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 Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents
Preface xi
About the Authors ix

Chapter 1 Chapter 2
What Is Language? 1 Morphology: The
Words of Language 33
Linguistic Knowledge 1
Knowledge of the Sound System 2 Content Words and Function Words 35
Knowledge of Words 3
Morphemes: The Minimal
Arbitrary Relation of Form and
Units of Meaning 36
Meaning 3
The Discreteness of Morphemes 38
The Creativity of Linguistic
Bound and Free Morphemes 39
Knowledge 5
Knowledge of Sentences and
Prefixes and Suffixes 40
Nonsentences 7
Infixes 41
Linguistic Knowledge and
Circumfixes 41
Roots and Stems 42
Performance 8
Bound Roots 43
What Is Grammar? 9
Rules of Word Formation 43
Descriptive Grammars 9
Derivational Morphology 44
Prescriptive Grammars 10
Inflectional Morphology 46
Teaching Grammars 12
The Hierarchical Structure of Words 49
Universal Grammar 13
Rule Productivity 52
The Development of Grammar 14
Sign Languages: Evidence for
Exceptions and Suppletions 54
Language Universals 15
Lexical Gaps 55
Other Morphological Processes 56
What Is Not (Human) Language 16 Back-Formations 56
The Birds and the Bees 16 Compounds 57
Can Animals Learn Human “Pullet Surprises” 60
Language? 19
Sign Language Morphology 60
Language and Thought 21
Morphological Analysis: Identifying
Summary 25 Morphemes 61
References for Further Reading 27
Summary 65
Exercises 28
References for Further Reading 66
Exercises 66

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 vi Contents

Chapter 3 Lexical Semantics (Word Meanings) 152

Syntax: The Sentence Theories of Word Meaning 153
Patterns of Language 76 Reference 154
Sense 155
What the Syntax Rules Do 77 Lexical Relations 155
What Grammaticality Is Not Based On 80 Semantic Features 158
Sentence Structure 81 Evidence for Semantic Features 159
Constituents and Constituency Tests 82 Semantic Features and Grammar 159
Syntactic Categories 84 Argument Structure 162
Phrase Structure Trees 87 Thematic Roles 163
Building Phrase Structure Trees 95 Pragmatics 165
The Infinity of Language: Recursive Pronouns and Other Deictic Words 166
Rules 100 Pronouns and Situational
What Heads the Sentence 104 Context 167
Structural Ambiguities 105 Pronouns and Linguistic Context 168
More Structures 107 Implicature 170
Transformational Analysis 109 Maxims of Conversation 171
The Structure Dependency of Rules 111 Presupposition 174
UG Principles and Parameters 114 Speech Acts 174
Sign Language Syntax 117 Summary 175
Appendix A 119 References for Further Reading 177
Exercises 178
Appendix B 121
Appendix C 127
Chapter 5
Summary 128 Phonetics: The Sounds
References for Further Reading 129 of Language 189
Exercises 129
Sound Segments 190
Identity of Speech Sounds 191
Chapter 4
The Phonetic Alphabet 192
The Meaning of Language 139
Articulatory Phonetics 194
What Speakers Know Consonants 195
about Sentence Meaning 140 Place of Articulation 195
Truth 140 Manner of Articulation 197
Entailment and Related Notions 141 Phonetic Symbols for American
Ambiguity 142 English Consonants 203
Compositional Semantics 143 Vowels 205
Semantic Rules 144 Tongue Position 205
Semantic Rule I 145 Lip Rounding 207
Semantic Rule II 146 Diphthongs 207
Nasalization of Vowels 208
When Compositionality Goes Awry 147
Tense and Lax Vowels 208
Anomaly 147
Metaphor 149 Major Phonetic Classes 208
Idioms 150 Noncontinuants and Continuants 209

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 Contents vii

Obstruents and Sonorants 209 Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for

Consonantal Sounds 209 Phonological Rules 251
Syllabic Sounds 210
Prosodic Phonology 252
Prosodic Features 210 Syllable Structure 252
Tone and Intonation 211 Word Stress 253
Sentence and Phrase Stress 254
Phonetic Symbols and Spelling
Intonation 255
Correspondences 213
Sequential Constraints of Phonemes 256
The “Phonetics” of Signed Languages 215
Lexical Gaps 257
Summary 216
Why Do Phonological Rules Exist? 258
References for Further Reading 218
Optimality Theory 259
Exercises 218
Phonological Analysis 260
Chapter 6 Summary 264
Phonology: The Sound References for Further Reading 265
Patterns of Language 224 Exercises 266

The Pronunciation of Morphemes 225

Chapter 7
The Pronunciation of Plurals 225
Additional Examples Language in Society 279
of Allomorphs 228
Dialects 279
Phonemes: The Phonological Units Regional Dialects 281
of Language 230 Phonological Differences 283
Illustration of Allophones 230 Lexical Differences 284
Phonemes and How to Find Them 232 Syntactic Differences 284
Complementary Distribution 233 Dialect Atlases 285
The Need for Similarity 235 Social Dialects 287
The “Standard” 288
Distinctive Features of Phonemes 235
African American English 291
Feature Values 236
Latino (Hispanic) English 295
Nondistinctive Features 237
Genderlects 297
Phonemic Patterns May Vary across
Sociolinguistic Analysis 300
Languages 238
Natural Classes of Speech Sounds 239 Languages in Contact 301
Feature Specifications for American Lingua Francas 301
English Consonants and Vowels 241 Contact Languages: Pidgins and
Creoles 302
The Rules of Phonology 241
Creoles and Creolization 306
Feature-Changing Rules 243
Bilingualism 309
Assimilation Rules 243
Codeswitching 310
Dissimilation Rules 245
Segment Insertion and Deletion Language and Education 312
Rules 247 Second-Language Teaching Methods 312
From One to Many and from Many to Teaching Reading 313
One 249 Literacy in the Deaf Community 315
The Function of Phonological Bilingual Education 316
Rules 250 Minority Dialects 318

