sake of these experiments, circuit block is recommended by the experimental
board manufacturer.

Figure 4.6: Pulse Modulations Circuit Block

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 94

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Note that, throughout these experiments, circuit sections will be connected together
with what is called two-post connectors. The picture of a two-post connector is
shown below.

Figure 4.7: A two-post connector

Materials/Equipment required for experiment

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

F.A.C.E.T. base unit

DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 1 circuit board

Multimeter

Dual Channel Oscilloscope

Signal Generator

PAM Procedure
In this experiment, the students will observe and analyse the message, sampling,
PAM and recovered message signals

PROCEDURE

1. On the PAM circuit block shown in figure 3.6, insert a two-post connector
between M2 and the SAMPLER’s input.

2. Insert a two-post connector between the SAMPLER and the FILTER.

3. Set Oscilloscope channel 1 to 2V/div, and set the sweep to 0.1ms/div. Trigger ON
channel 1

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 95

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

4. Connect the channel 1 probe to the test terminal at the SAPLER’s M2 message
signal input.

5. Check to see that the M2 message signal is about 5V pk-pk and 2KHz

6. Set Oscilloscope channel 2 to 2V/div, and set the vertical mode to ALT or DUAL.

7. Connect the channel 2 probe to the test terminal at the SP (sample pulse) terminal

8. Find out the SP (sample pulse) frequency.

9. Connect the channel 2 probe to the SAMPLER’s output to observe and discuss the
PAM signal.

10. Connect the channel 2 probe to the FILTER’s output

11. Set channel 2 of the oscilloscope to 200Mv/div.

12. The FILTER’s output on the oscilloscope is known as recovered message signal.

13. Compare the frequency of the recovered signal to that of the message signal.

16. Is there any similarity?

Post – Lab Questions

1. Based on your result in step 8, give a statement of the theorem that gives a
condition for recovering the original message signal

2. Based on the result in step 9, what deductions can you make?

3. From your result in step 13, is there any similarity in the frequency of the
recovered message signal and the original message signal

Experimental Results

1. Students are required to calculate the power and the frequency of both the
message and sampling signals and represent them in tabular form.
2. They are also required to determine the power and frequency of the recovered
message signal and compare the results of the original message and the

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 96

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

recovered message signals and state the reason why there is variation in the
amplitudes of both signals.

Discussion of Results

Students are to give a concrete discussion of their observation in the course of the
experiment

Conclusion

Students are to give concluding remarks and make appropriate recommendation

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 97

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 4b: PULSE TIME MODULATION (PTM)

Aim:

The aim of this experiment is to generate a Pulse Time Modulated (PTM) signals
from the message and sampling signals and thereafter recover the original message
signal.

Objectives

The specific objectives are to:

i. create a message signal,

ii. determine the power and frequency of the message signal,
iii. create a sampling signal,
iv. determine the power and frequency of the sampling signal,
v. compare the frequencies of message and sampling signals,
vi. create a pulse width and pulse position modulated signals,
vii. produce reconstructed message signals, and
viii. compare the frequencies of the reconstructed signals with original message
signal.

Pre-Lab Questions

1. What do you understand by Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)?

2. Differentiate between Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Pulse Position
Modulation (PPM)
3. What is meant by a reconstructed message signal?
4. Differentiate between Analog and Digital signals.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 98

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Theory

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) – This is a type of pulse modulation where the timing
of the pulse varies with the message signal's amplitude. This is in contrast to Pulse
Amplitude Modulation where the amplitude varies

The Pulse Time Modulation is divided into Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

PWM is sampling the message at regular intervals with a sample hold (SH) signal
and producing pulse widths proportional to the message signal's amplitude at the
time of sampling. A pulse edge is modulated (the edge position varies). The un-
modulated edges are equally spaced. The PWM pulses have equal amplitudes. Pulse-
position modulation (PPM) signals are generated from PWM signals. PPM signals
are narrow, fixed-amplitude pulses with a varying position proportional to the
message signal's amplitude at the time of sampling. The position of the PPM pulse is
relative to the SH signal, and the distance between PPM pulses varies with the
message signal's amplitude.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 99

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5.1: Pulse Time Modulation waveforms

Figure 5.2: PTM’s signal frequency domain

The frequency domain of a PTM signal is very complex. In addition to containing the
message signal frequency, the PTM first replica may contain the sampling frequency
(fs) and several sidebands separated by a frequency equal to the message signal's
frequency (fm). Because of the additional lower sidebands in the first replica, the
sampling frequency (fs) must be higher than is necessary in PAM. In order to have

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 100

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

sufficient spacing between the message and lowest sideband frequencies, a PTM
signal should be sampled at a rate (fs) several times the maximum message signal
frequency (fm).

Figure 5.3: PTM’s process

Note: A PTM signal is demodulated through low-pass filtering.

Circuit Diagram

In this experiment, circuit blocks will be used in place of circuit diagram as given by
the manufacturer of the experimental module.

Figure 5.4: Pulse Width Modulation Circuit block

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 101

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5.5: Pulse Position Modulation Circuit block

Note that, circuit sections will be connected together with what is called two-post
connectors. The picture of a two-post connector is shown below

Figure 5.6: Two-Post connector

Materials/Equipment required for experiment

1. F.A.C.E.T. base unit
2. DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 1 circuit board
3. Multimeter
4. Dual Channel Oscilloscope
5. Signal Generator

PULSE TIME MODULATION (PTM) CIRCUIT BLOCK SIGNALS

In this experiment, the students will observe and analyse the message, Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM), Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) and recovered message
signals

PROCEDURE
1. Using the PTM and PAM circuit blocks, shown in figures 4.4 and 4.5, connect the
PTM modulation and demodulation circuit s by inserting the 3 two-post connectors
in the positions shown in the diagram.

Note: a two-post connector is shown in figure 4.6

Note: The FILTER in the PAM circuit block recovers the message signal.

2. Set Oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to 2V/div, and set the sweep to 0.1ms/div.
Trigger ON channel

3. Connect the channel 1 probe to the SAPLER/HOLD M1 input.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 102

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

4. Connect the channel 2 probe to PWM at the COMPARATOR’s output.

5. With the LEVEL control knob, adjust the oscilloscope for clear message signal on
channel 1.

6. Adjust the POSITIVE SUPPLY potentiometer knob on the base unit, a PWM
signal on appears on channel 2.

7. Explain the signal observed on channel 2.

8. Connect the channel 2 probe to the FILTER’s output in the PAM circuit block to
observe and explain the reconstructed message signal.

9. Set channel 2 to 0.2 ms/div

10. What is the frequency of the reconstructed M1 message signal on channel 2?

11. Compare this with the message signal.

12. Remove the two-post connector between the COMPARATOR and the LIMITER
circuits and insert it between the PULSE LENGHT and LIMITER circuits.

13. Connect the channel 2 probe to PPM at the PULSE LENGHT’s output.

14. Set channel 2 to 0.1 ms/div

15. Explain the signal observed on channel 2.

16. Set channel 2 of the oscilloscope to 200Mv/div. and set the sweep to 0.2ms/div

17. Connect the channel 2 probe to the FILTER’s output in the PAM circuit block to
observe and explain the reconstructed message signal.

18. What is the frequency of the reconstructed M1 message signal on channel 2?

Post – Lab Questions

1. After performing the action required in step 6, explain the signal observed in
channel 2 of the oscilloscope

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 103

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

2. Based on your results in step 9, what is the frequency of the reconstructed M1

message signal on channel 2? Compare this frequency with that of the original
message signal

3. Based on Step 14, explain the signal that appears on channel 2 of the oscilloscope

4. After carrying out the instruction required in step 17, what is the frequency of the
reconstructed M1 message signal on channel 2?

Experimental Results
Every student is expected to plot graphs neatly and to scale where necessary.

All computations are to be collated and present in tabular form

Discussion of Results

Students are to give a concrete discussion of their observation in the course of the
experiment

Conclusion

Students are to give concluding remarks and make appropriate recommendation

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 104

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 5: PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)

Aim:

The aim of this experiment is be able to demonstrate pulse-code modulation (PCM)

and Time division multiplexing (TDM) by using the PCM circuit block on the
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 1 circuit board.

Objectives:

The specific objectives are to:

i. create message signal,

ii. create sampling signal,
iii. demonstrate pulse code modulation,
iv. describe the process for converting analog signals to PCM signals.,
v. describe how PCM signals are demodulated, and
vi. read and decode PCM signals.

Pre – Lab Questions

1. What is the meaning of the acronym CODEC?

2. Define pulse code modulation.
3. State the advantages of PCM.
4. Briefly discuss the basic steps required in the process of PCM.

Theory

Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is sampling the voltage of an analog signal and

converting each sample into an 8-bit serial digital code. PCM signals are a series of
8-bit codes that represent the analog signal.
The figure below is an encoder/decoder that takes in analog input and produces a
PCM signal.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 105

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 6.1: Pulse Code Modulation process

Operation

A CODEC (encoder/decoder) IC performs the analog-to-digital conversion

(encoding) for the transmission of PCM signals.

