1 educaTion

chapter 1 The role of education in society 000

chapter 2 Class and educational achievement 000
chapter 3 Ethnicity and educational achievement 000
chapter 4 Gender and educational achievement 000
chapter 5 Relationships and processes in schools 000
chapter 6 Social policy and education 000
Apply your learning 000
Topic summary 000

2
 1

aQa specification chapters Pages

candidates should examine:
The role and functions of the education system, Chapter 1 covers the key theoretical 000
including its relationship to the economy and to approaches. Chapter 2 deals specifically
class structure. with class. Chapter 6 looks at how
these issues play out in relation to
contemporary policies.
Differential educational achievement of social groups Chapters 2, 3 and 4 deal in detail with 000
by social class, gender and ethnicity in these issues.
contemporary society.
Relationships and processes within schools, with Chapter 5 covers these aspects in detail. 000
particular reference to teacher/pupil relationships,
pupil identities and subcultures, the hidden
curriculum, and the organisation of
teaching and learning.
The significance of educational policies, including Chapters 2, 3 and 4 consider the effects 000
policies of selection, marketisation and privatisation, of policies on access to education.
and policies to achieve greater equality of Chapter 6 deals specifically with policy
opportunity or outcome, for an understanding of issues, but there are important links with
the structure, role, impact and experience of and the theories discussed in Chapter 1.
access to education; the impact of globalisation on
educational policy.

3
1.1 The role of education
in society
Learning objectives
›› Understand Marxist, functionalist, social democratic
and neoliberal perspectives on the roles and functions
of education (AO1).
›› Apply these perspectives to contemporary
British education (AO2).
›› Analyse the relationship between the education
system, the economy and the class structure (AO3).
›› Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Marxist,
functionalist social democratic and neoliberal
perspectives on education (AO3).

Introducing the debate

In England, for anyone born after 1 September 1997 it The education system is one of the most influential
is now compulsory to stay on at school until the age of institutions in society. It takes individuals from
18. But why is such a long (and expensive) education the age of 4 or 5, or even younger, for six or so
thought necessary? It is widely believed that all the time hours per day, over a period of at least 13 years in
and effort devoted to education is good for individual England. It bombards them with a vast amount of
pupils and equally good for the well-being of society knowledge, attitudes and skills.
as a whole. For example, for the individual it might
These are acquired either formally through set
open up opportunities and lead to higher pay, while for
lessons, or informally through the hidden curriculum –
society it can help the economy to grow. Functionalist
the processes involved in being ‘schooled’ and the
sociologists have a very positive view of education, in
various interactions that take place while in school
line with these widely shared beliefs. Marxists, however,
(for more on the hidden curriculum, see the section
have a very different view, seeing education as serving
below on the Marxist approach). By the time they
the interests of a small, higher-class minority and not
finish compulsory education, most pupils will have
those of society as a whole. This Chapter will examine
spent well over 15,000 hours in lessons.
the ideas and the evidence to see which view is
more credible.

4
 1.1
The role of education in society

Getting you thinking

1. Look at the photographs above. Make a list of 4. Could you learn effectively without school?
the purposes of education for:
5. Evaluate whether university education gives
a. Individuals. b. Society as a whole. more benefit to the individual or to society.
2. Is there anything that occurs in schools that you Analyse who should pay the cost of the fees.
feel has no purpose? If so, what? Give reasons for your answer.

3. What have you really learned at school/college

this week? Who will gain from your acquiring
this knowledge, set of attitudes or skills?

Compulsory education for all

It may seem normal today that all children are entitled to boards were replaced with around 300 Local Education
lengthy and free state education, this has not always been Authorities in 1902, by which time about 20,000 board
the case. Private schooling was always available for the and voluntary schools served 5.6 million pupils. The
upper and middle classes who could afford it, but it was Fisher Education Act of 1918 made the state responsible
not until 1880 that education was available to everyone up for secondary education, and attendance was made
to the age of 10. compulsory up to the age of 14. The school-leaving age
was raised to 15 in 1947, then to 16 in 1972, and for
Forster’s 1870 Education Act declared that school
everyone born after 1997 it is now 18.
boards could be set up in districts where school places
were inadequate. Between 1870 and 1880, about 4000 One of the main reasons for the rapid expansion of state
schools were started or taken over by boards. The school education in Britain has been a belief that improved

