Aqa 7191 7192 Collins Sample
Aqa 7191 7192 Collins Sample
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1
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1.1 The role of education
in society
Learning objectives
›› Understand Marxist, functionalist, social democratic
and neoliberal perspectives on the roles and functions
of education (AO1).
›› Apply these perspectives to contemporary
British education (AO2).
›› Analyse the relationship between the education
system, the economy and the class structure (AO3).
›› Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Marxist,
functionalist social democratic and neoliberal
perspectives on education (AO3).
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1.1
The role of education in society
1. Look at the photographs above. Make a list of 4. Could you learn effectively without school?
the purposes of education for:
5. Evaluate whether university education gives
a. Individuals. b. Society as a whole. more benefit to the individual or to society.
2. Is there anything that occurs in schools that you Analyse who should pay the cost of the fees.
feel has no purpose? If so, what? Give reasons for your answer.
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TOPIC 1 Education
education was necessary for economic success. There was and Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) was then developed in
concern in the late 19th century that Britain was falling the 20th century in the USA by Talcott Parsons (1902–79)
behind competitors such as Germany in manufacturing and others. Using different approaches, they examined:
industries. Improving education would ensure that Britain
had the skilled workers necessary to compete effectively.
›› how societies managed to stick together and work
successfully without falling apart;
Education was also thought by some to have an important
civilising role. This was seen as important, as voting rights ›› how shared values and beliefs (for example about
were extended to the majority of men in 1884, and all right and wrong) helped members of society to
men over 21 in 1918 (plus women over 30). People hoped work together;
that if the mass of the population was better educated,
›› how institutions such as the family and the education
they would make better-informed decisions about who
system worked to create predictable and
to vote for. The state education system would also teach
orderly societies.
values and beliefs, which would help to ensure that they
were shared by the population as a whole. Some functionalists, such as Durkheim, recognised that
things could go wrong with social order, but they stressed
The expansion of education was supported by reformers
that institutions were generally positive, and usually
who campaigned for the poor. They saw education as an
‘functioned’ to meet the ‘needs’ of society. They paid less
escape route from poverty, so they believed that state
attention to inequality, conflict and social divisions than
education could help to produce a fairer society in which
most other sociologists.
everybody had opportunities to succeed.
Functionalists argue that education has three
Different groups put the emphasis on different
broad functions:
reasons for spending more on state education. These
long-standing differences over the purpose of education 1. Socialisation – Education helps to maintain society by
still exist today. socialising young people into key cultural values such as
achievement, competition, equality of opportunity, social
Since the 1960s, post-16 education to age 18 in school
solidarity, democracy, religion and morality. Writing in the
sixth forms and further education colleges has expanded
late 19th and early 20th century in France, Durkheim was
dramatically, as has higher education (see Chapter 6). By
particularly concerned that education should emphasise
2011/12, UK government expenditure by the Department
the moral responsibilities that members of society have
for Education amounted to over £56 billion or about 8%
towards each other and the wider society. For example,
of government spending (Rogers, 2012). In addition, much
he believed that the teaching of history is crucial in
of the £21 billion budget for the Department for Business,
developing a sense of loyalty to your own society. It
Innovation and Skills went on funding Further and
encourages pride in the achievements of your nation and
Higher Education, which was 13.5% of total government
a sense of shared identity with those who are citizens of
spending (Annual Abstract of Statistics, 2005).
the same nation-state. In Durkheim’s view, the increasing
tendency towards individualism in modern society could
lead to too little social solidarity and possibly anomie
Do you agree that making education compulsory up to (a state of normlessness or lack of shared norms). This
18 will benefit the individual and society (for example emphasis can be seen today through the introduction of
by boosting the economy)? Give reasons to support Citizenship and the maintenance of Religious Education as
your answer. compulsory subjects.
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1.1
The role of education in society
Parsons, discussing the US education system in the of meritocracy. Davis and Moore argue that some jobs
mid-20th century, also recognised the social significance are more important to society than others. For example,
of education. He suggested that it forms a bridge those taking key decisions such as chief executives of
between the family and the wider society by socialising large corporations play a crucial role in society. Education
children to adapt to a meritocratic view of achievement. helps to identify those capable of doing such jobs. The
In the family, particularistic standards apply – a child’s examination system encourages competition, individual
social status is accorded by its parents and other family achievement and hard work. It is closely linked to a
members. However, in wider society, universalistic rewards system that ensures those doing the most
standards apply – the individual is judged by criteria that important jobs get the highest pay. The high rewards for
apply to all of society’s members. Education helps ease some jobs are justified because the system is based on
this transition and instil the major value of achievement merit and it benefits society as a whole to have the most
through merit. According to Parsons, education capable people in the most important jobs. This is seen to
therefore helps to produce a value consensus – a general be fair because there is equality of opportunity – everyone
agreement about basic values in society. The value has the chance to achieve success in society on the basis
consensus helps to produce order and predictability in of their ability.
social life, ensuring that members of society share the
same basic goals.