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 viii Contents

Language in Use 318 Comparative Reconstruction 365

Styles 319 Historical Evidence 369
Slang 319
Jargon and Argot 320 Extinct and Endangered Languages 371
Taboo or Not Taboo? 320 The Genetic Classification of Languages 374
Euphemisms 322 Languages of the World 375
Racial and National Epithets 323
Language and Sexism 323 Types of Languages 378
Marked and Unmarked Forms 324 Why Do Languages Change? 381
Secret Languages and Language
Summary 384
Games 325
References for Further Reading 385
Summary 326 Exercises 386
References for Further Reading 328
Exercises 329
Chapter 9

Chapter 8 Language Acquisition 394

Language Change: The Syllables The Linguistic Capacity of Children 394
of Time 337 What’s Learned, What’s Not? 395
Stages in Language Acquisition 398
The Regularity of Sound Change 338
The Perception and Production of Speech
Sound Correspondences 339
Sounds 398
Ancestral Protolanguages 339
Babbling 400
Phonological Change 340 First Words 401
Phonological Rules 341 Segmenting the Speech Stream 402
The Great Vowel Shift 342 The Acquisition of Phonology 404
The Acquisition of Word Meaning 406
Morphological Change 344
The Acquisition of Morphology 408
Syntactic Change 345 The Acquisition of Syntax 411
The Acquisition of Pragmatics 415
Lexical Change 350
The Development of Auxiliaries:
Change in Category 350
A Case Study 416
Addition of New Words 351
Setting Parameters 419
Word Coinage 351
The Acquisition of Signed Languages 420
Words from Names 353
Blends 354 The Role of the Linguistic Environment:
Reduced Words 355 Adult Input 422
Borrowings or Loan Words 356 The Role of Imitation, Reinforcement,
Loss of Words 359 and Analogy 422
Semantic Change 360 The Role of Structured Input 424
Broadening 361
Knowing More Than One Language 425
Narrowing 361
Childhood Bilingualism 426
Meaning Shifts 361
Theories of Bilingual Development 427
Reconstructing “Dead” Languages 361 Two Monolinguals in One Head 428
The Nineteenth-Century The Role of Input 429
Comparativists 362 Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism 429
Cognates 363 Second Language Acquisition 430

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 Contents ix

Is L2 Acquisition the Same as L1 Neurolinguistic Studies of Sentence

Acquisition? 430 Structure 473
Native Language Influence in L2
Acquisition 432 Language and Brain Development 474
The Creative Component of L2 Left Hemisphere Lateralization for
Acquisition 433 Language in Young Children 475
Heritage Language Learners 434 Brain Plasticity 476
Is There a Critical Period for L2 The Critical Period 476
Acquisition? 434 The Modular Mind: Dissociations
of Language and Cognition 479
Summary 436
Linguistic Savants 479
References for Further Reading 438
Specific Language Impairment 481
Exercises 438
Genetic Basis of Language 482
Summary 482
References for Further Reading 486
Chapter 10 Exercises 487
Language Processing
and the Human Brain 444
Chapter 11
The Human Mind at Work 444 Computer Processing
Comprehension 445 of Human Language 495
The Speech Signal 446
Speech Perception 447 Computers That Talk and Listen 495
Bottom-up and Top-down Computational Phonetics and Phonology 496
Models 449 Speech Recognition 496
Lexical Access and Word Speech Synthesis 498
Recognition 451 Computational Morphology 502
Syntactic Processing 453 Computational Syntax 503
Speech Production 456 Computational Semantics 505
Lexical Selection 456 Computational Pragmatics 507
Application and Misapplication Computational Sign Language 508
of Rules 458 Applications of Computational Linguistics 509
Planning Units 458 Computer Models of Grammar 509
Frequency Analysis, Concordances,
Brain and Language 461 and Collocations 510
The Human Brain 461 Computational Lexicography 511
The Localization of Language The Culturomic Revolution 512
in the Brain 462 Twitterology 513
Aphasia 463 Information Retrieval and
Split Brains 470 Summarization 514
Dichotic Listening 471 Spell Checkers 515
Event-Related Potentials 471 Machine Translation 516
Neural Evidence of Grammatical Computational Forensic Linguistics 518
Phenomena 472 Trademarks 518
Neurolinguistic Studies of Speech Interpreting Legal Terms 519
Sounds 472 Speaker Identification 519

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 x Contents

Summary 521 Consonantal Alphabet Writing 536

References for Further Reading 523 Alphabetic Writing 537
Exercises 523
Writing and Speech 539
Spelling 542
Texting 544
Chapter 12
The Current English Spelling
Writing: The ABCs of Language 527 System 544
Spelling Pronunciations 546
The History of Writing 528
Pictograms and Ideograms 528 Pseudo-writing 547
Cuneiform Writing 529
Summary 548
The Rebus Principle 531
References for Further Reading 549
From Hieroglyphics to the Alphabet 532
Exercises 550
Modern Writing Systems 533
Glossary 555
Word Writing 534
Syllabic Writing 535 Index 587

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 Preface

Well, this bit which I am writing, called Introduction, is really the er-h’r’m of the book,
and I have put it in, partly so as not to take you by surprise, and partly because I can’t
do without it now. There are some very clever writers who say that it is quite easy not to
have an er-h’r’m, but I don’t agree with them. I think it is much easier not to have all the
rest of the book.