5
TOPIC 1 Education

education was necessary for economic success. There was and Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) was then developed in
concern in the late 19th century that Britain was falling the 20th century in the USA by Talcott Parsons (1902–79)
behind competitors such as Germany in manufacturing and others. Using different approaches, they examined:
industries. Improving education would ensure that Britain
had the skilled workers necessary to compete effectively.
›› how societies managed to stick together and work
successfully without falling apart;
Education was also thought by some to have an important
civilising role. This was seen as important, as voting rights ›› how shared values and beliefs (for example about
were extended to the majority of men in 1884, and all right and wrong) helped members of society to
men over 21 in 1918 (plus women over 30). People hoped work together;
that if the mass of the population was better educated,
›› how institutions such as the family and the education
they would make better-informed decisions about who
system worked to create predictable and
to vote for. The state education system would also teach
orderly societies.
values and beliefs, which would help to ensure that they
were shared by the population as a whole. Some functionalists, such as Durkheim, recognised that
things could go wrong with social order, but they stressed
The expansion of education was supported by reformers
that institutions were generally positive, and usually
who campaigned for the poor. They saw education as an
‘functioned’ to meet the ‘needs’ of society. They paid less
escape route from poverty, so they believed that state
attention to inequality, conflict and social divisions than
education could help to produce a fairer society in which
most other sociologists.
everybody had opportunities to succeed.
Functionalists argue that education has three
Different groups put the emphasis on different
broad functions:
reasons for spending more on state education. These
long-standing differences over the purpose of education 1. Socialisation – Education helps to maintain society by
still exist today. socialising young people into key cultural values such as
achievement, competition, equality of opportunity, social
Since the 1960s, post-16 education to age 18 in school
solidarity, democracy, religion and morality. Writing in the
sixth forms and further education colleges has expanded
late 19th and early 20th century in France, Durkheim was
dramatically, as has higher education (see Chapter 6). By
particularly concerned that education should emphasise
2011/12, UK government expenditure by the Department
the moral responsibilities that members of society have
for Education amounted to over £56 billion or about 8%
towards each other and the wider society. For example,
of government spending (Rogers, 2012). In addition, much
he believed that the teaching of history is crucial in
of the £21 billion budget for the Department for Business,
developing a sense of loyalty to your own society. It
Innovation and Skills went on funding Further and
encourages pride in the achievements of your nation and
Higher Education, which was 13.5% of total government
a sense of shared identity with those who are citizens of
spending (Annual Abstract of Statistics, 2005).
the same nation-state. In Durkheim’s view, the increasing
tendency towards individualism in modern society could
lead to too little social solidarity and possibly anomie
Do you agree that making education compulsory up to (a state of normlessness or lack of shared norms). This
18 will benefit the individual and society (for example emphasis can be seen today through the introduction of
by boosting the economy)? Give reasons to support Citizenship and the maintenance of Religious Education as
your answer. compulsory subjects.

So why do modern societies invest so much in schooling

the next generation? Sociologists are divided in their Understand the concept
views about this. Most agree that education is important,
both in teaching skills and in encouraging certain attitudes Socialisation – Socialisation is the process through
and values, but they disagree about why this occurs and which individuals learn the norms, values and culture
who benefits from it. of their society; that is, they learn how to behave
in order to fit in with their society. Primary
Functionalist approach socialisation – the earliest stage – usually takes
Functionalism was the first sociological perspective to be place in families. Education is one of the most
developed, starting in the 19th century. The initial work of important agencies of secondary socialisation.
French sociologists such as August Comte (1798–1857)

6
 1.1
The role of education in society

Parsons, discussing the US education system in the of meritocracy. Davis and Moore argue that some jobs
mid-20th century, also recognised the social significance are more important to society than others. For example,
of education. He suggested that it forms a bridge those taking key decisions such as chief executives of
between the family and the wider society by socialising large corporations play a crucial role in society. Education
children to adapt to a meritocratic view of achievement. helps to identify those capable of doing such jobs. The
In the family, particularistic standards apply – a child’s examination system encourages competition, individual
social status is accorded by its parents and other family achievement and hard work. It is closely linked to a
members. However, in wider society, universalistic rewards system that ensures those doing the most
standards apply – the individual is judged by criteria that important jobs get the highest pay. The high rewards for
apply to all of society’s members. Education helps ease some jobs are justified because the system is based on
this transition and instil the major value of achievement merit and it benefits society as a whole to have the most
through merit. According to Parsons, education capable people in the most important jobs. This is seen to
therefore helps to produce a value consensus – a general be fair because there is equality of opportunity – everyone
agreement about basic values in society. The value has the chance to achieve success in society on the basis
consensus helps to produce order and predictability in of their ability.
social life, ensuring that members of society share the
same basic goals.

Understand the concept

Understand the concept
Role allocation – This is the process of deciding who
Meritocracy – A meritocracy is a society or system does what within a society or a smaller social setting.
in which success or failure is based on merit. Merit is The examination system plays a part in this, and the
seen as resulting from a combination of ability and whole process of interviewing or direct recruiting of
effort or hard work. In principle, this could be seen as individuals for jobs is there to vet and select people
a fair system but it is difficult to define and measure for particular roles.
merit, and the prior existence of inequality makes
it very difficult to have a system which genuinely
rewards merit.
To what extent do you agree that education
determines whether individuals end up with high
2. Skills provision – Education teaches the skills status and well-paid jobs? What other factors might
required by a modern industrial society. These may be also be important?
general skills that everyone needs, such as literacy and
numeracy, or the specific skills needed for particular
occupations. As the division of labour increases in
Criticisms of the functionalist approach
complexity and occupational roles become more
In general terms, the functionalist perspective on
specialised, increasingly longer periods in education
education has been criticised for emphasising the
become necessary.
positive effects of the education system and ignoring the
Functionalist theory ties in closely with human capital negative aspects. Functionalists tend to ignore aspects of
theory, an economic theory which claims that investment education that may be dysfunctional (harmful to society)
in humans through education and training acts very and that may benefit some social groups more than
much like investment in new machinery. Just as new others, and to ignore conflict in the education system
machines may be able to produce a higher quantity of and wider society.
better quality products, so better educated and more
In terms of socialisation, the functionalist view
highly skilled people can create more wealth through
seems most applicable in societies where there is a
their work.
single dominant and shared culture. In multicultural
3. Role allocation – The functionalists Davis and Moore societies where, for example, different ethnic groups
(1945) argue that education allocates people to the most have different cultures and values, it may be hard to
appropriate job for their talents, using examinations and reconcile differences through education (see Focus on
qualifications. Their argument is based on the principle Skills below).