The CODEC simultaneously performs the digital-to-analog conversion (decoding) on

the received PCM signals.

Digital communications systems, such as telephone switching and transmission

networks, use CODECs extensively for pulse-code modulation and demodulation of
voice signals.

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is the process by which many channels of PCM

signals representing different messages are transmitted over the same line.

The outputs of each CODEC, which may be located in different communication

devices, can be connected to a common transmission line.

From each CODEC, a series of 8-bit PCM signals representing each message signal
is output.

The PCM signal's assigned time period on the transmission line is called a time slot.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 106

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

A frame is a group of repeating PCM time slots, which are transmitted over the same
line.

Some advantages of PCM transmission are:

• lower cost

• ease of multiplexing

• ease of switching

• less noise problems

Overall, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. The industry trend is toward
100% digital communications networks.

Circuit Diagram

As stated in the earlier experiments, circuit blocks will be used in place of circuit
diagram as given by the manufacturer of the experimental module.

The PCM circuit block shown below includes CODEC 1 and CODEC 2

The M1 message is input to CODEC 1 and the M2 message is input to CODEC 2

Figure 6.2: PCM Circuit block

Materials/Equipment required for experiment

1. F.A.C.E.T. base unit

2. DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 1 circuit board

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 107

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3. Dual Channel Oscilloscope

4. Signal Generator

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) CIRCUIT BLOCK SIGNALS

In this experiment, the students will observe and analyse the message signals, the
sampling, time-division multiplexed PCM signals and the recovered message signal

NB: Refer to the manual for the diagrams

PROCEDURE

1. Make the connections shown in the diagram in the PCM circuit block. Enable CM
17 and CM 18 for full-duplex transmission.

2. Using 3 two-post connectors, connect M1 to AX at CODEC 1, CODEC 1 to

CODEC 2 and M2 to AX CODEC 2

3. Set Oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to 2V/div, and set the sweep to 0.2ms/div.

4. At CODEC 1, connect the channel 1 probe to M1

5. At CODEC 2, connect the channel 2 probe to M2

6. At CODEC 2, connect the channel 2 probe to AR.

7. At CODEC 1, connect the channel 2 probe to AR

8. At CODEC 2, connect the channel 1 probe to AX

9. As indicated in the diagram, a common transmission line connects CODEC 1 and

CODEC 2.

10. Set the sweep to 10𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

11. Connect the external probe to M1 at CODEC 1, trigger ON EXT.

12. At CODEC 1, connect the channel 1 probe to SX

13. At CODEC 2, connect the channel 2 probe to DR

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 108

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

14. At CODEC 2, connect the channel 1 probe to SX

27. What is the space between the two PCM signals on channel 2?

Post – Lab Questions

1. Explain the term full duplex communication

2. Based on step 2, is M1 5V pk – pk, 1KHz sine wave and M2 5V pk – pk
2KHz sine wave?
3. Based on steps 4 and 5, what is the ratio of the M2 frequency to the M1
𝐹𝐹
frequency�𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀2 �?
𝑀𝑀1

4. After performing the action on step 6, what is the frequency of the recovered
M1 message signal from CODEC 2?
5. How do you juxtapose the answer in Q. 4 above with the transmitted M2
message signal at CODEC 2?
6. Basically, how many multiplexing methods do we have? Name them.
7. Based on the answer provided for Q. 7 above, what multiplexing method is
used to transmit different message signals in opposite directions over the same
transmission line between CODEC 1 and CODEC
8. Based on step 13, what signal(s) is observed in channel 2? Describe it
9. Based on step12, what is the function of the SX signal on channel 1?
10. Based on step 14, what is the function of the SX signal on channel 1?
11. What is the space between the two PCM signals on channel 2?

Experimental Results
Every student is expected to plot graphs neatly and to scale where necessary.
All computations are to be collated and present in tabular form

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 109

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

EXPERIMENT 6: OSCILLATORS

Experiment 6.1 – Crystal Oscillator

Objectives:

• Familiarity with the transistor crystal oscillator.

• Measuring the frequency of a crystal oscillator.

Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• Signal generator
• Oscilloscope
• Banana wires
Discussion:

A transistor crystal oscillator is based on a transistor circuit with a positive feedback,

which is achieved with a capacitor between the emitter and the base.

The positive feedback causes the transistor to oscillate in a frequency determined by

the internal capacities in the transistor. This frequency is very high.

The crystal structure and its equivalence circuit are described in experiment 1.7.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 110

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

To cause the transistor to oscillate in a determined frequency, we connect a crystal to

the base, which forces the transistor to oscillate in the crystal frequency, as follows:

VCC

C1
Vo

C2

Figure 1-48

The C1 capacitor is the feedback capacitor.

The C2 capacitor is not a detour capacitor (otherwise we would not have gotten a
signal at the output). Its function is to create phase shifting to get the positive
feedback.

This capacitor is 200pF.

Procedure:

Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains and turn it ON.

Step 3: Move the crystal oscillator switch to ON.

Step 4: Connect the scope CH1 probe to the oscillator output.

Step 5: Observe the signal you get. It looks as follows:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 111

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Step 6: Ignore the lowest vibrations (caused by voltage dropping) and measure the
wave frequency.

Step 7: Compare the frequency with the crystal frequency (3MHz).

Step 8: If we want to improve the signal shape, we transfer it through a frequency

divider or a filter.

Experiment report:

1) Gather all you experiments results and measures. Above each result in the table
write the experiment name and draw the experiment circuit.
2) Compare the measured value to the written value.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 112

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 6.2 - RC Oscillator

Objectives:

• Acquainting the RC oscillator, which is based on an operational amplifier.

• Measurement and calculation of waiting signals as a function of the RC time-
constant.

Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• Oscilloscope
• Signal generator
• Banana wires

Discussion:

The RC oscillator in the trainer is based on an operational amplifier.

The operational amplifier is a multi-stage amplifier with ideal characteristics for

implementing a wide range of applications.

The ideal amplifier characteristics are:

Ri Ri= ∞ - Infinite input impedance, for the amplifier inputs influence on the
signal source to be negligible

Ro Ro= 0 - The output impedance aspires to zero, so the load in the output will
not influence the output voltage.

AV Av= ∞ - Infinite voltage gain, which is very important for the amplifier usage
in open loop and with negative feedback.

BW BW= ∞ - Infinite bandwidth for enhancing high frequency signals.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 113

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

In fact, there is no ideal amplifier. When we design a circuit, we choose an amplifier

according to the most important parameter we need. In one circuit it could be the
bandwidth and in another the input resistance. As higher our demands from the
amplifier as higher is its cost.

For many applications, a practical operational amplifier may be enough. This kind of
amplifier has:

Ri ≈ 10MΩ

R0 = 25Ω

AV = 50,000 – 100,000

BW = 20KHz – 100KHz

Most operational amplifier applications are based on feedback amplifiers. A signal

that is taken from the amplifier output and fed into its input.

The basic operational amplifier is an electronic component, which has two inputs
(inverting and non inverting) and an output. It has a differential input to easy
implementing a negative or a positive feedback. The ideal operational amplifier is an
amplifier with infinite gain and infinite input resistance, with the following symbol
and principles.

+V

V1 -
Vo
V2 +

-V

Figure 1-49

In a negative feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (+) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (-) input line.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 114

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

In a positive feedback, the input signal is supplied to the (-) input line and the
feedback signal is supplied to the (+) input line.

In an open loop (without any feedback), the amplifier gain aspires to infinity.

Vout
AV = = ∞-
V( + ) − V( − )

Because of the amplifier’s high input bias, the input currents are very low and we can
assume that they aspire to zero.

I(+) = I(-) = 0

The output voltage is equal to the difference between the two input voltages
multiplied by the infinite gain of the amplifier (we assume that it if infinite). The
actual gain can be found in the operational amplifier data sheets. In any way, the high
gain (infinite or several hundreds of thousands) causes the output voltage to aspire to
a very large voltage, positive or negative, according to the difference between the
input voltages.

The output voltage cannot go over the power supply voltage. Because of that, we will
get the following characteristics:

Vo

+V

0
V2 – V1

-V

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 115

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1-50

If V1 < V2, then Vo = +V.

If V1 > V2, then Vo = -V.

When we connect a positive feedback to the operational amplifier, it becomes an

oscillator or its output voltage balanced on one of the power supply voltages: +V or –
V (or zero if the power supply is fed from a signal source).

For example, the following circuit:

Vi -
Vo
+

R1

R2

Figure 1-51

If the input voltage Vi+ will be bigger (even a little) from the input voltage Vi-, the
output voltage will rise and with it the input voltage and so on until the output
voltage will get to the maximal voltage +V.

If the input voltage Vi+ will be smaller (even a little) then the input voltage Vi-, the
output voltage will drop and with it the input voltage and so on until the output
voltage will get to the maximal voltage –V.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 116

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The RC oscillator is based on the following circuit:

+V

VA -
Vo
C VB +

R1 -V

R2

Figure 1-52

Because of the positive feedback, the output voltage will be in one of the extreme
positions +V or –V (this circuit cannot function with a single power supply).