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TOPIC 1 Education
Furthermore, functionalists tend to assume that education his ideas are known as Marxists, while those who have
succeeds in socialising individuals in the system. A number been influenced by his work but have then developed
of studies suggest that not all pupils conform to the values somewhat different ideas are known as neo-Marxists.
promoted at school (see for example the discussion of
Marxists see capitalist societies, such as Britain today,
Paul Willis in Topic X Chapter X).
as dominated by a ruling class. The ruling class consists
In terms of skills provision, there has been a long-running of the wealthy who own what Marx called the means of
debate in Britain about whether British education teaches production (the things needed to produce other things
pupils the right skills, and how successful it is in getting such as land, capital, machinery and labour power). The
pupils the learn skills at all. It has often been argued that wealth of the ruling class enables them to dominate and
vocational education has low status in Britain, with the control the non-economic parts of society – what Marxists
result that the education system does not produce the call the superstructure.
skills needed for the economy. For example, engineering
For Marxists, education is seen as an important part of
tends to have a relatively low status compared to
the superstructure of society. Along with other institutions
academic subjects such as history and English literature,
(such as the mass media, family, religion and the legal
even though engineering is more obviously relevant for a
system), it serves the needs of the ruling class who control
successful economy.
the economic base. This base shapes the superstructure,
Many sociologists argue that globalisation is increasingly while the superstructure maintains and justifies the base
significant. National boundaries have become less and (see Figure 6.1).
less important and interconnections between societies
For Marxists then, education performs two main functions
are increasingly strong. In a globalised economy, British
in capitalist society:
companies and workers have to compete with companies
and workers around the globe, yet critics argue that 1. It reproduces the inequalities and social relations
Britain lags far behind some other countries in training of production of capitalist society. For example,
workers. For example, 2012 research (Pisa) placed the UK it generally trains pupils from working class
26th out of 65 countries in terms of maths ability among backgrounds to do working class jobs while
15-year-olds, 23rd for reading and 20th for science. Even providing elite education for the children of the
if societies need the education system to provide the wealthy, preparing them to take up positions of
workforce with skills, that does not always mean that it will power in society.
succeed in doing this.
2. It serves to legitimate (justify) these inequalities
The functionalist claim that education successfully through the myth of meritocracy. It persuades
allocates individuals to roles in a fair and meritocratic members of society that their positions
way has been very strongly disputed. This view ignores (particularly their jobs) reflect their ability, while
various ways in which social divisions such as those in reality they largely reflect class background.
based on gender and ethnicity might affect educational (See Topic 1, Chapter 2 for a discussion of class
achievement (see Chapter 1, Topic X). It assumes that inequalities in achievement).
all individuals have the same opportunity to receive
high-quality education and ignores the existence
of private education, which gives the wealthy more
opportunity to select schools for their children. As we Understand the concept
will see later (see Chapter X, Topic X) social class has
a strong effect on educational opportunity – a point Legitimation – Legitimation is the process of
strongly supported by Marxists. They dismiss the view justifying or gaining support for an idea, a policy, and
that education or indeed role allocation in general institution or a social group. It often involves justifying
is meritocratic. an inequality or a form of exploitation, perhaps by
portraying it as natural (for example, saying men
are naturally stronger than women) or as fair (for
Marxist approach
example, claiming that it is always the most able who
Marxist ideas originated in the 19th century with the
get the best-paid jobs).
German revolutionary communist Karl Marx (1818–83),
but his ideas have influenced generations of social
scientists since then. Those who have largely followed
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1.1
The role of education in society
SUPERSTRUCTURE
Maintains and
legitimates the base
politics
religion family
ia
mass med education
Everything NOT to do with production in society
The Marxist Althusser (1971) disagrees with functionalists having to use force, which would expose it as oppressive.
that the main function of education is the transmission of Instead, ideology gets the same results by exerting its
common values. influence subconsciously.