7
TOPIC 1 Education

Furthermore, functionalists tend to assume that education his ideas are known as Marxists, while those who have
succeeds in socialising individuals in the system. A number been influenced by his work but have then developed
of studies suggest that not all pupils conform to the values somewhat different ideas are known as neo-Marxists.
promoted at school (see for example the discussion of
Marxists see capitalist societies, such as Britain today,
Paul Willis in Topic X Chapter X).
as dominated by a ruling class. The ruling class consists
In terms of skills provision, there has been a long-running of the wealthy who own what Marx called the means of
debate in Britain about whether British education teaches production (the things needed to produce other things
pupils the right skills, and how successful it is in getting such as land, capital, machinery and labour power). The
pupils the learn skills at all. It has often been argued that wealth of the ruling class enables them to dominate and
vocational education has low status in Britain, with the control the non-economic parts of society – what Marxists
result that the education system does not produce the call the superstructure.
skills needed for the economy. For example, engineering
For Marxists, education is seen as an important part of
tends to have a relatively low status compared to
the superstructure of society. Along with other institutions
academic subjects such as history and English literature,
(such as the mass media, family, religion and the legal
even though engineering is more obviously relevant for a
system), it serves the needs of the ruling class who control
successful economy.
the economic base. This base shapes the superstructure,
Many sociologists argue that globalisation is increasingly while the superstructure maintains and justifies the base
significant. National boundaries have become less and (see Figure 6.1).
less important and interconnections between societies
For Marxists then, education performs two main functions
are increasingly strong. In a globalised economy, British
in capitalist society:
companies and workers have to compete with companies
and workers around the globe, yet critics argue that 1. It reproduces the inequalities and social relations
Britain lags far behind some other countries in training of production of capitalist society. For example,
workers. For example, 2012 research (Pisa) placed the UK it generally trains pupils from working class
26th out of 65 countries in terms of maths ability among backgrounds to do working class jobs while
15-year-olds, 23rd for reading and 20th for science. Even providing elite education for the children of the
if societies need the education system to provide the wealthy, preparing them to take up positions of
workforce with skills, that does not always mean that it will power in society.
succeed in doing this.
2. It serves to legitimate (justify) these inequalities
The functionalist claim that education successfully through the myth of meritocracy. It persuades
allocates individuals to roles in a fair and meritocratic members of society that their positions
way has been very strongly disputed. This view ignores (particularly their jobs) reflect their ability, while
various ways in which social divisions such as those in reality they largely reflect class background.
based on gender and ethnicity might affect educational (See Topic 1, Chapter 2 for a discussion of class
achievement (see Chapter 1, Topic X). It assumes that inequalities in achievement).
all individuals have the same opportunity to receive
high-quality education and ignores the existence
of private education, which gives the wealthy more
opportunity to select schools for their children. As we Understand the concept
will see later (see Chapter X, Topic X) social class has
a strong effect on educational opportunity – a point Legitimation – Legitimation is the process of
strongly supported by Marxists. They dismiss the view justifying or gaining support for an idea, a policy, and
that education or indeed role allocation in general institution or a social group. It often involves justifying
is meritocratic. an inequality or a form of exploitation, perhaps by
portraying it as natural (for example, saying men
are naturally stronger than women) or as fair (for
Marxist approach
example, claiming that it is always the most able who
Marxist ideas originated in the 19th century with the
get the best-paid jobs).
German revolutionary communist Karl Marx (1818–83),
but his ideas have influenced generations of social
scientists since then. Those who have largely followed

8
 1.1
The role of education in society

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Maintains and
legitimates the base

politics
religion family
ia
mass med education
Everything NOT to do with production in society

Means of production Relations of production

All the things you need to Bourgeoisie exploits the
produce: machines, factories, proletariat BASE
land, raw materials, etc.
(all owned by bourgeoisie) Shapes the
superstructure

Figure 6.1 Marxist view of the superstructure of society

The Marxist Althusser (1971) disagrees with functionalists having to use force, which would expose it as oppressive.
that the main function of education is the transmission of Instead, ideology gets the same results by exerting its
common values. influence subconsciously.

He argues that education is an ideological state apparatus Bourdieu (1977) argues that the working classes are
(ISA). Its main function is to maintain, legitimate and effectively duped into accepting their failure and limited
reproduce, generation by generation, class inequalities in social mobility as justified. The education system tends
wealth and power. It does this by transmitting ruling-class to value the culture of middle and upper classes much
or capitalist values disguised as common values. For more than that of the working class (for example classical
example, in Britain and other capitalist countries, music and ‘serious’ literature rather than popular culture).
pupils are encouraged to accept the benefits of private The cultural attributes of the working class are rejected
enterprise and individual competition without question. because the system is defined by, and for, the middle
To Marxists, these parts of the capitalist system provide classes who, in turn, succeed by default rather than
much greater benefit to the ruling class than to other greater ability. Their cultural assets are seen as worthy
members of society. Along with other ISAs, such as the of investment and reward and hence have greater
media and the legal system, education reproduces the value as cultural capital. A process of cultural reproduction
conditions needed for capitalism to flourish without takes place in which the culture of the middle class is
reproduced and given higher status than working class
culture through the education system (This is discussed
more fully in the next Chapter). Bourdieu sees this as a
Understand the concept form of ‘symbolic violence’ against the working class.

Ideology – An ideology is a set of beliefs that

promotes the interests of one group (for example one
Do you agree that the curriculum content in the British
class) at the expense of others. For example, if the
education system devalues the culture of the working
working class are persuaded by ideology that they
class in particular and less powerful groups in general?
only deserve very low wages, then this serves the
Use examples in your answer.
interests of the ruling class.