When VA<VB, the output voltage will be:

Vo = +V

We get:

R2
VB = + V
R1 + R 2

Because the output voltage equals +V, it will cause the capacitor to load through the
resistor R (by the time constant τ=RC) and the voltage VA will rise, aspiring to get to
+V.

When VA will pass VB a little (positive voltage), the output voltage will change and
we will get:

Vo = -V

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 117

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

R2
VB = − V
R1 + R 2

Now the capacitor will start to dissolve through the R resistor and the voltage VA will
drop, aspiring to get to –V.

When VA will drop under VB a little (negative voltage), the output voltage will
change again and we will get:

Vo = +V

VB will change to the previous value and the capacitor will start loading again.

The output signal will be a square wave between +V and –V and its frequency will
be dependent on the RC time-constant.

When we work with a single power supply, the output voltage is changing between
+V and 0V. We need voltage VB to change between two positive values, otherwise
the system will not oscillate.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 118

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The next circuit allows this:

+V

R3
R

VA
-
Vo
C +

R1
VB

R2

Figure 1-53

It is customary to choose equal resistors (R1, R2, and R3).

When the output voltage equals +V, in fact, R1 is connected to R3 in parallel and
their weighed resistance equals 12 R 2 . The VB voltage, which we get, equals 2
3 V.

When the output voltage equals 0V, in fact, R1 is connected to R2 in parallel and their
1 1
weighed resistance equals 2 R 3 . The VB voltage, which we get, equals 3 V.

1 2
The voltage VA rises and drops in the range between 3 V and 3 V and the output
voltage changes between +V and 0V.

The complete circuit in the TPS-3421 is the following one:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 119

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

+12V

TP1 +12V LED2

R39 R40
P4
R42
20K
+12V
U14A
8
3
+ 1
Sout
2
-
4

C23 C24 R45

20K

RC Osc.

Figure 1-54

This circuit includes a switch, which enables connecting another capacitor (C23) in
parallel to the existing C24 capacitor. This connection increases the capacity and RC
and decreases the signal frequency to such a rate, so you can see the LED blinking.

We can also change the time constant with a potentiometer, which changes the value
of R.

Questions:

1) If the power supply voltages are ±12V, what will be the changing range of
voltage VB in an oscillator with a double power supply?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 120

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

2) If R=20KΩ and C=0.01µF, what will be the oscillator frequency with a double
power supply?
3) In an oscillator with a single power supply:
V = 12V

R1 = R2 = R3 = 20KΩ

What will be the changing range of VB?

4) If R=20KΩ and C=0.01µF, what will be the oscillator frequency with a single
power supply?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 121

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Procedure:

Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.

Step 3: Turn ON the main switch of the trainer.

Step 4: Identify the RC Oscillator circuit in the trainer.

Step 5: Move the CL/CH (Capacitor Low/Capacitor High) switch to the CL position.

The LED near the oscillator should blink in low frequency.

Step 6: Change the potentiometer in the oscillator and observe the LED frequency.

Step 7: Connect the CH1 scope probe to the oscillator output Sout. Tune the scope to
the DC state and the time constant, so you will see the signal changing on the screen.

Step 8: Change the potentiometer in the oscillator and observe the LED frequency.

Step 9: Connect the CH2 scope probe to TP1. This point represents the capacitor
voltage.

Step 10: Move the CL/CH switch to CH position (high frequency).

Step 11: Change the scope time-constant, so you can see the two signals (Sout
and TP1) on the screen in a stable form.

Step 12: Draw the signals you got on the screen.

Step 13: Measure the maximal values of Sout and TP1.

Step 14: The power supply voltage is 12V. Does the values you got fits the
theory?

Step 15: Change the potentiometer to a state in which you get maximum
frequency. In this state, the potentiometer resistance is 0Ω (short). The value of R is
20KΩ and the value of the capacitor is 0.01µF.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 122

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Compare the calculated value to the measured value.

Experiment report:
1) Gather all you experiments results and measures. Above each result in the table
write the experiment name and draw the experiment circuit.
2) Compare the measured value to the written value.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 123

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 6.3 - Wein Bridge Oscillator

Objectives:

• Analyzing and materializing a Wein bridge oscillator.

• Measuring with a scope the oscillations frequency at the output.
• Measuring with a scope the oscillations frequency at the input.
• Measuring the oscillations frequency in the amplifier resistor changes in the
following input.
• Checking the influence of the feedback resistor in the inverting input on the
wave shape.
• Measuring the oscillations frequency in dependence on the power supply
voltages changes.

Equipment Required:

• TPS-3421
• Power supply
• A multitester
• Oscilloscope
• Banana wires

Discussion:

A Wein Bridge Oscillator is a special circuit, which includes an amplifier with

positive feedback.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 124

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

An amplifier with a positive feedback looks like this:

Vi -
A Vo
+

Figure 1-55

β is the feedback parameter that indicates the part of the output voltage that returned
and added to the input voltage.

The positive feedback drives the amplifier to one of its two extreme points (+V or –
V). There is a special case where the feedback voltage is the amplifier input signal.

A Vo

Figure 1-56

In this amplifier:

Vo = AβVo

There are three possible cases in this amplifier:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 125

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

1) Aβ< 1 In this case, the output voltage will bound to 0.

2) Aβ> 1 In this case, the output will be bounded to one of the extreme
voltages.

3) Aβ = 1 In this case, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.

A Wein bridge oscillator is the following amplifier:

R3

R4

Vo
+ C1
Z1
R1

R3 C2
Z2

Figure 1-57

If we consider the +V input voltage as the amplifier input voltage, we can treat the
amplifier as a non- inverting amplifier:

R3 R4 + R3
AV = 1 + =
R4 R4

The feedback signal is equal to:

Vo ⋅ Z 2
V+
Z1 + Z 2

Hence:

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 126

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Z2
β=
Z1 + Z 2

For the amplifier to oscillate we must have:

R 3 + R4 Z2 + R4
Aβ = ⋅ =1
R4 Z1 + Z 2

Aβ May be described as follows:

 R  1
Aβ =  1 + 3  ⋅
 R 4  1 + ZZ12

The oscillating condition only applies to a specific frequency. To calculate this

Z1
frequency, it is enough to find the condition in which the phase shift of Z2
is equal to
zero.

Z 1 R 1 + jwc11
=
Z2 R 2 jwc1 2

In our circuit:

R3 = R1 = R

C1 = C2 = C

We will get:

1
f= Prove this.
2Π R C

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 127

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The TPS-3421 Wein bridge oscillator is the following one:

TP4
+12V
R37
R100
R38
TP2 10K

4 U13A
P5 4 U13B
2 R39
- 1 5
3 - 7
4.7K + 20K 6 Sout
P6 +
8 R101
R40 +12V 8
+12V 1K 10K
R102
R42 +12V
TP3
C21

R41 C20

Figure 1-58

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 128

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Questions:

1) In the following circuit:

R3

R4
-

Vo

+ C1
Z1
R1

R3 C2
Z2

We use the following components:

• R3 = 33KΩ
• R4 = 10KΩ
• R1 = 1.5KΩ
• R2 = 1.5KΩ
• C1 = 0.1µF
• C2 = 0.1µF
Calculate the frequency oscillations in this circuit.

2) On what in your opinion, the relation changes between R1 and R2 will influence?
3) On what in your opinion, the relation changes between R3 and R4 will influence?
4) Most times we connect an inverter amplifier at the oscillator output. What is the
function of this amplifier?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 129

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the TPS-3421 to the power supply.

Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.

Step 3: Observe the Wein bridge oscillator circuit in the trainer.

Step 4: Turn ON the trainer.

Step 5: Connect the CH1 scope probe to the oscillator output.

Step 6: Change the potentiometers in the oscillator until you get a smooth and
balanced sine signal at the oscillator output.

Step 7: Measure the wave frequency. Compare the measured value with the
calculated value according to the oscillator components.

Step 8: Connect the CH2 to the amplifier V+ terminal. Observe the signal you get.

Step 9: Explain the purpose of the second amplifier.

Experiment report:

1) Gather all you experiments results and measures.

2) Compare and explain the calculated values with the measured values.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 130

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

FPGA BASED EXPERIMENTS 400L

EXPERIMENT 1: Design of 2-to-4-Line Decoder Using FPGA
DISCUSSION: Decoding is necessary in such applications as data
multiplexing, rate multiplying, memory addressing and digital-to-analog (A/D)
converters. The devices used for decoding are called decoders. A decoder is the
simplest application of combinational logic circuits.

AIM: To design a 2-to-4-Line Decoder Using FPGA Development module.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory experiment, it is

expected that students should have:-

• Been able to understand how to implement a logic design on an FPGA device.

• Been able to customize design using symbol editor in MAX+plus II software.
• Been able to assign FPGA pins accordingly as inputs and outputs or otherwise.

APPARATUS:

1. Computer system with Altera Max+Plus II software installed

2. CIC-310 CPLD/FPGA Development system ( based on Altera FPGA device

EPF8282ALC84-4)

PROCEDURE :

1. Start the MAX+plus II software in a window environment.

2. Choose the Name command from the File\Project menu and then from the
Project Name dialog box, choose the Max2Work in the directories box, and then
enter a project name by typing Cpldex\primit and click OK. After the next box is
shown, click OK to make sure to create the subdirectory of cpldex.