He argues that education is an ideological state apparatus Bourdieu (1977) argues that the working classes are
(ISA). Its main function is to maintain, legitimate and effectively duped into accepting their failure and limited
reproduce, generation by generation, class inequalities in social mobility as justified. The education system tends
wealth and power. It does this by transmitting ruling-class to value the culture of middle and upper classes much
or capitalist values disguised as common values. For more than that of the working class (for example classical
example, in Britain and other capitalist countries, music and ‘serious’ literature rather than popular culture).
pupils are encouraged to accept the benefits of private The cultural attributes of the working class are rejected
enterprise and individual competition without question. because the system is defined by, and for, the middle
To Marxists, these parts of the capitalist system provide classes who, in turn, succeed by default rather than
much greater benefit to the ruling class than to other greater ability. Their cultural assets are seen as worthy
members of society. Along with other ISAs, such as the of investment and reward and hence have greater
media and the legal system, education reproduces the value as cultural capital. A process of cultural reproduction
conditions needed for capitalism to flourish without takes place in which the culture of the middle class is
reproduced and given higher status than working class
culture through the education system (This is discussed
more fully in the next Chapter). Bourdieu sees this as a
Understand the concept form of ‘symbolic violence’ against the working class.
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TOPIC 1 Education
Focus on skills
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1.1
The role of education in society
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TOPIC 1 Education
Focus on skills
was sexist (looking down on women) and racist (looking ruling class ideology, their rebellion against school meant
down on ethnic minorities). They valued traditional that they still ended up reproducing class inequality since
working-class masculinity, which emphasised toughness they ended up in working-class jobs.
and saw manual work as more valuable than non-manual
Neo-Marxist perspectives suggest that the hidden
work such as office work. Willis followed the lads into their
curriculum is not always accepted and that education does
first jobs which were overwhelmingly unskilled manual
not always succeed in socialising pupils into dominant
jobs, often in factories. He found that in these jobs there
values. It suggests that both functionalism and Marxism
was a shop-floor culture which was a very similar to the
exaggerate conformity in education. Furthermore it is
counter-school culture. They both involved lack of respect
clearly the case that not all pupils conform at school.
for authority and ‘havin a laff’ to cope with boring and
However, Willis’s study is small-scale and dated. Working
tedious work over which they had little control. However,
class pupils may not reject school as often today.
it was clear that although the ‘lads’ rejected aspects of
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1.1
The role of education in society
Comparing Marxism and neo-Marxism with greater equality resulting from the education system.
functionalism An example of this is the British Labour governments of
Despite the criticisms of both Marxism and neo-Marxism, the 1960s and 1970s, who introduced and expanded
it can be argued that these perspectives are just as comprehensive schools (see Topic X, Chapter X).
relevant today as they were in the past. The influence of Social Democratic perspectives continue to influence
business on education may be stronger than ever. For those educationalists, sociologists and politicians who
example, local authorities have lost some of their power stress that schools must give extra help to those from
over education because they no longer run colleges, Free disadvantaged backgrounds.
Schools or Academies. The Marxist Glenn Rikowski (2002,
Social democratic perspectives believe that as well as
2005) argues that there has been a ‘business takeover’ of
promoting economic growth, education is essential
schools. In the UK, this has involved businesses sponsoring
to promoting equality of opportunity in a meritocracy.
Academies, the subcontracting of many school services
However, they believe that education is not automatically
(for example educational psychology services) to private
meritocratic and that governments need to intervene to
businesses and an ever-growing emphasis on competition
ensure that people from all social classes have the same
between schools. In terms of the curriculum, there is more
chance to fulfil their potential in the education system. To
emphasis on NVQs and BTEC in schools. (This is more fully
achieve this, the government may need to make some
discussed in Chapter 6).
changes in society as well as in the education system.
However, Marxists and neo-Marxists may exaggerate From this viewpoint, a society that has too much inequality
the harmful effects of education as much as can never provide equal opportunities – the richest will
functionalists exaggerate the beneficial effects. Like always use their wealth to gain advantage (for example
functionalists, they also take an extreme view on the by buying private education). To some extent though,
hidden curriculum, seeing it as entirely benefiting this can be counteracted. By taxing the wealthy more and
capitalism (while functionalists see it as entirely spending the revenue on state education, it is possible
benefiting society as a whole). Neither Marxists and to give those from working-class backgrounds a good
neo-Marxists nor functionalists base their ideas on chance to succeed.
detailed research into the content of schooling today,
They believe this can be achieved, for example, by
nor do they acknowledge that education may have
expanding higher education to give more places for
different effects for different groups at different times
working-class pupils, by introducing comprehensive
(see Chapter 5 on processes in schools). Marxists
schools (so middle-class pupils can’t gain an advantage
and neo-Marxists emphasise class above gender and
by going to selective state schools), and by providing
ethnicity, while functionalists ignore social divisions
extra educational help for those from disadvantaged
altogether. Like functionalists, Marxists and neo-Marxists
backgrounds. Social democrats such as Halsey and Floud
tend not to put forward suggestions for improving
(1961) were very influential in the 1960s and 1970s when
the education system. Functionalists tend to assume
Labour governments followed some of these policies,
that education already functions well, while Marxists
but they have also continued to have some influence
assume that education could only become fair and just
on Labour governments and the Coalition government
if capitalist society were overthrown and replaced by
since then.
a communist society. Neither therefore suggests how
education could be improved in existing societies. Other Critics have argued that social democratic policies have
perspectives on education do make more concrete not been particularly successful in helping the working
suggestions for how education could be improved, and class to do better in education. Despite many new policies
these alternative perspectives will be discussed next. being introduced to achieve this, the gap in attainment
between classes remains large (see Chapter 2).