A. A. Milne, Now We Are Six, 1927

The last thing we find in making a book is to know what we must put first.

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)

The tenth edition of An Introduction to Language continues in the spirit of our

friend, colleague, mentor, and coauthor, Victoria Fromkin. Vicki loved lan-
guage, and she loved to tell people about it. She found linguistics fun and
fascinating, and she wanted every student and every teacher to think so, too.
Though this edition has been completely rewritten for improved clarity and
currency, we have nevertheless preserved Vicki’s lighthearted, personal ap-
proach to a complex topic, including witty quotations from noted authors
(A. A. Milne was one of Vicki’s favorites). We hope we have kept the spirit
of Vicki’s love for teaching about language alive in the pages of this book.
The first nine editions of An Introduction to Language succeeded, with the
help of dedicated teachers, in introducing the nature of human language to
tens of thousands of students. This is a book that students enjoy and under-
stand and that professors find effective and thorough. Not only have majors
in linguistics benefited from the book’s easy-to-read yet comprehensive pre-
sentation, but also majors in fields as diverse as teaching English as a sec-
ond language, foreign language studies, general education, the cognitive and
neurosciences, psychology, sociology, and anthropology have enjoyed learning
about language from this book.

Highlights of This Edition

This edition includes new developments in linguistics and related fields
that will strengthen its appeal to a wider audience. Much of this information
will enable students to gain insight and understanding about linguistic issues
xi

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 xii Preface

and debates appearing in the national media and will help professors and stu-
dents stay current with important linguistic research. We hope that it may
also dispel certain common misconceptions that people have about language
and language use.
Exercises (250) continue to be abundant in this edition, and more research-
oriented exercises have been added for those instructors who wish their
students to pursue certain topics more deeply. Many of the exercises are mul-
tipart, amounting to more than 300 opportunities for “homework” so that in-
structors can gauge their students’ progress. Some exercises are marked as
“challenge” questions: they go beyond the scope of what is ordinarily expected
in a first course in language study. An answer key is available to instructors
to assist them in areas outside of their expertise.
Chapter 1, “What Is Language?” continues to be a concise introduction
to the general study of language. It contains many “hooks” for engaging stu-
dents in language study, including “Language and Thought,” which takes up
the Sapir-Whorf hypotheses; the universal properties of languages including
signed languages of the deaf; a consideration of animal “languages”; and the
occasional silliness of self-appointed mavens of “good” grammar who beg us
not to carelessly split infinitives and who find sentence-ending prepositions an
abomination not to be put up with.
Chapter 2, “Morphology: The Words of Language,” launches the book
into the study of grammar with morphology, the study of word formation,
as that is the most familiar aspect of grammar to most students. The ­subject
is treated with clarity and an abundance of simple illustrations from non-­
English languages to emphasize the universality of word structure including
the essentials of derivational versus inflectional morphology, free and bound
morphemes, and the hierarchical structure of words.
Chapter 3, “Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language,” is the most
heavily revised chapter of former editions. Once it has introduced the univer-
sal and easily understood notions of constituency, syntactic categories (parts
of speech), phrase structure trees, structural ambiguity and the infinite scope
of language, the chapter delves into the now nearly universally accepted
X-bar grammatical patterns for describing the deeper and more subtle
­syntactic structures of English and other languages. The topic is approached
slowly and developed painstakingly so as to inform and not overwhelm. In
particular, the current views on binary branching, heads and complements,
­selection (both C- and S-), and transformational analysis within the X-bar
framework are carefully explained and illustrated. Formalisms are held to the
bare minimum ­required to enhance clarity. Non-English examples abound in
this chapter as throughout the entire book, and the weighty elements of the-
ory are lightened by the inclusion of insightful examples and explanations,
supplemented as ­always by quotations, poetry, cartoons, and humor.
Chapter 4, “The Meaning of Language,” on semantics, has been more
finely structured so that the challenging topics of this complex subject can
be digested in smaller pieces. Still based on the theme of “What do you know
about meaning when you know a language?” the chapter first introduces stu-
dents to truth-conditional semantics and the principle of compositionality.