3. Choose the New command from the file menu. Choose the Graphic Editor file in
the dialog box and then click OK. The Graphic Editor window with untitled1-
Graphic Editor appears.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 131

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

4. Double-clicking on the space of Graphic Editor window, a black spot will be

seen. Choose Enter symbol from the symbol menu to display the Enter Symbol
dialog box.

5. With the Graphic Editor, complete the decoder circuit shown in the figure 1.
Shown below and save as decode24.gdf file.

6. With the floor plan Editor, assign the FPGA pins to I/O signals and devices as
shown in the figure 2. Below.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 132

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 2. FPGA design floor plan.

The inputs: s0=P01=S1-1, s1=P02=S1-2.

The output: m0=P55=D17, m1=P56=D18, m2=P57=D19, m3=P58=D20.

7. Compile the project.

8. Run the DNLD3 program, download the design into the CPLD/FPGA
Development System CIC-310.

9. Set the input states and record the output states in a table in your report book as
shown in the table 1. Below.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 133

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Table 1. Truth table of 2-to-4-line Decoder

s1 s0 m0 m1 m2 m3

(S1-2) (S1-1) (D17) (D18) (D19) (D20)

0 1

0 1

1 0

1 1

10. Choose create Default symbol command from the file menu and save this
graphical file as decode24.sym file in the current directory. The custom symbol can
be used in other designs like a digital I.C.

11. Construct a 3-to-8-line Decoder with its truth table, using a NOT gate with
LS74139 Decoder I.C with internal layout as shown in figure 3. Below

Figure 3. LS 74139 Decoder IC.

Reference: CPLD/FPGA Development System Experimental Manual

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 134

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

EXPERIMENT 2: Design of 4-to-1-Line Multiplexer using FPGA

DISCUSSION: A multiplexer is a digital circuit, which has multiple inputs

and one output. To determine which of the input signals will appear at the output
according to the output function, some control inputs must be added to the circuit.
For example, a multiplexer has four data inputs d0, d1, d2 and d3 and four control
inputs labeled c0, c1, c2 and c3. The Boolean expression for the output Y is

Y = d0.c0 + d1.c1 + d2.c2 + d3.c3

From the Y expression, four 2-input AND gates followed by a four-input OR gate
(AND-OR circuit) must be used.

AIM : To design a 4-to-1-Line Multiplexer circuit using FPGA Development

module

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory experiment, it is

expected that students should have:-

• Been able to understand how a multiplexer is constructed using FPGA.

• Been able to customize design using symbol editor in MAX+plus II software.
• Been able to reconfigure FPGA as desired.

APPARATUS:

1. Computer system with Altera Max+Plus II software installed

2. CIC-310 CPLD/FPGA Development system ( based on Altera FPGA device

EPF8282ALC84-4)

PROCEDURE :

1. Start the MAX+plus II software in a window environment.

2. Go to C:\Max2work\cpldex\primit

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 135

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3. Choose the New command from the file menu. Choose the Graphic Editor file in
the dialog box and then click OK. The Graphic Editor window with untitled1-
Graphic Editor appears.

4. Double-clicking on the space of Graphic Editor window, a black spot will be

seen. Choose Enter symbol from the symbol menu to display the Enter Symbol
dialog box.

5. With the Graphic Editor, design the multiplexer circuit as shown in fig 4. Save it
as seld4.gdf file.

6. With the Floor plan Editor, assign the FPGA pins to I/O signals and devices as
shown in Figure 5. Below

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 136

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5. The FPGA Floor Plan

The data inputs:

d0 = P06 = S1-5, d1 = P07 = S1-6, d2 = P08 = S1-7, d3 = P09 = S1-8.

The control inputs:

c0 = P01 = S1-1, c1 = P02 = S1-2, c2 = P03 = S1-3, c3 = P04 – S1-4.

The output y = P13 = SA1.

7. Compile this project.

8. Run the DNLD3 program, download the design into the CPLD/FPGA
Development System CIC-310.

9. Set the 6 DIG PARALLEL-SERIAL 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY to parallel mode

and connect SC1 to GND using a jumper cap. Set the input states as shown in the
table 2. below. Observe and record the output.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 137

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Table 2. Truth table of 4-to-1-Line multiplexer

c0 c2 c3 c4 y

(S1-1) (S1-2) (S1-3) (S1-4) (SA1)

1 0 0 0 d0(S1-5)

0 1 0 0 d1(S1-6)

0 0 1 0 d2(S1-7)

0 0 0 1 d3(S1-8)

10. Choose Create Default Symbol command from the file menu and save this file as
seld4.sym file in the current directory for future use.

11. Mention four application areas of multiplexer.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 138

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER

BASED EXPERIMENTS SUITABLE FOR EEG 401, EEG
423, USING PIC16F84A ( A microcontroller
manufactured by Microchip Inc.)
MODULE 1.
INTRODUCTION: The microcontroller is a complete computer control system on a single
chip. Microcontrollers include EPROM program memory, user RAM for storing program data,
timer circuits, an instruction set, special function registers, power on reset, interrupts, low
power consumption and a security bit for software protection. Some microcontrollers like the
16F818/9 devices include on board A to D converters. Microcontrollers are now changing
electronic designs. Instead of hard wiring a number of logic gates together to perform some
functions, we now use instructions to wire the gates electronically. The list of these
instructions given to the microcontroller is called a program.

The instructions we program into our microcontroller work by moving and manipulating
data in memory locations known as user files and registers. PIC16F84 Microcontrollers is an
8 bit micros, which means that the memory locations, the user files and registers are made up
of 8 binary digits as shown in Figure 1.1. Bit 0 is the Least Significant Bit (LSB) and Bit 7 is
the Most Significant Bit (MSB).

bit 7 bit 6 bit 5 bit 4 bit 3 bit2 bit1

bit0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

MSB………………………………………………………………………………………..…
………..LSB

Figure 1.1 User file and register layout

In order to step through the instructions the microcontroller needs a clock frequency to
orchestrate the movement of the data around its electronic circuits. This can be provided by 2
capacitors and a crystal or by an internal oscillator circuit.
In the 16F84 microcontroller there are 4 oscillator options.
_ An RC (Resistor/Capacitor) oscillator which provides a low cost solution.
_ An LP oscillator, i.e. 32kHz crystal, which minimises power consumption.
_ XT which uses a standard crystal configuration.
_ HS is the high-speed oscillator option.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 139

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

In order to use the microcontroller in a circuit there are basically two areas one need to
understand:
1. How to connect the microcontroller to the hardware.
2. How to write and program the code into the microcontroller.

The experiment in this module will demonstrate both. Refer to the soft copy of the book
provided, “PIC in Practice, a project based approach “ by D.W. Smith as well as PIC16F84
data sheet for more information.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 140

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

EXPERIMENT 1. : LED FLASHER

AIM: The aim of this experiment is to acquaint students with basic knowledge of
programming PIC16F84A to flash LEDs.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
(i) To gain familiarity with the PIC microcontroller.
(ii) To understand the use of Assembly language in programming PIC microcontroller and
assembling the source code to generate HEX file.
(iii) To understand the use of Proteus design software in designing circuit as well as
simulating the circuit.
(iv) To understand how to practically design a microcontroller based circuit.

APPARATUS: (i) Personal Computer with MPLAB IDE software and Proteus Schematic
design software installed. (ii) D.C Power supply and proto board for physical realization.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Design the circuit in Proteus as shown below in fig 1.2
(ii) Type in the following codes into the text editor of MPLAB IDE.

; PORTB as an OUTPUT (NB 0 means output).

;The OPTION Register is set to /256 to give timing pulses of 1/32 of a second.
;1second and 0.5 second delays are included in the subroutine section.
;*******************************************************

; EQUATES SECTION
TMR0 EQU 1 ;means TMR0 is file 1.
STATUS EQU 3 ;means STATUS is file 3.
PORTA EQU 5 ;means PORTA is file 5.
PORTB EQU 6 ;means PORTB is file 6.
TRISA EQU 85H ;TRISA (the PORTA I/O selection) is file 85H
TRISB EQU 86H ;TRISB (the PORTB I/O selection) is file 86H
OPTION_R EQU 81H ;the OPTION register is file 81H
ZEROBIT EQU 2 ;means ZEROBIT is bit 2.
COUNT EQU 0CH ;COUNT is file 0C, a register to count events
COUNT1 EQU 0DH ;COUNT is file 0D, a register to count events
;******************************************************
LIST P=16F84 ;we are using the 16F84.
ORG 0 ;the start address in memory is 0
GOTO START ;goto start!
;*******************************************************

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 141

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

; Configuration Bits
__CONFIG H'3FF1' ;selects XT oscillator, WDT off, PUT on,Code Protection disabled.
;*****************************************************
;SUBROUTINE SECTION.

; 1/100 second delay.