9
TOPIC 1 Education

Focus on skills

governing bodies of Birmingham schools in a plot

dubbed Operation Trojan Horse.
On Tuesday, further evidence also emerged of abrupt
shifts in Ofsted’s inspection results, with a leaked
inspection report showing that a second secondary
school in the city that had been previously rated as
good or outstanding in November 2013 is expected
to be downgraded to inadequate when its new
report is published next week. Describing the mass
inspection as “a landmark in the history of education
in these islands”, Brighouse and the other signatories
argue: “First-hand accounts of the Ofsted inspections
Values, education and Operation Trojan Horse that have emerged are disturbing. They suggest that
In 2014 it was alleged that there was a plot by Muslims inspectors were poorly prepared and had an agenda
to take over several Birmingham schools and to make that calls into question Ofsted’s claim to be objective
sure they were run on Islamic lines. The ‘plot’ was and professional in its appraisal of standards in schools
investigated by Ofsted, which judged several of the serving predominantly Muslim pupils.
Birmingham schools to be ‘inadequate’. For example, “It is beyond belief that schools which were judged
they found that ‘extremist’ Islamic speakers were invited less than a year ago to be outstanding are now widely
into some schools, that there was too little opportunity reported as ‘inadequate’, despite having the same
to learn about non-Islamic cultures, and that some curriculum, the same students, the same leadership
female staff members thought they were spoken to in team and the same governing body. This is uncharted
an intimidating way. territory, with Ofsted being guided by an ideology at
However, not everyone agreed that there was evidence odds with the traditional British values which schools
of an Islamic takeover, or that the investigation was fair. are meant to espouse, particularly fairness, justice and
respect for others.”
The following report is from The Guardian newspaper.
It discusses the response of 20 experts to the Ofsted Adams, R. (2014). The Guardian, 3 June 2014
investigation and challenges the impartiality of Ofsted,
Questions
given that a year earlier some of the schools in question
had been judged ‘outstanding’. These experts thought 1. Understand. What impression is given by the
it was Ofsted, not the Birmingham schools, that was idea of ‘infiltration’?
undermining ‘British values’.
2. Interpret. What view of the inspection process is
implied by this article?
An ideology “at odds with traditional British values”
has taken hold at the schools inspectorate Ofsted, a 3. Analysis. Analyse the reasons why the experts in
group of leading educationalists and Muslim leaders the article questioned the view that the Ofsted
have warned. Led by Sir Tim Brighouse, a former chief investigation into Trojan Horse was objective
education officer in Birmingham, the 20 experts – and fair.
unhappy at the way Ofsted has conducted inspections 4. Analysis. On the basis of the evidence here,
into schools allegedly infiltrated by conservative analyse whether functionalists would see the
Muslims – say in a letter to the Guardian that it is at risk Birmingham schools involved as successfully
of compromising political independence by producing carrying out their functions for British society.
“tarnished reports”.
5. Evaluate. With reference to the Trojan Horse
Their intervention comes days before Ofsted publishes allegations, evaluate whether education can ever
results of an inspection of 21 schools ordered by pass on a shared culture in a multicultural society
education secretary Michael Gove, after claims that where there are strongly held differences in
conservative Muslims were trying to infiltrate the religious beliefs.

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 1.1
The role of education in society

Correspondence theory encourages critical thinking, for example, Sociology.

Bowles and Gintis (1976) argue that education is Some neo-Marxists such as Willis believe that the hidden
controlled by capitalists and serves their interests. From a curriculum is not always accepted (see below). They claim
study of high school children in the USA they argue that that it is debatable whether education is really controlled
there is a close relationship between schooling and work, by the ruling class. Elected local education authorities
because schooling is used to prepare children to work in and teachers have some independence and do not have
capitalist businesses. The correspondence principle states to follow the wishes of capitalists all the time. Some of
that education corresponds to employment. the evidence used to support Marxism is dated and may
not be representative. For example, Bowles and Gintis
Capitalism requires a hardworking, docile and obedient
conducted their research in 1976 in the USA, and it may
workforce which will not challenge the decisions of
not be applicable in Britain in the 21st century.
management. Bowles and Gintis believes that education
prepares such a workforce through the hidden curriculum,
or the hidden, informal messages and lessons that come
from the way schooling is organised. It works in the Build connections
following ways:
The question of whether education provides a route
›› Conformist pupils are awarded higher grades than
for greater social mobility and therefore leads to
those who challenge authority or think creatively.
a more open class system is crucial in a number of
›› Schools teach acceptance of hierarchy since teachers debates around class stratification. The easier it is to
give the orders and pupils obey, just as workers obey move up the class system through success in education
managers in the workplace. the more open and meritocratic the system is.
›› Pupils are motivated by the external rewards of exam
success just as workers are motivated by wages, since
Partly as a result of such criticisms, a variety of neo-Marxist
neither pupils nor workers experience satisfaction in
(or new Marxist) approaches to education have
learning or work because it is directed by others and
been developed.
they have little control over it.
›› Both work and education are fragmented, or broken Neo-Marxist perspectives on education
into small pieces, so that workers and pupils have An example of neo-Marxism applied to education is
little overall understanding of production or society. the work of Henry Giroux (1984). He disagrees with the
This keeps them divided and, in the case of workers, conventional Marxist approach of Bowles and Gintis
prevents them from setting up their own businesses in because he does not believe that working-class pupils
competition with their employers. passively accept everything they are taught, but actively
Like Bourdieu, Bowles and Gintis see the idea of meritocracy shape their own education and sometimes resist the
as a myth – people are conned into believing that success discipline imposed on them by the school. Schools are
or failure is based on merit, whereas in reality their class sites of ideological struggle by different classes and by
background determines how well they do in education. different ethnic, religious and cultural groups struggling to
Their research suggests that intelligence (as measured in ensure that education provides the things they wish for.
IQ tests) has less effect on grades than class background. Capitalists have more power than any other single group
However, because people believe that the education system but they don’t have all the power. The most influential
is meritocratic this makes it seem fair and encourages neo-Marxist study of education is a study of a group of
people to accept educational failure and low wages. boys (or ‘lads’) in a Midlands comprehensive school in
the 1970s. Paul Willis (1977) conducted the study using
Criticisms of the Marxist perspective interviews and participant observation in the school. The
Marxism in general, and Bowles and Gintis in particular, group of boys studied formed a group that took up an
have been criticised a number of ways. They tend to anti-school stance, which opposed the norms and values
emphasise class inequality in education and pay little or supported by the school. The ‘lads’ saw themselves as
no attention to inequality based on gender or ethnicity. superior to teachers and conformist pupils who they called
The idea that education corresponds to work has been ‘ear ’oles’.They were not interested in getting academic
criticised by Brown et al. (1997), who believe that much qualifications. At school their main aim was to do as little
work now requires teamwork rather than obedience work as possible while entertaining themselves by ‘having
of authority. Reynolds (1984) believes some education a laff’ through bad behaviour. Their anti-school culture