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 Preface xiii

Following that are discussions of what happens when compositionality fails,

as with idioms, metaphors, and anomalous sentences. Lexical semantics takes
up various approaches to word meaning, including the concepts of reference
and sense, semantic features, argument structure, and thematic roles. The
most dramatic upgrade of this chapter is a newly expanded and modernized
section on pragmatics. Here we discuss and illustrate in depth the influence
of situational versus linguistic context on the communicative content of ut-
terances, the significance of implicature in comprehension, Grice’s Maxims of
Conversation, presuppositions, and J. L. Austin’s speech acts.
Chapter 5, “Phonetics: The Sounds of Language,” retains its former or-
ganization and continues to embrace IPA (International Phonetics Association)
notation for English in keeping with current practices, with the sole exception
of using /r/ in place of the technically correct /ɹ/ when illustrating English.
We continue to mention alternative notations that students may encounter in
other publications.
Chapter 6, “Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language,” has been
streamlined by relegating several complex examples (e.g., metathesis in
Hebrew) to the exercises, where instructors can opt to include them if it is
thought that students can handle advanced material. The chapter continues
to be presented with a greater emphasis on insights through linguistic data
accompanied by small amounts of well-explicated formalisms, so that the
student can appreciate the need for formal theories without experiencing the
burdensome details.
Chapter 7, “Language in Society,” has been moved forward in the book
from previous editions to emphasize its growing importance as a major sub-
field of linguistics. Growth in this area of study, even in the few years since
the ninth edition, has been astronomical. We have strived heartily to present
the established facts and principles of sociolinguistics while bringing up to
date subjects such as banned languages (it’s still happening); dead and dying
languages (also still happening); gender differences; minority dialects such as
Hispanic English (“Spanglish”); languages in contact such as pidgins, creoles,
and lingua francas that may be found in linguistically heterogeneous areas;
the use of computers in sociolinguistic analysis; second language teaching;
and bilingual education, among others.
Chapter 8, “Language Change: The Syllables of Time,” has been ­updated
with the latest research on language families, language relatedness, and lan-
guage typology. Also, in response to reviewers’ requests, a detailed and more
complex illustration of the application of the comparative method to two
contemporary dialects to reconstruct their ancestor—often called “internal
­reconstruction”—is now part of this chapter.
Chapter 9, “Language Acquisition,” has been thoroughly restructured and
rewritten to enhance clarity since the ninth edition. In addition, much of what
has been learned about second language acquisition (adult learning of a for-
eign language) has been folded into this chapter along with an entirely new
section on “heritage languages,” the learning of an intrafamily language after
immigration to a country where that language is not spoken (e.g., Yiddish by
Jews who emigrated from Russia).

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 xiv Preface

Chapter 10, “Language Processing and the Human Brain,” could well
have been entitled “psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics” but that may have
made the subject seem overly daunting. This chapter combines a straight-
forward discussion of many of the issues that regard the psychology of
­language—what the mind does—with the neurology of language—what the
brain does—during language usage. Dramatic changes in the understanding
of the brain’s role in language processing are occurring virtually every day
owing to the rapid enhancement of the ability of neurolinguists to measure
brain activity to tiny degrees of sensitivity at extremely precise locations. This
chapter reports on those techniques and some of the results regarding lan-
guage and the brain that ensue. The psycholinguistic portion of this chapter
appeared as the first half of chapter 9 in the ninth edition; the second and
greater portion of this chapter is an enlargement and updating of chapter 2
from the ninth and previous editions.
Chapter 11, “Computer Processing of Human Language,” is an expan-
sion into a full chapter of what was the second half of chapter 9 in the ninth
edition. The fundamentals of computational linguistics are still covered and
have been clarified and expanded, but the force driving the promotion of the
subject into a chapter of its own is the astonishing progress in the application
of computers to human languages, which has burgeoned to a degree hardly
imaginable even as we wrote previous editions. Anchoring the extensive new
material in this chapter is the introduction of the Culturomic Revolution in
the computer processing of language, in which computers have analyzed bil-
lions (with a b) of lines of text with results that will astonish even the most
blasé readers. Culturomics, which is concerned with published, written texts,
is soon to be augmented by “twitterology,” a study of “on-the-fly” language
usage by billions of people (i.e., “twitterers”) in thousands of languages, only
beginning to be linguistically analyzed as the this edition goes to press. But
those who wish to keep abreast of the power of computers applied to language
will find this chapter indispensable.
Chapter 12, “Writing: The ABCs of Language,” has undergone a mild re-
writing to further improve clarity. Texting and twittering, while largely un-
studied by linguists, are included in a new section adding a further dimension
to what it means to write a language.
Terms that appear bold in the text are defined in the revised glossary at
the end of the book. The glossary has been expanded and improved so that the
tenth edition provides students with a linguistic lexicon of nearly 700 terms,
making the book a worthy reference volume.
The order of presentation of chapters 2 through 6 was once thought to
be nontraditional. Our experience, backed by previous editions of the book
and the recommendations of colleagues throughout the world, has convinced
us that it is easier for the novice to approach the structural aspects of lan-
guage by first looking at morphology (the structure of the most familiar lin-
guistic unit, the word). This is followed by syntax (the structure of sentences),
which is also familiar to many students, as are numerous semantic concepts.
We then proceed to the more novel (to students) phonetics and phonology,
which students often find daunting. However, the book is written so that in-
dividual instructors can present material in the traditional order of phonetics,

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xv

phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics (chapters 5, 6, 2, 3, and 4)

without confusion, if they wish.
As in previous editions, the primary concern has been basic ideas rather
than detailed expositions. This book assumes no previous knowledge on the
part of the reader. An updated list of references at the end of each chapter is
included to accommodate any reader who wishes to pursue a subject in more
depth. Each chapter concludes with a summary and exercises to enhance the
students’ interest in and comprehension of the textual material.