DELAY CLRF TMR0 ;START TMR0.
LOOPA MOVF TMR0,W ;READ TMR0 INTO W.
SUBLW .39 ;TIME - 39
BTFSS STATUS,ZEROBIT ; Check TIME-W = 0
GOTO LOOPA ;Time is not 39.
RETLW 0 ;Time is 39, return.

;1 second delay.

DELAYP1 MOVLW .30

MOVWF COUNT
TIMEC CALL DELAY
DECFSZ COUNT
GOTO TIMEC
RETLW 0

;2.5 second delay.

DELAYP5 MOVLW .250

MOVWF COUNT
TIMED CALL DELAY
DECFSZ COUNT
GOTO TIMED
RETLW 0

;****************************************************
;CONFIGURATION SECTION.
START BSF STATUS,5 ;Turns to Bank1.
MOVLW B'00011111' ;5bits of PORTA are I/P
MOVWF TRISA
MOVLW B'00000000'
MOVWF TRISB ;PORTB is OUTPUT
MOVLW B'00000111' ;Prescaler is /256
MOVWF OPTION_R ;TIMER is 1/32 secs.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 142

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

BCF STATUS,5 ;Return to Bank0.

CLRF PORTA ;Clears PortA.
CLRF PORTB ;Clears PortB.
;**************************************************

;Program starts now.

MAIN MOVLW B'00000011'

MOVWF PORTB
CALL DELAYP1
MOVLW B'00000000'
MOVWF PORTB
CALL DELAYP1
GOTO MAIN

END

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 143

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

470R

B1

470R

B0

16F84A

68p
16 14

4
0.1µF
15 5
68p

Fig 1.2

(iii) Save the code by giving it a name with .asm extension. Then assemble it to generate
.HEX file.
(iv) Link the .HEX file generated with your schematic in Proteus. This will be as if you have
blown the code into the microcontroller in the real world.
(v) Simulate the circuit. You will see two LEDs flashing at intervals of 1 second.

Exercise: You will now modify the circuit as follows,

(i) Connect active green LED to B0 and active red LED to B1
(ii) Alter the program such that the LEDs continuously flash in the following sequence.

Red OFF and Green ON

Red ON and Green OFF

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 144

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Both ON
Repeat the sequence infinitely.
(iii) Comment alongside the code explaining what the lines are doing.
(iv) Write your report with the codes included.
Make sure your circuit work and also ensure that the technologist in charge certify your work
before you leave the lab.
(v) How would you setup TRSIB to read bit #7, #6, #5 as inputs while all other bits are set
as outputs?
(vi) Which register can its content be altered in order to scale down the TIMER0 clock
speed. Write the code that will lower the speed of TIMER0 by half.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 145

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

EXPERIMENT 2. SEQUENCE FLASHING OF LEDS

AIM: The aim of this experiment is to acquaint students with the knowledge of
programming PIC16F84A to achieve complex tasks.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
(i) To gain familiarity with the PIC microcontroller.
(ii) To understand the use of Assembly language in programming PIC microcontroller and
assembling the source code to generate HEX file.
(iii) To understand the use of Proteus design software in designing circuit as well as
simulating the circuit.
(iv) To understand how to practically design a microcontroller based circuit.

APPARATUS: (i) Personal Computer with MPLAB IDE software and Proteus Schematic
design software installed. (ii) D.C Power supply and proto board for physical realization.
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
Instead of just repeating one sequence over and over, we wish to repeat several sequences
before returning to the start. The 8 LEDs B0-B7 are to be run as two sequences.
Sequence 1
Turn all lights on.
Wait.
Turn all lights off
Wait
Repeat 5 times

Sequence 2
Turn B7-B4 ON, B3-B0 OFF
Wait
Turn B7-B4 OFF, B3-B0 ON
Wait
Repeat 6 times then
Loop back to sequence 1 and start all over again

PROCEDURE

(i) Design the circuit in Proteus as shown above in fig 1.2 with more LEDs connected to
terminals B2 down to B7.
(ii) Type in the codes as in experiment 1 leaving the last portion where there is a comment
“Program starts now’’, into the text editor of MPLAB IDE.
(iii) From there on, insert the following codes

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 146

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

;Program starts now.

BEGIN MOVLW .5
MOVWF COUNT ;Set COUNT =5
SEQ1 MOVLW B’11111111’
MOVWF PORTB ;Turn B7-B0 ON
CALL DELAYP1 ;Wait 0.5 seconds
MOVLW B’00000000’
MOVWF PORTB ;Turn B7-B0 OFF
CALL DELAYP1 ;Wait 0.5 seconds
DECFSZ COUNT ;COUNT-1, skip if 0.
GOTO SEQ1
MOVLW .6
MOVWF COUNT ;Set COUNT =6
SEQ2 MOVLW B’11110000’
MOVWF PORTB ;B7-B4 on, B3-B0 off
CALL DELAYP1 ;Wait 0.5 seconds
MOVLW B’00001111’
MOVWF PORTB ;B7-B4 off, B3-B0 on
CALL DELAYP1 ;Wait 0.5 seconds
DECFSZ COUNT ;COUNT-1, skip if 0.
GOTO SEQ2
GOTO BEGIN
END

(vi) Save the code by giving it a name with .asm extension. Then assemble it to generate
.HEX file.
(vii) Link the .HEX file generated with your schematic in Proteus. This will be as if you
have blown the code into the microcontroller in the real world.
(viii) Simulate the circuit. You will see the LEDs flashing at intervals in sequence as
described earlier.

Exercise: You will now modify the circuit as follows,

(i) Edit the above program such that you will have 2 sequence flashings as shown below.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 147

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Sequence 1

TIME B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

1 sec. 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 sec. 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Repeat 10 times

Sequence 2
TIME B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

1 sec. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 sec. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 sec. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 sec. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 sec. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 sec. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 sec. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 sec. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

,
Repeat 5 times then
Loop back to sequence 1 and start all over again

(ii) Comment alongside the code explaining what the lines are doing.
(iii) Write your report with the codes included.
(iv) Make sure your circuit work and also ensure that the technologist in charge certify
your work before you leave the lab.
(v) Explain the meaning of this line of code
GOTO $-1
(vi) What is the range of address of PIC16F84A user files or registers?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 148

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Electrical Machines Laboratory (EEG 411)

Experiment 1 – DC Motor Control with Asymmetrical Single Phase

Bridge

Aim:

To investigate the performance characteristics of an asymmetrical single-phase bridge with

DC Motor load.

Equipment Required

• Asymmetrical Bridge Equipment

• With power circuit and trigger circuit brought out on the face panel (Vrated = 400V,
Irated = 19A) (Devices: 2 Thyristors, 2 Diodes, 555- timers, Isolating transformer
etc)
• Motor-Generator Set
• 0 – 10 A ammeter
• 0 – 300 V voltmeter

Figure 1.1 Facial Panel of Asymmetrical bridge equipment

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 149

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The Asymmetrical Single Phase Bridge

Power Circuit

Connect up the devices of the power circuit shown in the facial panel of the equipment as
shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Asymmetrical bridge equipment connection

Ensure that there is always current in the field circuit before switching the trigger pulses.

The Firing Circuit

The firing circuit of the Asymmetrical single phase Bridge is as shown in Figure 1.3. The
various stages shown are connected internally and the trigger pulses to the two thyristors
are connected to appear as TP1 AND TP2 on the facial panel of the equipment.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 150

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1.3 firing circuit of the Asymmetrical single phase Bridge

Connect terminals 16 and 17 to 4 and 5 respectively and terminals 18 and 19 to 7 and 8

respectively to trigger the thyristors T1 and T2.

Loading Arrangement

Connect a loading frame across the terminals of the DC generator as shown in Figure 1.4.
The switch enables the resistive load to be switched on to cause the drive motor to do
work. Connect a DC supply to the field circuit and ensure that the excitation can be varied.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 151

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 1.4 DC generator

Block Diagram of the Bridge Controller

The various blocks of the controller is shown. The experiment will investigate the various
waveforms at the input and output of each block and the performance of the controlled DC
motor on no load and full load.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 152

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Trigger Circuit Waveforms

With AC input to the rectifier circuit and no connections to the output terminal TP1 and
TP2.

1. Sketch the output waveforms of the astable and monostable multivibrator

2. With the output of the monostable displayed on the oscilloscope, vary the 500K
resistor of the multivibrator (fixed on the facial panel). Describe the effect on the
waveform.
3. Sketch the trigger pulses TP1 and TP2 produced by the firing circuit. Vary the 500K
resistor on the facial panel and describe its effect on the trigger pulses.
4. Write a description of the operation of the firing circuit.
i.

No Load Test

Connect a DC supply to the field winding of the DC motor and ensure maximum field
current is flowing through the ammeter. Put switch in the OFF position to ensure that the
controlled DC motor will operate on no load. Switch ON the AC supply to the bridge and
the trigger circuit by closing Switch S. The system is ready to operate on no load.

Apply trigger pulses to the gates of the thyristors by closing switch S2. The output of the
Asymmetrical Single phase bridge will drive the DC motor. Vary the control resistor on the
facial panel to vary the output and hence the speed of the DC motor.