11
TOPIC 1 Education

Focus on skills 

In history lessons there is a great deal of emphasis

upon studying Stalin and Hitler and how they ignored
basic human rights. However, schools still use collective
punishments (which are banned under the Geneva
Convention). For example, they might be told that
the toilets will be closed until somebody owns up to
smoking in them or to leaving graffiti.
The importance of protecting the environment is often
emphasised in schools but Revell describe schools as
“temples to waste”, which often have “uninsulated
classrooms using worksheets that have been printed on
unrecycled, chlorine-rich paper. The busiest machine in
school is the photocopier”.
Schools, hypocrisy and the hidden curriculum
Overall, any attempts to introduce critical or reflective
Phil Revell (The Guardian, 2004), an educational
thinking among pupils is more than cancelled out by a
journalist, argues that schools are riddled with hypocrisy.
’conveyor-belt approach to learning. Knowledge arrives
Very often what people are taught in the formal
in unrelated, bite-size chunks. What does it all mean,
curriculum of lessons is contradicted by the way the
who cares as long as it can be assessed? Don’t think
school is run (what is known as the hidden curriculum).
about the problem. Write it down. There’s a test
He gives a number of examples.
next week’.
There is an increasing problem with pupils being
overweight, leading to a serious risk of heart disease
Questions
and diabetes in later life. Schools often teach about the 1. Analyse. Analyse the messages given by these
importance of a healthy diet but 95 per cent of Britain’s examples of the hidden curriculum.
secondary schools now have vending machines selling
2. Identify. Identify any examples of hypocrisy that
unhealthy sugary snacks and drinks.
you have experienced at school and/or college
Phil Revell worked in a school where children were and suggest the hidden message produced
expected to remove their shoes to avoid damage by them.
to the school hall floor, although the teachers were
3. Apply. Apply the Marxist perspective on the
allowed to keep their footwear on, including high heels.
hidden curriculum to these examples.
Pupils are told about the importance of fairness and
equal treatment, but teachers are allowed to jump the 4. Evaluate. Evaluate the reasons why the hidden
dinner queue. and formal curricula might give contradictory
messages. Whose interests are being served?

was sexist (looking down on women) and racist (looking ruling class ideology, their rebellion against school meant
down on ethnic minorities). They valued traditional that they still ended up reproducing class inequality since
working-class masculinity, which emphasised toughness they ended up in working-class jobs.
and saw manual work as more valuable than non-manual
Neo-Marxist perspectives suggest that the hidden
work such as office work. Willis followed the lads into their
curriculum is not always accepted and that education does
first jobs which were overwhelmingly unskilled manual
not always succeed in socialising pupils into dominant
jobs, often in factories. He found that in these jobs there
values. It suggests that both functionalism and Marxism
was a shop-floor culture which was a very similar to the
exaggerate conformity in education. Furthermore it is
counter-school culture. They both involved lack of respect
clearly the case that not all pupils conform at school.
for authority and ‘havin a laff’ to cope with boring and
However, Willis’s study is small-scale and dated. Working
tedious work over which they had little control. However,
class pupils may not reject school as often today.
it was clear that although the ‘lads’ rejected aspects of