Additional Resources
Linguistics CourseMate. An Introduction to Language includes Linguistics
CourseMate, which helps students gain a deeper and more comprehensive un-
derstanding of the textual material.
Linguistics CourseMate includes:
• an interactive eBook, with highlighting, note taking and search capabilities
• interactive learning tools including:
• Quizzes
• Flashcards
• Audio files
• Web Links
• and more!
Go to www.cengagebrain.com to access these resources, and look for this
icon to find resources related to your text in Linguistics CourseMate.
Answer Key. The Answer Key for An Introduction to Language contains an-
swers to all of the exercises in the core text, and is available to instructors
through the publisher.
Instructor Companion Web Site. This password-protected companion site
contains useful resources for instructors—including chapter-level PowerPoint
lecture slides, and a downloadable version of the Answer Key. Go to www.­
cengagebrain.com to access the site.

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 xvi Preface

Acknowledgments
Our endeavor to maintain the currency of linguistic concepts in times of rapid
progress has been invaluably enhanced by the following colleagues, to whom
we owe an enormous debt of gratitude:
Natasha Abner University of California, American Sign
Los Angeles Language
Byron Ahn University of California, Syntax
Los Angeles
Susia Curtiss University of California, Neurolinguistics
Los Angeles
Kyle Johnson University of Massachusetts, Syntax
Amherst
Craig Melchert University of California, Historical linguistics
Los Angeles
Robyn Orfitelli University of California, Language acquisition
Los Angeles
Maria “Masha” Polinsky Harvard University Heritage languages
Jessica Rett University of California, Semantics
Los Angeles
Erik Thomas North Carolina Sociolinguistics
State University
Kie Zuraw University of California, Phonology
Los Angeles
Brook Danielle Lillehaugen undertook the daunting task of writing the
­ nswer Key to the ninth and tenth editions. Her thoroughness, accuracy, and
A
insightfulness in construing solutions to problems and discussions of issues
are appreciated by all who avail themselves of this useful document, ­including
us, the authors.
We also express deep appreciation for the incisive comments of six review-
ers of the ninth edition, known to us as R2 through R7, whose frank assess-
ment of the work, both critical and laudatory, heavily influenced this new
edition:
Anna Szabolcsi, Department of Linguistics, New York University
Kathryn Wolfe-Quintero, Department of World Languages, University of
South Florida
Nicholas Sobin, Department of Languages and Linguistics, University of
Texas, El Paso
Virginia Lewis, Department of Languages, Literature, and Speech
­Communication, Northern State University
Ulrike Christofori, Department of Humanities, Social Sciences, and Educa-
tion, San Joaquin Delta College
Omer Silva-Villena, Departamento de Lenguas, Literatura, y Comuni-
cación, Universidad de la Frontera, Chile

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xvii

We continue to be deeply grateful to the individuals who have sent us

s­ uggestions, corrections, criticisms, cartoons, language data, and exercises
over the course of many editions. Their influence is still strongly felt in this
tenth edition. The list is long and reflects the global, communal collabora-
tion that a book about language—the most global of topics—merits. To each
of you, our heartfelt thanks and appreciation. Know that in this tenth edition
lives your contribution:1
Adam Albright, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Otto Santa Ana, Uni-
versity of California, Los Angeles; Rebecca Barghorn, University of Oldenburg;
Seyed Reza Basiroo, Islamic Azad University; Karol Boguszewski, ­Poland;
­Melanie Borchers, Universität Duisburg-Essen; Donna Brinton, Emeritus,
­University of California, Los Angeles; Daniel Bruhn, University of California,
Berkeley; Lynn A. Burley, University of Central Arkansas; Ivano ­Caponigro,
University of California, San Diego; Ralph S. Carlson, Azusa Pacific Univer-
sity; Robert Channon, Purdue University; Judy Cheatham, Greensboro Col-
lege; Leonie Cornips, Meertens Institute; Antonio Damásio, University of
Southern California; Hanna Damásio, University of Southern California; Julie
­Damron, Brigham Young University; Rosalia Dutra, University of North Texas;
­Christina Esposito, Macalester College; Fred Field, California State University,
­Northridge; Susan Fiksdal, Evergreen State College; Beverly Olson Flanigan
and her teaching assistants, Ohio University; Jackson Gandour, Purdue Uni-
versity, West Lafayette; Jule Gomez de Garcia, California State University,
San Marcos; Deborah Grant, Independent consultant; Loretta Gray, Central
­Washington University; Xiangdong Gu, Chongqing University; Helena Halmari,
University of London; Karin Hedberg, Sam Houston State University; ­Sharon
Hargus, University of Washington; Benjamin H. Hary, Emory University;
­Tometro Hopkins, Florida International University; Eric Hyman, University
of North Carolina, Fayetteville; Dawn Ellen Jacobs, California Baptist Univer-
sity; Seyed Yasser Jebraily, University of Tehran; Kyle Johnson, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst; Paul Justice, San Diego State University; Simin
Karimi, University of Arizona; Edward Keenan, University of California, Los
Angeles; Robert D. King, University of Texas; Sharon M. Klein, California State
University, Northridge; Nathan Klinedinst, Institut Jean Nicod/CNRS, Paris;
Otto Krauss, Jr., late, unaffiliated; Elisabeth Kuhn, Virginia ­Commonwealth
University; Peter Ladefoged, late, University of California, Los Angeles;
Mary Ann Larsen-Pusey, Fresno Pacific University; Rabbi Robert Layman,
­Philadelphia; Byungmin Lee, Korea; Virginia “Ginny” Lewis, Northern State
University; David Lightfoot, Georgetown University; Ingvar Lofstedt, Univer-
sity of ­California, Los Angeles; Giuseppe Longobardi, Università di Venezia;
Harriet Luria, Hunter College, City University of New York; Jeff MacSwan,
Arizona State University; Tracey McHenry, Eastern Washington University;
Pamela Munro, University of California, Los Angeles; Tom Nash, Southern
­Oregon University; Carol Neidle, Boston University; Don Nilsen, Arizona State
University; Reiko Okabe, Nihon University, Tokyo; John Olsson, Forensic