1. Record and explain the waveform of voltage fed to the armature of the DC motor.
2. Record and explain the waveform of the current of the DC motor using a non-
inductive shunt. IS the current continuous?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 153

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Load Test

As the Bridge-fed DC motor operates at the highest speed possible, excite the DC generator
to produce rated voltage at its terminals. Close switch to cause the DC motor to do more
work. Vary the load but do not exceed rated current. At the highest power output based on
the rating of the Bridge:

ii. Record the waveform of the voltage at the terminals of the bridge fed motor.
iii. Record the waveform current fed to the motor.
iv. Compare the above waveforms with those obtained on no load
v. With the current of the bridge-fed motor maintained constant, measure the
variation of the mean output voltage of the bridge with delay angle. Plot the
variation of the mean voltage with delay angle. Compare the same graph sheet, the
variations of the theoretically predicted mean voltage with delay angle.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 154

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 2 – Tests on Synchronous Generator

1 Objective

a) To determine the principle operating characteristics of a three-phase synchronous

generator.
b) To show how the excitation current on load may be predicated from light-load test
data.

2 Basic Circuit

Figure 2.1 circuit diagram for tests on a synchronous generator

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 155

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3 Procedure

Record the generator nameplate data: Apparent power, no of phases, type of connection,
Rated voltage. Rated Amperes, power factor at rated conditions, frequency and rated
speed.

3.1 O/C Characteristics (E=f(Ir)), N constant.

Drive the generator at its rated speed and determine its open circuit characteristics (O.C.C)
that is the relationship between armature voltage V and field current, over a range of rated
voltage. Plot the open-circuit characteristics for both increasing and decreasing values of
field current.

3.2 S/C Characteristics (Ia = f(Ir)), N constants.

Choose suitable ammeter to enable you measure rated armature current. Short Circuit the
output terminals as shown with generator field set to xero. By carefully increasing the field
current, determine the short-circuit characteristics of the generator (S.C.C.).

On completing the above test, switch off the DC motor, but leave the generator field
energized and notice how, the short-circuit current varies with speed. It will be seen to
remain constant down to quite low speeds. The armature current
𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽

where E and X are both proportional to frequency, and thus if I is maintained constant until
low speeds.

Plot the S.C.C on the same axis as the O.C.C.

3.2.1 Calculation of Synchronous Reactance

Calculate the synchronous reactance in Ω per phase, of the generator, assuming that X >
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 .

Also, calculate the per unit reactance of the generator.

Thus, an elementary linear model of the synchronous generator is one of a source of emf
𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 (per phase) and a source impedance 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 as shown in Figure 2.2.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 156

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

This simple equivalent circuit for studying the performance of synchronous generators
connected to power systems. Subsequently, we shall utilize a model of the synchronous
generator that recognizes that there is an interaction between the field and armature mmf
of the generator, and that the resultant magnetizing mmf acts on a non-linear magnetic
circuit.

3.2.2 Vector Diagram for a Synchronous Generator

Figure 2.3(a) shows the relationship in the armature electrical circuit formed by the leakage
impedance 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 and the load impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐿𝐿 . The magnitude and relative
spatial positions of field, armature and magnetizing mmf are represented by the vector Ff,
Fa and Hm. Each is assumed to be sinusoidal distributed in space and may be combined
vectorially as in Figure 2.3(b)

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 157

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 2.3

The magnetizing mmf 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 + 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 ; 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚 produced 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 via the non-linear magnetization
curve. Armature mmf 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 , proportional to armature current 𝐼𝐼, lags in the space by 90° + 𝜃𝜃
where 𝜃𝜃 is defined by 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 and 𝐼𝐼 in Figure 2.3(a). Thus if 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 can be defined for given
terminal conditions V and I, the field mmf can be calculated from 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 .

It is convenient to combine these two diagrams into the composite vector diagram shown
in Figure 2.4(a).

In practice one measures field current rather than mmf, and as 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 , it is possible to
express 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 , 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 and 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚 in terms of an equivalent number of amperes 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 , 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 and 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 as in
Figure 2.4(b).

Space for Figure 2.4(a)&(b)

The O.C. test gives the relationship between 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 and 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 , and the next test, the zero-power-
factor test will establish a relationship between 𝐼𝐼 and 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 and also yield an estimate of 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 .
Thus it is possible to predict the value of field current for a given load condition by means of
this model of the generator.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 158

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Note that if load is thrown-off, the armature reaction mmf becomes a wholly magnetizing
mmf, the terminal voltage then rises considerably. Because of this, most synchronous
generators operate with automatic voltage regulators.

3.3 Zero Power-Factor Test

Connect the two sets of phase chokes as balanced load onto the output terminals of the
machine.

figure 2.5

It is envisaged that six sets of balanced load arrangements can be obtained from the set of
chokes shown in figure 2.5. By selecting the appropriate tappings, determine the
relationship between armature voltage V and field current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 for the condition of constant
armature current in the load (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜙𝜙 where cos 𝜙𝜙 = 0.8).

At zpf lag the armature mmf is in direct opposition to the field mmf and the generator
vector diagram has the simple form shown in figure 2.6(a). One can then construct a
theorectical zpf curve from the OCC as shown in Figure 2.6(b). The zpf curve is simply
displaced from the OCC by a constant distance PQ, formed from components √3𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋1 and 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 .
The short circuited condition is defined by the triangle 𝑃𝑃′𝑄𝑄′𝑅𝑅′.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 159

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Zpf Construction

i. Draw OCC and zpf curves on same axes

ii. Lay off 𝑂𝑂′ 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 with 𝐴𝐴′ on ratted voltage point on the zpf curve.
iii. Draw 𝑂𝑂′𝐵𝐵′ parallel to 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, the lower straight line portion of the OCC
iv. Drop a perpendicular from point of intersection C to line 𝑂𝑂′𝐴𝐴′.
v. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (= 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = line-line reactance drop, √3𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 .
vi. 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴′ (= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) = field amps 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 equivalent to armature mmf due to 𝐼𝐼

Determine from your results:

vii. Leakage reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 Ω/𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
viii. Per unit value of the leakage reactance drop 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝ℎ,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎
ix. The constant 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼
field current to balance mmf produced by one ampere of
armature current.

Figure 2.6

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 160

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3.3.1 Prediction of Field Current for a Given Output

Use the data obtained to construct a vector diagram for the generator when delivering
rated kW load at u.p.f (Note √3𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ∑ 𝑃𝑃 ).

Determine

a) Field current for rated kW load.

b) O.C. voltage on throwing off load and
c) Per unit voltage regulation

3.4 Load Test, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐼𝐼), 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 and 𝑁𝑁 constant

Connect a balanced three-phase resistive load to the output terminals of the machine and
adjust the load until the generator is delivering rated kW load. Note the value of field
current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 , which should correspond closely with that predicted in section 3.3.1 and then
keeping the field current and speed constant. Vary the load over the range 0-7 A. Plot the
load characteristics, armature voltage against load current 𝐼𝐼.

Compare field current for rated kW load, open-circuit voltage and voltage regulation with
the predicted values.

Does the analytical model of the generator appear adequate?

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 161

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 3 – MMF and Flux Density Distributions Produced by

Electrical Machine Windings

Introduction

There are three basic types of electrical machine windings, namely:

x. Concentrated windings, which are used for the field systems of DC machines and
salient pole synchronous machines.
xi. Commutator windings, which are, used for the armature of DC machines and
certain AC commutator machines.
xii. Distributed windings, which are used for the phase windings of ac machines and for
the field windings of synchronous machines.

The three types are shown schematically in Figure 3.1(a), (b) and (c).

Figure 3.1

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 162

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Apparatus

1. A generalized machine set having a distributed two-axis stator winding and a closed
commutator rotor winding with tappings on each of two electrically perpendicular
diameters and a star-connected 3-phase rotor winding. The machine also carries
stator and rotor search wires (coils).
2. Ammeters (DC)
3. CRO

Theory

Voltage generated in a single search wire running from end to end of a slot of a machine is
proportional, at every instant, to the ratio of flux cuttings or to the rate of change of flux
linkage with the one turn coil consisting of the search wire and the leads to the measuring
instrument. If the speed is kept constant and the instantaneous voltage in the search wire
observed, then from the knowledge of the mean air-gap diameter and the length of the
machine 𝑙𝑙, the flux density 𝐵𝐵 at all points round the air-gap may be calculated (C = Blv)

Procedure

1. Check that all the brushes of the generalized machine are raised except those
required to be joined to the terminals, the diametrically opposite tappings of the
closed winding. Set the rotor disc to the appropriate position for the tappings
2. Arrange the DC load machine to drive the generalized machine as shown in Figure
3.2