12
 1.1
The role of education in society

Comparing Marxism and neo-Marxism with greater equality resulting from the education system.
functionalism An example of this is the British Labour governments of
Despite the criticisms of both Marxism and neo-Marxism, the 1960s and 1970s, who introduced and expanded
it can be argued that these perspectives are just as comprehensive schools (see Topic X, Chapter X).
relevant today as they were in the past. The influence of Social Democratic perspectives continue to influence
business on education may be stronger than ever. For those educationalists, sociologists and politicians who
example, local authorities have lost some of their power stress that schools must give extra help to those from
over education because they no longer run colleges, Free disadvantaged backgrounds.
Schools or Academies. The Marxist Glenn Rikowski (2002,
Social democratic perspectives believe that as well as
2005) argues that there has been a ‘business takeover’ of
promoting economic growth, education is essential
schools. In the UK, this has involved businesses sponsoring
to promoting equality of opportunity in a meritocracy.
Academies, the subcontracting of many school services
However, they believe that education is not automatically
(for example educational psychology services) to private
meritocratic and that governments need to intervene to
businesses and an ever-growing emphasis on competition
ensure that people from all social classes have the same
between schools. In terms of the curriculum, there is more
chance to fulfil their potential in the education system. To
emphasis on NVQs and BTEC in schools. (This is more fully
achieve this, the government may need to make some
discussed in Chapter 6).
changes in society as well as in the education system.
However, Marxists and neo-Marxists may exaggerate From this viewpoint, a society that has too much inequality
the harmful effects of education as much as can never provide equal opportunities – the richest will
functionalists exaggerate the beneficial effects. Like always use their wealth to gain advantage (for example
functionalists, they also take an extreme view on the by buying private education). To some extent though,
hidden curriculum, seeing it as entirely benefiting this can be counteracted. By taxing the wealthy more and
capitalism (while functionalists see it as entirely spending the revenue on state education, it is possible
benefiting society as a whole). Neither Marxists and to give those from working-class backgrounds a good
neo-Marxists nor functionalists base their ideas on chance to succeed.
detailed research into the content of schooling today,
They believe this can be achieved, for example, by
nor do they acknowledge that education may have
expanding higher education to give more places for
different effects for different groups at different times
working-class pupils, by introducing comprehensive
(see Chapter 5 on processes in schools). Marxists
schools (so middle-class pupils can’t gain an advantage
and neo-Marxists emphasise class above gender and
by going to selective state schools), and by providing
ethnicity, while functionalists ignore social divisions
extra educational help for those from disadvantaged
altogether. Like functionalists, Marxists and neo-Marxists
backgrounds. Social democrats such as Halsey and Floud
tend not to put forward suggestions for improving
(1961) were very influential in the 1960s and 1970s when
the education system. Functionalists tend to assume
Labour governments followed some of these policies,
that education already functions well, while Marxists
but they have also continued to have some influence
assume that education could only become fair and just
on Labour governments and the Coalition government
if capitalist society were overthrown and replaced by
since then.
a communist society. Neither therefore suggests how
education could be improved in existing societies. Other Critics have argued that social democratic policies have
perspectives on education do make more concrete not been particularly successful in helping the working
suggestions for how education could be improved, and class to do better in education. Despite many new policies
these alternative perspectives will be discussed next. being introduced to achieve this, the gap in attainment
between classes remains large (see Chapter 2).
Social democratic perspectives on education Woolf (2002) questions whether more and more
Functionalism and Marxism are quite extreme views of government spending on education will automatically
education, but many sociologists and educationalists take lead to economic growth. For example Switzerland has
a more moderate view, arguing that education does need relatively low education spending but high
to be changed to improve, but that this does not require economic growth.
a revolutionary change in society. However, they disagree
The strongest critics of social democratic viewpoints have
over the direction of change.
probably been neoliberals (see Topic X, Chapter X).
Social democratic perspectives are associated with According to many neoliberals, greater equality in
educationalists and politicians who would like to see education can lead to standards being undermined;

13
TOPIC 1 Education

Focus on research: Research methods

The British Cohort Study and the Millennium for Britain’s low, and declining, mobility. They found that
Cohort Study – evidence on education and it is partly due to the strong and increasing relationship
social mobility between family income and educational attainment.

The British Cohort Study is a longitudinal piece of For these children, additional opportunities to stay in
research that takes as its subjects all those living in education at age 16 and age 18 disproportionately
England, Scotland and Wales who were born in one benefited those from better-off backgrounds. For a more
particular week in April 1970. Data were collected recent group born in the early 1980s, the gap between
about the births and families of just under 17,200 those staying on in education at age 16 narrowed, but
babies; since then, there have been five more attempts inequality of access to higher education has widened
to gather information from this group. With each further: while the proportion of people from the poorest
successive ‘sweep’, the scope of enquiry has broadened fifth of families obtaining a degree has increased from
and it now covers physical, educational, social and 6 per cent to 9 per cent, the graduation rates for the
economic development. In 2000, a new cohort study richest fifth have risen from 20 to 47 per cent.
(The Millennium Cohort Study) was started, which
Analysis of children in the Millennium Cohort Study at
initially collected data on 19,000 children born in
age 7 suggested that class inequality was continuing to
2000/1. This study has conducted interviews with the
have a major effect on educational achievement
parents, cognitive tests on the children and interviews
(Sullivan, et al. 2013). Even at such an early age there
with their class teachers. By 2012, there had already
were marked class differences in children’s cognitive
been five sweeps of data collection when the children
scores and analysis of the statistics suggested that these
were different ages.
were very largely determined by the income, social class
Data have been collected in a variety of ways. In the and previous education of parents. On the other hand,
British Cohort Study’s 1986 research, 16 separate the parenting style of parents made little difference to
methods were used including parental questionnaires, test scores.
class teacher and head-teacher questionnaires,
Sources: Blanden, et al. (2005); Sullivan, et al. (2013)
and medical examinations. The sample completed
questionnaires, kept two diaries and undertook some The Centre for Longitudinal Studies (www.cls.ioe.ac.uk)
educational assessments. The Millennium Cohort Study
Questions
used interviews with parents, cognitive tests on children
and interviews with class teachers. 1. Explain. Explain how the British Cohort Study and
The Millennium Cohort Studies are longitudinal
Over the period of the research, the sample for the
pieces of research.
British Cohort Study reduced to 15,500, while the 2012
research for the Millennium Cohort Study involved a 2. Evaluate. These studies both used large samples.
sample of just over 12,000. Identify an advantage and a disadvantage of having
a large sample.
Jo Blanden, Paul Gregg and Steve Machin have used
data from The British Cohort Study to compare the 3. Analysis. It is sometimes claimed that longitudinal
life chances of British children with those in other research is very useful for understanding changes
advanced countries, and the results are disturbing. In over time. Identify two reasons why this may be
a comparison of eight European and North American the case.
countries, Britain and the United States have the lowest 4. Analysis and evaluation. Could taking part in
social mobility (movement between classes). a study such as this affect the way participants
Social mobility in Britain has declined, whereas behave, and therefore affect the results? Give
in the USA it is stable. Part of the reason for reasons for your answer.
Britain’s decline has been that the better off have 5. Analysis. What do these studies suggest
benefited disproportionately from increased about the functionalist view that education is
educational opportunity. meritocratic and allocates roles efficiently in
Comparing surveys of children born in the 1950s and the modern societies?
1970s, the researchers went on to examine the reason