1Some affiliations may have changed or are unknown to us at this time.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xviii Preface

­ inguistic Institute, Wales, U.K.; ­A njali Pandey, Salisbury University; Barbara

L
Hall Partee, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Fernanda Pratas, Uni-
versidade Nova de Lisboa; ­Vincent D. Puma, Flagler College; Mousa Qasem,
Kuwait University; Ian Roberts, Cambridge University; Tugba Rona, Istanbul
International Community School; Natalie Schilling-Estes, Georgetown Univer-
sity; Philippe Schlenker, Institut Jean-Nicod, Paris and New York University;
Carson Schütze, University of California, Los Angeles; Bruce Sherwood, North
Carolina State University; Koh Shimizu, Beijing; Dwan L. Shipley, Washington
University; Muffy Siegel, Temple University; Andrew Simpson, University of
Southern California; Neil Smith, University College London; Nancy Stenson,
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities; Donca Steriade, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology; Mel Storm, Emporia State University; Nawaf Sulami, Univer-
sity of Northern Iowa; Megha Sundara, University of California, Los Angeles;
Robert (Bob) Trammell, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton; Dalys Vargas,
College of Notre Dame; Willis Warren, Saint Edwards University; Donald K.
Watkins, University of Kansas; Walt Wolfram, North Carolina State University;
Maria Luisa Zubizarreta, University of Southern California.
Please forgive us if we have inadvertently omitted any names, and if we
have spelled every name correctly, then we shall believe in miracles.
Finally, we wish to thank the editorial and production team at Cengage
Learning. They have been superb and supportive in every way: Michael
­Rosenberg, publisher; Joan M. Flaherty, development editor; Daniel Saabye,
content project manager; Erin Bosco, Assistant Editor; Janine Tangney, Media
Editor.
Last but certainly not least, we acknowledge our debt to those we love
and who love us and who inspire our work when nothing else will: Nina’s
son, Michael; Robert’s children Zack and Emily together with a trio—soon
to be a quartet—of grandchildren: Cedar, Luke, Juniper, and ?; our parents
and ­siblings; and our dearly beloved and still deeply missed colleagues, Vicki
Fromkin and Peter Ladefoged.
The responsibility for errors in fact or judgment is, of course, ours alone. We
continue to be indebted to the instructors who have used the earlier editions
and to their students, without whom there would be no tenth edition.

Robert Rodman
Nina Hyams

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 About the Authors
Victoria Fromkin received her bachelor’s degree in economics from the
University of California, Berkeley, in 1944 and her M.A. and Ph.D. in linguis-
tics from the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1963 and 1965, respec-
tively. She was a member of the faculty of the UCLA Department of Linguistics
from 1966 until her death in 2000, and served as its chair from 1972 to 1976.
From 1979 to 1989 she served as the UCLA Graduate Dean and Vice Chancel-
lor of Graduate Programs. She was a visiting professor at the Universities of
Stockholm, Cambridge, and Oxford. Professor Fromkin served as president of
the Linguistics Society of America in 1985, president of the Association of
Graduate Schools in 1988, and chair of the Board of Governors of the Acad-
emy of Aphasia. She received the UCLA Distinguished Teaching Award and the
Professional Achievement Award, and served as the U.S. Delegate and a mem-
ber of the Executive Committee of the International Permanent Committee of
Linguistics (CIPL). She was an elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the
New York Academy of Science, the American Psychological Society, and the
Acoustical Society of America, and in 1996 was elected to membership in the
National Academy of Sciences. She published more than one hundred books,
monographs, and papers on topics concerned with phonetics, phonology, tone
languages, African languages, speech errors, processing models, aphasia, and
the brain/mind/language interface—all research areas in which she worked.
Professor Fromkin passed away on January 19, 2000, at the age of 76.

Robert Rodman received his bachelor’s degree in mathematics from the

University of California, Los Angeles, in 1961, a master’s degree in mathemat-
ics in 1965, a master’s degree in linguistics in 1971, and his Ph.D. in linguis-
tics in 1973. He has been on the faculties of the University of California at
Santa Cruz, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Kyoto Industrial
College in Japan, and North Carolina State University, where he is currently a
professor of computer science. His research areas are forensic linguistics and
computer speech processing. Robert resides in Raleigh, North Carolina, with
his two rescued greyhounds Gracie and Shelby-Sue.