Social democratic perspectives on education Woolf (2002) questions whether more and more
Functionalism and Marxism are quite extreme views of government spending on education will automatically
education, but many sociologists and educationalists take lead to economic growth. For example Switzerland has
a more moderate view, arguing that education does need relatively low education spending but high
to be changed to improve, but that this does not require economic growth.
a revolutionary change in society. However, they disagree
The strongest critics of social democratic viewpoints have
over the direction of change.
probably been neoliberals (see Topic X, Chapter X).
Social democratic perspectives are associated with According to many neoliberals, greater equality in
educationalists and politicians who would like to see education can lead to standards being undermined;
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TOPIC 1 Education
The British Cohort Study is a longitudinal piece of For these children, additional opportunities to stay in
research that takes as its subjects all those living in education at age 16 and age 18 disproportionately
England, Scotland and Wales who were born in one benefited those from better-off backgrounds. For a more
particular week in April 1970. Data were collected recent group born in the early 1980s, the gap between
about the births and families of just under 17,200 those staying on in education at age 16 narrowed, but
babies; since then, there have been five more attempts inequality of access to higher education has widened
to gather information from this group. With each further: while the proportion of people from the poorest
successive ‘sweep’, the scope of enquiry has broadened fifth of families obtaining a degree has increased from
and it now covers physical, educational, social and 6 per cent to 9 per cent, the graduation rates for the
economic development. In 2000, a new cohort study richest fifth have risen from 20 to 47 per cent.
(The Millennium Cohort Study) was started, which
Analysis of children in the Millennium Cohort Study at
initially collected data on 19,000 children born in
age 7 suggested that class inequality was continuing to
2000/1. This study has conducted interviews with the
have a major effect on educational achievement
parents, cognitive tests on the children and interviews
(Sullivan, et al. 2013). Even at such an early age there
with their class teachers. By 2012, there had already
were marked class differences in children’s cognitive
been five sweeps of data collection when the children
scores and analysis of the statistics suggested that these
were different ages.
were very largely determined by the income, social class
Data have been collected in a variety of ways. In the and previous education of parents. On the other hand,
British Cohort Study’s 1986 research, 16 separate the parenting style of parents made little difference to
methods were used including parental questionnaires, test scores.
class teacher and head-teacher questionnaires,
Sources: Blanden, et al. (2005); Sullivan, et al. (2013)
and medical examinations. The sample completed
questionnaires, kept two diaries and undertook some The Centre for Longitudinal Studies (www.cls.ioe.ac.uk)
educational assessments. The Millennium Cohort Study
Questions
used interviews with parents, cognitive tests on children
and interviews with class teachers. 1. Explain. Explain how the British Cohort Study and
The Millennium Cohort Studies are longitudinal
Over the period of the research, the sample for the
pieces of research.
British Cohort Study reduced to 15,500, while the 2012
research for the Millennium Cohort Study involved a 2. Evaluate. These studies both used large samples.
sample of just over 12,000. Identify an advantage and a disadvantage of having
a large sample.
Jo Blanden, Paul Gregg and Steve Machin have used
data from The British Cohort Study to compare the 3. Analysis. It is sometimes claimed that longitudinal
life chances of British children with those in other research is very useful for understanding changes
advanced countries, and the results are disturbing. In over time. Identify two reasons why this may be
a comparison of eight European and North American the case.
countries, Britain and the United States have the lowest 4. Analysis and evaluation. Could taking part in
social mobility (movement between classes). a study such as this affect the way participants
Social mobility in Britain has declined, whereas behave, and therefore affect the results? Give
in the USA it is stable. Part of the reason for reasons for your answer.
Britain’s decline has been that the better off have 5. Analysis. What do these studies suggest
benefited disproportionately from increased about the functionalist view that education is
educational opportunity. meritocratic and allocates roles efficiently in
Comparing surveys of children born in the 1950s and the modern societies?