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 163

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 3.2: Connections for study of flux density pattern produced by

stator winding

3. Set the field rheostat for maximum field current. Supply one of the series
connected two-axis windings through suitable controlling resistors. Connect the
rotor search coil so that the voltage generated in it may be observed on the CRO.
4. After approval of the connections, switch on the load machine and ajust the speed
to rated value, by the field rheostat. Switch ON the current through one of the
distributed stator windings and adjust its value to 5A. Sketch the rotor search wire
voltage waveform. Repeat for a current of 10A and take care throughout the
experiment to maintain constant speed. Also check that the identical distributed
stator winding which is spatially at 90° to the previous winding gives the same
waveforms of voltage when carrying the same magnitude of current.
5. Connect the two windings in series and again determine the waveform and
magnitude of their combined fields for the same two currents.
6. Switch OFF the DC supply and remove from the rotor disc the fuse connecting the
rotor search wire to the inner slip ring. Select a pair of closed rotor winding
tappings 180° apart and connect the winding to the DC terminals in series with a
rheostat. Connect one of the stator search wires to the oscilloscope. Sketch and
measure the search wire induced voltage waveform for a winding current 10A.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 164

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

7. Change the rotor disc to connect the star connected 3-phase winding to the slip
rings and terminals. Sketch the flux produced when the winding is carrying direct
current of 6A and 3.5 A between any one terminal and one other. Repeat the
measurement when the winding is carrying 7A between any one terminal and the
two others joined in parallel.
8. Use a Wave Analyser to measure the Harmonics H(n) in the waveform obtained in
part 7. Plot the relative magnitude of the harmonics H(n)/H(i) is the fundamental, in
percent as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Line Spectrum Harmonics

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 165

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 4 – The Synchronous Machine on

1 Objective

To examine how the armature current and loading of an alternator varies

a) When the power output is kept constant whilst the excitation is varied
b) When the power output is varied whilst the excitation is kept constant

2 Circuit

figure 4.1

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 166

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3 Procedure

Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Run up the generator to produce rated voltage
at the terminals.

3.1 Synchronizing

To connect the alternator to infinite busbars, it is necessary to synchronize the alternator to

the AC mains. This would require:

xiii. That [𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ] = [𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ], this is checked by means of the voltmeter

xiv. That the phase sequence of the alternator should be the same as that of the mains
that is, R-R, Y-Y, B-B.
xv. That the frequency of the alternator should be almost the same as that of the
mains.

A synchroscope would take charge of (b) and (c). An elementary form of synchroscope
consists of the three 𝐿𝐿1 , 𝐿𝐿2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿3 connected in the form shown in the diagram. The
instantaneous voltages across the three lamps are different and the lamps are illuminated
in cyclic order. The circuit breaker should be closed at the instant when the straight
connected lamp 𝐿𝐿2 is out and the other two lamps are at equal brilliance. The rate at which
the lamps flash depends on the frequency difference between the two systems. The order
in which the lamps flash is determined by the relative speed between the two systems and
the method shows which of the frequencies is the greater.

3.2 Initial Conditions

After connecting the machine to the infinite bus, gently weaken the motor field so that
power will be fed from the alternator to the mains (weakening of the motor field implies
increasing the speed and hence the output of the generator. Now overexcite the alternator
field until 𝑄𝑄 is reactive power at 0.8p.f (1 kW). The alternator is then delivering its rated
output at 0.8 p.f. These values of 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄 and field current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 should not be exceeded by more
than 20% in any subsequent test.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 167

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

3.3 Power Output Constant, Excitation Varied

To investigate 𝑄𝑄 ∗ 𝐼𝐼 (alternator phase current) as 𝑓𝑓�𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 �. Raise the field current until 𝑄𝑄 is
12% rated value and whilst keeping 𝑃𝑃 constant at rated value by controlling the motor field,
record variation of the value whilst keeping 𝑃𝑃 constant at rated value by controlling the
motor field, record variation of 𝑄𝑄 ∗ 𝐼𝐼 and 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 as 𝑄𝑄 is varied from + to -, by varying the
alternator field current.

Tabulate:

Power Constant Reactive VAR Q Phase current I Field current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓

Repeat the test for P = +0.6 kW and P = 0kW over the same range of Q but record only I and
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 .

Plot the curves of I and 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 for the three values of power output on the same axes. Also, plot
reactive power against field current for various values of the power on the same axis.

3.4 Excitation Constant as P, Q and I vary

Adjust the power output of the alternator until P = 1.3kW (rated value) and the alternator
field excitation until Q = 0. Keeping the alternator field current constant reduce the power
output of the alternator (increase motor field current), so that P varies from +(rated value)
to –(rated value). The machine will this change its role from generating to motoring, which
will be evident by the reversal of the torque acting on the stator of the machine.

Tabulate:

Field Current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 Power, P Reactive VAR Q Phase current I

Repeat the test beginning from the initial conditions P= +rated kW and Q = -0.6 KVAR (note
that 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 will be lower than for the previous initial condition).

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 168

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Plot the variation of P, Q with I.

3.5 Loading Diagrams

Construct a loading diagram from the results in section 3.3 and 3.4 and compare the actual
values of field current 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 with those indicated by the construction.

Appendix

Construction of Loading Diagrams

Machine synchronous impedance 𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑 = 28Ω. Voltage constant of machine K = 536 Phase-
volts/amp (obtained from the straight line part of open circuit characteristics). Since 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 =
𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑 the power and reactive VA axes in the loading diagram are respectively perpendicular
to and in line with the voltage phasor V. Lay off axes P and Q first and scale them in
convenient units (e.g. 2 cm = 1kW and 1 kVar). The origin of the voltage-phasor diagram
may then be defined by making the ratio.

𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑
= = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 ℎ

The value of 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 can be determined from

𝑐𝑐 ′
𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 = ∗ 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ
𝑏𝑏

and in turn, if we assume a linear machine, the field current can be computed from
𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝐾

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 169

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Once the coordinates p and Q are known for actual 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 , 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 can be determined and
𝐾𝐾𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓
subsequently predicted. Calculate 𝑐𝑐 ′ = ∗ 𝑏𝑏 for comparison with the idealized value of
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ
c, it will be found c’ > c when the magnetic circuit becomes saturated.

Figure 4.5

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 170

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Measurement of Reactive Power

Figure 4.6

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 cos( 90° − 𝜙𝜙) = 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
√3

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 171

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 5 – Automatic Voltage Regulation on an Alternator

Aim:

To investigate the design and performance characteristics of an automatic voltage

regulator.

Equipment Required

i. Philip 154 Power Supply (2 Nos)

ii. Asymmetrical Single Phase Bridge Comprising
iii. THY 300V – 26A Thyristors (2 Nos)
iv. 26 Amps Diode (2 Nos)
v. Snubber Units (2 Nos 0.22 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 capacitor + 2 Nos 47Ω resistor)
vi. Thyristor Firing Circuit
vii. Components connected as AVR in Experimental Rig
viii. Ammeters (1) 0-20 A (For Generator Load Current).
ix. 0-3 A dc (for Excitation Current).
x. Voltmeters (i) 0-300V (for Excitation Voltage)
xi. Voltmeters (ii) 0-600V (for Generated Voltage)
xii. Switch (for open loop/closed loop operation)
xiii. 220V, 22/7 A, 5kW, DC, Drive motor
xiv. 7A, 400 V, 5kVA, 3𝜙𝜙 Experimental Synchronous Generator.

Transfer Characteristics of an Alternator

The output voltage of an alternator is proportional to the flux produced by the field circuit.
This is shown in Figure 5.1 and output voltage may be related to the field current by the
equations.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 � � (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 172

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

𝐸𝐸0 = 4.44𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 (2)

Since the drive motor runs at constant speed.

𝐸𝐸0 = 𝐾𝐾𝑔𝑔 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (3)

𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = �𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 �𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) (4)

Figure5.1: Alternator with Field Current

Combining (3) and (4)

𝐾𝐾𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠)

𝐸𝐸0 (𝑠𝑠) = (5)
�𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 +𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 �

𝐸𝐸0 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑔𝑔 𝐾𝐾𝑔𝑔

= = 𝑅𝑅 (6)
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) �𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 +𝑠𝑠𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 � 𝑓𝑓 (1+𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 )

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 173

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Voltage Regulator Block Diagram

The various stages of the voltage regulator are shown as block diagrams in Figure 5.2
below.

Figure 5.2: AVR Block Diagram

The voltage sensing circuit consists of a 20/12 V single-phase transformer used to step
down the generator terminal voltage to a value compatible with electronic components.

The voltage is rectified and filtered as shown in Figure 5.3 below.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 174

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5.3: Voltage sensing circuit

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 175

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

If 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 is the forward resistance of the rectifying diodes, then

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒
= (7)
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 +𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒

Where

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 = (𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 //𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ) (8)

It can be shown that the transfer function

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒

= (9)
𝐸𝐸0 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 +𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒

represents the voltage sensing circuit. The Converted Feeding the field circuit is simply an
amplifier of gain 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴 where a small voltage is applied to the trigger circuit of the bridge and
a large voltage is obtained at the output.

Connection of AVR Experimental Rig

i. To perform this experiment, all safety rules in the laboratory must be strictly
adhered to.
ii. Power supplies (please see the connection Diagram)

AC Power Circuit

i. Connect the primary of the transformer TI to the 220V AC power supply through
terminals (𝐴𝐴1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴5 )

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 176

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

ii. Connect the TI secondary through its terminals (𝐴𝐴1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴7 ) to the secondary of the
transformer T2 through its terminals
iii. Connect the primary of T2 through its terminals (𝐴𝐴1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴5 ) to the terminals (1
and 2) of the Link switch (LS).
iv. Connect the terminals (3 and 4) of the LS to the AC input terminals of the Firing
circuit and the Asymmetrical bridge.
v. Connect one phase of the Alternator output to the sensor AC input.