Nina Hyams received her bachelor’s degree in journalism from Boston Uni-
versity in 1973 and her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in linguistics from the Gradu-
ate Center of the City University of New York in 1981 and 1983, respectively.
She joined the faculty of the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1983,
where she is currently a professor of linguistics. Her main areas of research
are childhood language development and syntax. She is author of the book

xix

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xx About the Authors

Language Acquisition and the Theory of Parameters (D. Reidel Publishers,

1986), a milestone in language acquisition research. She has also published
numerous articles on the development of syntax, morphology, and semantics
in children. She has been a visiting scholar at the University of Utrecht and
the University of Leiden in the Netherlands and has given numerous lectures
throughout Europe and Japan. Nina lives in Los Angeles with her pal Spot, a
rescued border collie mutt and his olde English bulldogge companion, the ever
soulful Nellie.

Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 1
What Is Language?

When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the “human
essence,” the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.

NOAM CHOMSKY, Language and Mind, 1968

Whatever else people do when they come together—whether they play, fight,
make love, or make automobiles—they talk. We live in a world of language. We
talk to our friends, our associates, our wives and husbands, our lovers, our teach-
ers, our parents, our rivals, and even our enemies. We talk face-to-face and over
all manner of electronic media, and everyone responds with more talk. Hardly a
moment of our waking lives is free from words, and even in our dreams we talk
and are talked to. We also talk when there is no one to answer. Some of us
talk aloud in our sleep. We talk to our pets and sometimes to ourselves.
The possession of language, perhaps more than any other attribute, distin-
guishes humans from other animals. According to the philosophy expressed in
the myths and religions of many peoples, language is the source of human life
and power. To some people of Africa, a newborn child is a kintu, a “thing,” not
yet a muntu, a “person.” It is only by the act of learning language that the child
becomes a human being. To understand our humanity, we must understand the
nature of language that makes us human. That is the goal of this book. We be-
gin with a simple question: what does it mean to “know” a language?

Linguistic Knowledge
Do we know only what we see, or do we see what we somehow already know?
CYNTHIA OZICK, “What Helen Keller Saw,” New Yorker, June 16 & 23, 2003
1

Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Paljain jaloin
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Paljain jaloin

Runoja

Author: Uuno Kailas

Release date: February 8, 2024 [eBook #72899]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Otava, 1928

Credits: Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PALJAIN

JALOIN ***
PALJAIN JALOIN

Kirj.

Uuno Kailas

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 1928.

SISÄLLYS:

Kuninkaanpoika
Kuva
Katse
Kahdet silmät
Orja laulaa
Houre
Kalypson vanki
Partaalla
Autio maa
Lapsen kehto
Pallokentällä
Pilvilaulu
Marttyyrit
Palava laulu
Hollantilainen
Poikani
Kohtalo
Minä
Rakkaus
Yössä
Impromptu
Vaeltaja
Paljain jaloin
Pyramiidilaulu
Kun olin kuollut
Havahtuminen

"Rohkeutta, ystäväni
paholainen on kuollut."
KUNINKAAN POIKA

(Juhani Siljon muistolle)

Alas painui, puoleen maan pääs, otsas korkea liian varhain.

— Olit poika kuninkaan, aseveljies nuorten joukossa parhain.

Mut viitoin ja kannuksin

et etsinyt kruunuas maailmasta.
Käsin näkymättömin
toi kulmilles seppelen Kuolema vasta.

Pyhä kutsumuksen-ties
sua johdatti vuorin ja laaksoin;
et poikennut polulta, mies,
sitä et sinä mitannut tuumin ja vaaksoin.

Teit kaiken, minkä teit,

oman kuninkaallisen, tuntos mukaan.
Nimes "Maailman kirjaan" veit —
sitä tahrattomampaa ei vie kukaan.
 Käsin tyhjentymättömin
sinä jakelit tarvitsevaisille kultaa.
— Olet luonamme vieläkin,
nyt vaikk' olet mullassa multaa:

Joka kerta, kun kevät saa

ja kupeensa vyöttää nuorten suku,
sen silmiin kangastaa
sinun piirtämäs "Maailman kirjan" luku.

Miespolvet vaihtukoot —
ei äänes vaieta saata.
Aseveljies oppaana oot:
— Ylös, matkalle, kohden pyhää maata!

("Seppelöidyn" ensi-iltaan.)
KUVA

Jo sinun silmistäsi tuijotin,

Narkissos, kuvan vanki, lähteen veteen
ja ajan kiertäessä palasin
ain' uusin hahmoin saman kuvan eteen.

Tuhannet vuodet hiljaa kahisten

vaelsi pensastoissa tuulten lailla.
Syvyyden kalvoon yhä katselen.
Kuvastimess' on siinä kuva vertaa vailla.

Mä tiedän katsovani jumalaan.

Ja minuun katsoo joku jumalista.
Ah — nälän kuluttavan-autuaan
join hänen silmistänsä tutkimattomista.

En ole hän — ja tunnen kuitenkin:

häneksi, häneen täytyy minun tulla.
Hän katsoo minuun kasvoin ihanin —
mut rujot, vääristyneet ovat kasvot mulla.

Voi hiiltäväistä tuskaa rumuuden!

Se palaa niinkuin liekki alttarilla
edessä Kauneuden silmien.
On kuolettava katse kuolemattomilla.

Pois pakenen. Ja tahdon unohtaa

nuo jumalkasvot, joit' en nähdä kestä.
Mut — lähde kerallani vaeltaa.
Ja kuva kuultaa esiin unten syvyydestä.