1970s, the researchers went on to examine the reason
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The role of education in society
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TOPIC 1 Education
This perspective has been applied to education by Robin Postmodern views can be criticised for exaggerating the
Usher, Ian Bryant and Rennie Johnston (1997) in the changes in education. For example, Mike Haralambos
context of adult education. and Martin Holborn (2013) point out that there is actually
a greater centralisation in some aspects of education,
Education for adults has been particularly responsive to
particularly the national curriculum, rather than greater
the need for greater choice and diversity, for example
diversity and choice. The budget for adult education
by the use of flexible and distance learning. No single
in the UK has been cut and, for example, the range of
curriculum is assumed to be useful for all learners. As a
evening classes available for adult students has declined.
result, a vast range of courses is provided by educational
They also criticise postmodernists for ignoring the way
institutions such as FE colleges, The Open University and
in which education may be shaped more by big business
Adult Education colleges. This allows learners to pick and
than by the needs and wishes of individual learners.
mix different combinations of courses to suit their own
objectives and lifestyles. Furthermore, education is no
longer separate from other areas of life. It has become
integrated into leisure and work. It can therefore have Keeping in mind neoliberal, Marxist, functionalist,
many different meanings to those who take up adult social democratic and postmodern arguments, identify
education. In these respects, adult education is typical of advantages and disadvantages of business leaders
postmodern society, which is characterised by a blurring having direct involvement in state education. Do you
of the boundaries between different areas of life, greater think the advantages outweigh the disadvantages or
choice and variety and the rejection of any kind of plan vice versa? Give reasons for your conclusion.
imposed from the centre on individuals.
Focus on Skills
Competition, exams and the purpose students to sit alone at their desks in preparation for
of education a world in which, for much of the time, they will need
to work collaboratively’. Little supported the head of
In August 2014 Tony Little, headmaster of
a primary school at Barrowford in Lancashire who had
Eton, Britain’s most prestigious private school,
sent out a letter to all Year 6 pupils telling them not
attacked England’s exam system saying that it was
to worry about their SATs results because the tests
‘unimaginative’ and claiming it was not succeeding in
couldn’t assess what made them ‘special and unique’
preparing pupils for working in the modern world. He
as individuals.
argued that it was too much like the exam system in
Victorian times and focused too much upon test scores Michael Gove (a former education secretary) supported
and too little on the content of education itself. Tony more traditional exams with less use of coursework.
Little said that education needed to be about more He justified this in terms of Britain falling behind
than ‘jostling for position in a league table’ which could the highest achieving places in the international
lead to schools putting too much emphasis upon test Pisa tests, which placed England some way down
scores, which were in any case not always a reliable the international rankings for essential skills such as
guide to the quality of the education that pupils had literacy and numeracy. Shanghai, in China, topped the
received. He argued that the exam system ‘obliges tables. However, Tony Little argued that the Chinese
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The role of education in society
themselves were concerned that their education was 2. Explain. Explain the similarities and differences
too narrow and that, ironically, they were trying to learn between Tony Little’s views and the neoliberal
from Britain and develop a more ‘all-round education’ perspective on education.
rather than focusing too much on literacy, numeracy
3. Apply. Apply Marxist perspectives to the
and science.
differences between working-class and elite
education suggested by this article.
Questions
4. Evaluate. Do you agree with the claim that the
1. Identify. Identify the central differences between
exam system in England does not prepare pupils
the views of Michael Gove and Tony Little.
for work in the modern world? Justify your answer.
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TOPIC 1 Education
Take it further
1. Interview a range of your teachers. Ask them Or: Think about the last period of British history you
to explain the values which they consider are studied most recently at school or college and analyse
encouraged by the following aspects of school the course content. Did the course tend to celebrate
organisation and routine: assemblies, speech days, British history or be critical of it? Did it fit with the
sports days, school uniform, registration, house functionalist view that studying history is important in
competitions, school rules, socialisation and encouraging loyalty to your country?
prefects, detention.
3. Divide the class into groups who will argue either
Evaluate the extent to which their responses subscribe for or against the following statement:
to functionalist, Marxist, social democratic or
“Elite universities reproduce class inequalities and
neoliberal views of education.
benefit the few at the expense of the many.”
When conducting the interview, try to make sure
Consider the chances that those from different
that you do not lead the teacher in any way. Keep
backgrounds have of getting into high status
your questions neutral and don’t express support or
universities.Think also about elite universities: does
criticism of their responses.
the value of the education provided, and the research
they do, benefit society as a whole or just the people
2. Either: revisit one or more of the books that you
who study there?
have studied in English at school and analyse the
content. What sort of values does the book seem
to support? How does this fit in with Marxist and
functionalist views of education?
18