DC Power Circuit

i. Connect (+12V) DC from Philip 154 power supply to the (𝑉𝑉 + ) terminal of the
comparator
ii. Connect (-12V) DC from Philip 154 power supply to the (𝑉𝑉 − ) terminal of the
comparator
iii. Connect (+16.6V) DC from Philip 154 power supply to the VR terminal of the
capacitor.

Figure 5.4: Connection diagram of the automatic voltage regulator

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 177

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Starting Up the AVR

i. Connect the sensor output to the Vs input terminal of the comparator.

ii. Connect the output terminals of the comparator through the switch s to the firing
circuit.
iii. Connect the output (1, 2 and 3, 4) of the pulse transformer of the firing circuit to
the terminals (C1, G1) and (C2, G2) of the Thyristors Th1 and Th2 of the
asymmetrical bridge.
iv. Connect Alternator outputs to the star loading frame (as indicated in the circuit
diagram)

Connections of Instruments

i. Connect (0-600V) voltmeter across two phases of the alternator to read armature
voltage.
ii. Connect (0-20A) on one of the Alternator to read armature current.
iii. Connect (0-300 V). Voltmeter across the Regulator outΩput to read Excitation
voltage.
iv. Connect (0-3 A). Ammeter on the Regulator to read field current.
v. Connect Digital multimeter across feedback output to read feedback control
voltage.
vi. Test all input ports (terminals) to ensure that the required signals are obtained.
vii. You may need an oscilloscope to observe the waveform at each terminal. See the
photographs of some waveforms over leaf for guidance as to what to expect.

Drive Motor Connection (see Figure 5.5)

i. Connect a 320Ω, 2 A variable resistor between the L-terminal of the DC supply and
the Z terminal of the Drive Motor
ii. Connect a 250Ω, 10 A variable resistor between the L terminal of the DC supply and
the A terminal of the Drive Motor.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 178

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5.5: Drive motor connection diagram

Starting the Drive Motor

To start the Drive Motor, position the 320Ω, variable resistor at the minimum ohm level
while the 25Ω variable resistor is set at maximum resistance.

Switch on the DC supply, thus starting the Drive motor which automatically puts the
alternator in motion.

Vary the 25Ω resistor gradually until it gets to the minimum while increasing the speed of
the alternator.

It is advisable that the speed be monitored during loading and every drop should be
compensated.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 179

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

The Test Circuit

The voltage regulator is shown in Figure 5.6 below. A comparator is used in the open loop
to produce pulses, which trigger the thyristor of the full controlled bridge. This provides
control of the generator field excitation; voltage feedback is obtained from the output of a
220/12 V transformer.

The rectified output is smoothened as shown in the voltage sensing circuit to attenuate the
ripple voltage and noise from the terminal voltage.

This ripple component must be less than the dc error voltage (𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 ), otherwise, the
controller will be firing voltage rather than the dc error voltage.

Drive Motor Speed Regulation

Note the following:

i. Rated current and speed of the dc motor,

ii. The speed at which the alternator must be driven to generate 50Hz voltage.

Drive the alternator to this speed. Explain how the relevant equations make a distinction
between operation up to base and operation beyond based speed.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 180

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 5.6: Circuit Diagram for Automatic Voltage

Regulator.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 181

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Prediction of Load Regulation

Run the alternator at rated speed with controller in open loop and record the variation 𝐸𝐸0
and 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 with 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 to define the range of control and examine the linearity of control.

𝑉𝑉0 𝑓𝑓(𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 )

is control characteristics. Determine

Δ𝐸𝐸0
= 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝐾𝐾,
Δ𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐

𝐸𝐸0 = 400 𝑉𝑉

is the normal open circuit characteristics. The waveform of the field circuit can be observed
by connecting an oscilloscope across the thyristor output.

Can you explain the waveform?

For a range of load current, predict a load characteristic for the alternator.

𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 ).

Alternator Voltage Regulator

Load Characteristic Without AVR

Set 𝐸𝐸0 to rated value of 400 V and load with resistive load to vary 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 from 0 to 120% F.L.C.

Plot the regulation curve 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 ) and compare your results with the predicted
characteristic in 5 above.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 182

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Load Characteristic with AVR

Adjust the reference voltage to give 𝐸𝐸0 = 400V in open loop. Then connect the system for
negative feedback as shown in Figure 5.4 (closed loop). Compare the regulation with
previously obtained. Obtain the ratio

𝑉𝑉 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝐹𝐹. 𝑏𝑏) 𝐼𝐼

=
𝑉𝑉 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹. 𝑏𝑏) 𝐼𝐼 + 𝐾𝐾

Estimate K from your test results and compare with the loop gain calculated from the block
diagrams of the control system.

Questions

i. Discuss the methods that you can use to investigate the stability of the controller?
ii. What is the steady state error of the controller?
iii. Comment on the constraints to be put upon the loop response if resonance in the
closed-loop response is to be avoided.
iv. How would you experimentally investigate the effect of increasing the loop gain on
the controller? How would the transient response vary as the gain is increased?
v. How would you improve the sensitivity of the AVR? What role those the AVR play in
the stability of the machine infinite bus system?

Reference

Okoro,C.C. (1983). A Design Criteria for An Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) for
Alternators. Nigerian Engineer, Vol. 18, No. 3 July – Sept, Pages 131-137.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 183

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Experiment 6 – Half-Wave Thyristor Controller

Introduction

The circuit of Figure 6.1 is used to demonstrate:

a) The voltage and current waveforms that occur in a half-wave, phase controlled,
thyristor circuit.
b) Two methods of controlling the angular position of the firing pulses.

Figure 6.1 Half-wave Thyristor controller

To understand the circuit, it will be investigated stage by stage.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 184

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 6.2: Uni-junction circuit with manual control

Connect 𝑉𝑉1to channel 1 and Voltage 𝑉𝑉4 to 𝑉𝑉7 in turn to channel 2. Note how 𝑉𝑉4 to 𝑉𝑉7 vary
with manual control. Sketch the waveforms and check that they correspond to figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Typical Waveforms

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 185

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Explain the operation of the firing circuit and verify:

𝑡𝑡1
a) The voltage at which 𝑉𝑉1 clips and the relationship between 𝑉𝑉1, 𝑇𝑇 and the supply
� �
2
voltage
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
b) The voltage at which the UJT fires thyristor 6. Define 𝜂𝜂 = 𝑉𝑉

c) Reconcile the shape and magnitude of the current waveform with the 100Ω load
and the 33Ω, 0.1 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 protection circuit. (The load resistor is slightly inductive, as it is
wound on a steel tube)

Voltage Control

Connect sockets 3 and 4 together and set the 100 kΩ rheostat to maximum value. The UJT
is then controlled by 𝑇𝑇1 . This circuit is called a ramp and pedestal firing circuit. As 𝑉𝑉1 rises
towards the clipping level, capacitor 𝐶𝐶1 charges via diode D4. When the capacitor potential
is exactly the same as 𝑉𝑉2 . This establishes the pedestal. The capacitor 𝐶𝐶1 then continues to
charge slowly through R1 thereby producing the clamp on top of the pedestal as shown in
Figure 6.4.

The uni-junction Transistor will trigger when 𝑉𝑉4 rises to the triggering voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 . Thus, the
firing angle may be controlled by varying 𝑉𝑉2 .

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 186

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Figure 6.3: Pedestal and ramp waveform

When R1C is supplied for V1 to produce a ramp function, the firing angle is a linear function
of V2, but because of the sinusoidal, the variation of the mean output current is

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼 = (1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

The relationship between 𝑉𝑉2 and 𝐼𝐼 is nonlinear as shown in Figure 6.5.

For many control purposes it is desirable that control should be linear. This can be achieved
by using a half-rectified sine wave as the supply 𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶1 . The circuit 𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶1 including the 470K
source resistance acts as an integrating circuit (which is automatically reset at the end of
each active half-cycle) to produce a half cosine reference waveform in place of the previous
ramp function. This introduces a non-linearity between firing angle 𝛼𝛼 and control voltage 𝑉𝑉2
which compensates that between firing angle 𝛼𝛼 and mean current I, thus giving linearity
between 𝑉𝑉2 and I.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 187

 Laboratory Experiments for 400 Level Courses

Test with Cosine Reference Voltage

Note the peak-peak amplitude of the cosine reference voltage, 𝑉𝑉0 . Then plot the mean
output current I against control voltage V2. Note the angular range over which control is
possible, using the trapezoidal waveform of V.

Test with Ramp Reference Voltage

Adjust the 100K rheostat R1 to make the amplitude of the ramp Vr equal to that of the
cosine voltage VC in order to establish a basis for comparison. Plot mean output current I
against control voltage V2. Comment on the linearity of the two characteristics.

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering Page | 188