Jos minne menenkin, mä näen sen.

Vaikk' itselleni sanon: Juo ja juovu!
tai: Tomus tahraa, ole likainen!
en pääse kuvaa pakoon, minust' ei se luovu.

Niin ajast' aikaan, vanki jumalan,

käy taikaympyrässä elon mailla.
Häneksi, häneen isoon, janoan —
mä, irvikuva, kauneutta vailla.
KATSE

Sun tyynen-helteisissä auterissas on ukkosilmaa aina-

vaanivaa, vavahtelevaa pedon-uinuntaa — ah, kissankynnet
piilee sametissas.

Salaisen sielumeren kuultavainen

oot kalvo, jossa lumpeet päilyvät.
Mut pohjallas on varjot himmeät,
ui siellä mustekalan kuvajainen.

Oot arvoitusten meri, vailla rajaa.

Ain' uusin, avartuvin taivahin
ja uusin, toivottomin syvyyksin
sä houkuttelet syliis sukeltajaa.

Tuot esiin koralleja, kultahiekkaa, kun herää nousuvesi

suudelmain; taas peityt varjoin, olet kaihi vain oi katse,
kaksiteräisempi miekkaa.
KAHDET SILMÄT

"Miks näin on nyt?" sinä kyselet.

— Mehän vaihdoimme silmiä vain.
Sinä sait minun silmäni entiset,
minä sinulta silmät sain.

Oli silmäsi julmat tullessain,

minun silmäni kärsivät.
Minä sinulta julmat silmät sain —
sinä minulta kärsivät.
ORJA LAULAA

Sen tiedät kyllä, tunnet sen, min salannut on mykkä suu: sun
puolees kynnet sydämen tään kurkoittuu.

Vaikk' en mä katso, sinut nään,

jos katson, sitä kestä en:
mä kesken sanaa vaiti jään
ja kalpenen.

Näit, valtijatar: vapisin,

kun viinimaljan sulle toin,
ja viinin maahan läikytin.
Ah, vitkaan noin —

kuin kätes siirtyy luomiltas — kuin silmäripses raoittuu —

kuin aukee, surma huulillas, tuo julma suu —

niin vitkaan, vitkaan kiduttaa

sun läheisyytes sydäntäin.
— Ei autuaampaa kuolemaa
kuin kuolla näin!
 Nyt käske: Käärmelammikkoon!
tai: Raadeltavaks leijonan!
Mut yhä julistava oon:
— Mä rakastan.
HOURE

Sinun tanssivan näin…

J
a
yöll
ä
pak
ana
llise
n
ville
istä,
juo
vutt
avis
ta
itä
mai
den
tem
ppe
lita
nss
eist
a
hou
rin.
Olet
kau
nei
n
Ast
arte
n
pap
ittar
ista
pov
in
taat
elin
kyp
sin
ja
silm
in
kuu
min
ja
hen
nos
 ti
kaa
rtuv
in
pol
vin
ja
uu
min
.

Ihos on kuin paistetta päivän; sitä huikenematta en katsoa

saata, jumalattaren kylmien kasvojen eteen kun polvistut,
koskien otsalla maata. Nyt taas sinä nouset ja tanssia alat, ah
— sulla on tulta ja soittoa jalat!

Minä pylväiden varjossa seisten

haen katsettas enkä mä kohtaa sitä.
Palan luoksesi, tanssiva liekki, mut luotas
olen kaukana niinkuin lännestä itä.
— Jumalattaren pronssisen patsaan luona
olet tanssien kuoleva, kaunis vuona.

Olet Astarten uhri. Nyt enää

sua varten ei aukene ihmisen syli.
Ja nyt koskaan en minä, orjasi, kanna
käsin kallista taakkaa aavikon yli
kotimaahani, keitaan palmujen alle.
Sääs arpa sen. Kuulut jo kuolemalle.

Oi että en, onneton, koskaan ajan ollessa huultesi kaivosta

juonut! Nyt Astarten julmia kasvoja kohden olet hurmion
vallassa silmäsi luonut. Yhä loittonet tanssien, äärelle kuilun,
läpi temppelin sauhun ja soidessa huilun —
KALYPSON VANKI

Meri,
sinä vihreä meri,
jolla on katseessasi rannattomuus,
janoni vihaa sinua,
vaikka en voi olla sinua rakastamatta.

Aallot, välkkyvin evin ja pärskyvin pyrstöin kiitävät, kaukaa-

tulevat, kauas-menevät, huimat, vapaat, julmat, ilkkuvat aallot
— kiroan teidät orjuutukseni tähden.

Ihanat pilvet, te jotka taivaanvuorilta, pesimispaikoiltanne,

levollisesti, katsoen merestä puhtaan rintanne kuvaa lennätte
mahtavin siivin ilmojen sinessä minne mielenne tekee —
tuulen-teillänne seuraa katseeni teitä kuin vertatippuva nuoli.

Haahdet, te merelliset haahdet, jotka viette miehiä rannasta

toiseen rantaan, kunne heitä kaipauksensa vetää — sieluni
näkee teidät, houriva sieluni, vaikka eivät silmäni näe.

Miehet laivoissa, veljeni, minua onnellisemmat, te jotka

toivotte vielä ja olette matkalla armaiden kasvojen luokse
ylitse meren — manaustani ette te kuule — tai te säikytte sitä
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