14
 1.1
The role of education in society

education becomes levelled down, and the most able

students (for example, in mixed-ability classes that
progress at the pace of the slowest learners) are not given Understand the concept
the chance to reach their full potential.
Globalisation – Globalisation involves all parts of the
Social democratic views are also criticised by some
world becoming increasingly interconnected, so that
feminists, who believe they concentrate too much on class
national boundaries become less and less important.
inequalities and not enough on gender inequalities.
Information, ideas, goods and people flow more
easily around the world. If the economy is becoming
Neoliberal/New Right perspectives more global, then British companies have to compete
on education not just with other British companies but with
Neoliberal (also sometimes called New Right) perspectives companies from around the world. The same applies
have probably had the most influence on British education to educational institutions. For example, British private
in recent years. Neoliberal views are very much in favour schools and universities compete with countries
of private business and the free market because they around the world (including the USA, Europe and
believe that competition between companies drives China) to attract pupils or students.
innovation and encourages success. Like functionalists
and social democrats, they see education as important
for a successful economy, but they think that state These views have influenced all British governments to a
education can be inefficient and a drain on a country’s greater or lesser extent since 1979.
resources. High government spending on education and
other services is seen as undesirable because it requires Neoliberals take a less positive view of education than
high taxes. These taxes ultimately come from company functionalists, believing that education needs to be run
profits, and high taxation therefore makes companies more as a business. However, their views are strongly
less competitive. opposed by both Marxists and social democrats, who
both see state education as the only way to provide
opportunities for pupils from all classes. From their
point of view, private education puts profit before the
Understand the concept well-being of pupils and will always favour the rich above
the poor. Furthermore, this will tend to waste working
Free market – The free market refers to a system in class talent and therefore harm the economy.
which people are free to buy and sell what they wish.
In the free market, producers have to provide what Postmodernism and education
consumers want or they will not be able to sell their Despite their differences, the perspectives examined
products. Firms compete with one another to attract in this section so far (functionalism, Marxism, social
customers so, at least in theory, consumers get the democratic perspectives and neoliberalism) all agree that
products or services (including education) they want, there is a single, best, direction for the education system.
and the quality continually improves. All can therefore be seen as ‘modern’ approaches to
education. Modern perspectives see human problems
as being able to be solved by rational planning and
Chubb and Moe (1988) believe that state education thought. They believe that scientific methods and the
is unresponsive to the needs of pupils and parents development of clear theories can analyse problems and
and tends to have low standards. In contrast, private come up with solutions. They therefore tend to argue
education has to please its customers in order to survive that there is one single true or best way to develop
and therefore standards are high and there is constant education. Postmodern perspectives, on the other
pressure for them to improve further. hand, deny that there is any single, best, way of tackling
problems. They see societies as developing greater
Market liberals believe that rising standards are essential
variety and pluralism, and they question whether any
as a result of globalisation. If countries are going to
single, planned approach to education and other issues
compete in an increasingly global economy, workers
is desirable. (For more discussion of postmodernism,
lacking high levels of skills will lose their jobs to more
see Topic X, Chapter X).
skilled workers in other countries.

15
TOPIC 1 Education

This perspective has been applied to education by Robin Postmodern views can be criticised for exaggerating the
Usher, Ian Bryant and Rennie Johnston (1997) in the changes in education. For example, Mike Haralambos
context of adult education. and Martin Holborn (2013) point out that there is actually
a greater centralisation in some aspects of education,
Education for adults has been particularly responsive to
particularly the national curriculum, rather than greater
the need for greater choice and diversity, for example
diversity and choice. The budget for adult education
by the use of flexible and distance learning. No single
in the UK has been cut and, for example, the range of
curriculum is assumed to be useful for all learners. As a
evening classes available for adult students has declined.
result, a vast range of courses is provided by educational
They also criticise postmodernists for ignoring the way
institutions such as FE colleges, The Open University and
in which education may be shaped more by big business
Adult Education colleges. This allows learners to pick and
than by the needs and wishes of individual learners.
mix different combinations of courses to suit their own
objectives and lifestyles. Furthermore, education is no
longer separate from other areas of life. It has become
integrated into leisure and work. It can therefore have Keeping in mind neoliberal, Marxist, functionalist,
many different meanings to those who take up adult social democratic and postmodern arguments, identify
education. In these respects, adult education is typical of advantages and disadvantages of business leaders
postmodern society, which is characterised by a blurring having direct involvement in state education. Do you
of the boundaries between different areas of life, greater think the advantages outweigh the disadvantages or
choice and variety and the rejection of any kind of plan vice versa? Give reasons for your conclusion.
imposed from the centre on individuals.

Focus on Skills

Eton College in Berkshire Barrowford Primary School in Lancashire

Competition, exams and the purpose students to sit alone at their desks in preparation for
of education a world in which, for much of the time, they will need
to work collaboratively’. Little supported the head of
In August 2014 Tony Little, headmaster of
a primary school at Barrowford in Lancashire who had
Eton, Britain’s most prestigious private school,
sent out a letter to all Year 6 pupils telling them not
attacked England’s exam system saying that it was
to worry about their SATs results because the tests
‘unimaginative’ and claiming it was not succeeding in
couldn’t assess what made them ‘special and unique’
preparing pupils for working in the modern world. He
as individuals.
argued that it was too much like the exam system in
Victorian times and focused too much upon test scores Michael Gove (a former education secretary) supported
and too little on the content of education itself. Tony more traditional exams with less use of coursework.
Little said that education needed to be about more He justified this in terms of Britain falling behind
than ‘jostling for position in a league table’ which could the highest achieving places in the international
lead to schools putting too much emphasis upon test Pisa tests, which placed England some way down
scores, which were in any case not always a reliable the international rankings for essential skills such as
guide to the quality of the education that pupils had literacy and numeracy. Shanghai, in China, topped the
received. He argued that the exam system ‘obliges tables. However, Tony Little argued that the Chinese

16
 1.1
The role of education in society

themselves were concerned that their education was 2. Explain. Explain the similarities and differences
too narrow and that, ironically, they were trying to learn between Tony Little’s views and the neoliberal
from Britain and develop a more ‘all-round education’ perspective on education.
rather than focusing too much on literacy, numeracy
3. Apply. Apply Marxist perspectives to the
and science.
differences between working-class and elite
education suggested by this article.
Questions
4. Evaluate. Do you agree with the claim that the
1. Identify. Identify the central differences between
exam system in England does not prepare pupils
the views of Michael Gove and Tony Little.
for work in the modern world? Justify your answer.

Check your understanding

Summary
›› The education system in Britain has expanded ›› Critics of social democrats argue that attempts to
significantly over the last 150 years. produce greater equality can be expensive, can lower
standards, and can hold back the most able students.
›› Functionalists believe that education successfully
passes down a common culture, teaches essential skills ›› Postmodernists believe that no single plan will work
and allocates individuals to appropriate roles in society. best for education, and that the education system is
increasingly characterised by diversity and choice.
›› Functionalists have been criticised for ignoring the
faults and limitations of the education system. ›› Critics of postmodernism argue that the extent of
choice may be exaggerated, and that because some
›› Marxists see education as reproducing class inequality
aspects of education are more centralised, choice and
and justifying (legitimating) the position of the
diversity are in fact restricted.
ruling class.
›› Neo-Marxists recognise that education does not ›› Neoliberals support private enterprise and believe
that education should operate more like businesses in
always simply serve the interests of the ruling class.
order to raise standards.
›› Marxists have been criticised for neglecting the
benefits of education and for neglecting ethnic and
›› Critics argue that neoliberal policies increase class
divisions in education.
gender inequality.
›› Social democrats believe that education can ›› Neoliberals have been criticised for putting profit
before the well-being of pupils.
be reformed in capitalist society to make it
more meritocratic.
Review Questions
1. Which act made state education compulsory up 7. Give three reasons why what goes on in schools
to the age of 14? [1] would appear to contradict the view of Bowles
and Gintis that there is a correspondence
2. Give three of the main reasons why education
between school and work [6]
was first made compulsory in Britain. [6]
8. Suggest two similarities and two differences
3. According to functionalists, what are the three
between neoliberal and functionalist perspectives
main functions of schools? [6]
on education. [8]
4. What does Althusser consider to be the main
9. Analyse how functionalists and Marxists differ in
purpose of education, and how is it achieved? [4]
their views on the relationship between education
5. Why, according to Bowles and Gintis, do white, and the economy. [10]
middle-class pupils do better? [2]
10. Evaluate Marxist and functionalist theories
6. How does Willis’s work appear to support the by identifying two strengths and two weaknesses
views of Bowles and Gintis? [4] of each theory. [16]

17
TOPIC 1 Education

Take it further

1. Interview a range of your teachers. Ask them Or: Think about the last period of British history you
to explain the values which they consider are studied most recently at school or college and analyse
encouraged by the following aspects of school the course content. Did the course tend to celebrate
organisation and routine: assemblies, speech days, British history or be critical of it? Did it fit with the
sports days, school uniform, registration, house functionalist view that studying history is important in
competitions, school rules, socialisation and encouraging loyalty to your country?
prefects, detention.
3. Divide the class into groups who will argue either
Evaluate the extent to which their responses subscribe for or against the following statement:
to functionalist, Marxist, social democratic or
“Elite universities reproduce class inequalities and
neoliberal views of education.
benefit the few at the expense of the many.”
When conducting the interview, try to make sure
Consider the chances that those from different
that you do not lead the teacher in any way. Keep
backgrounds have of getting into high status
your questions neutral and don’t express support or
universities.Think also about elite universities: does
criticism of their responses.
the value of the education provided, and the research
they do, benefit society as a whole or just the people
2. Either: revisit one or more of the books that you
who study there?
have studied in English at school and analyse the
content. What sort of values does the book seem
to support? How does this fit in with Marxist and
functionalist views of education?

18