Ch-6 Database System

Architecture
 Database System Architecture
• Database system architecture is the framework that
defines how data is stored, accessed, managed and
secured within a database management system.
• It plays a crucial role in ensuring data reliability,
performance and security for various applications and
users.
• Database systems are mainly client/server, parallel
systems and distributed systems.
• Client/server database systems
Networking of computers allows some tasks to be
executed on a server system and some tasks to be
executed on client systems.
 Database System Architecture
• Parallel Processing
To speed up the database-system activities and allowing
faster response to transactions as well as more transactions
per second.
• Distributed database
• It is not limited to one system, it is spread over different
sites i.e. on multiple computers or over a network of
computers.
• There are a number of databases that maybe
geographically distributed all over the world.
• A distributed DBMS manages the distributed database in a
manner so that it appears as one single database to users.
• It is a collection of multiple interconnected databases,
which are spread physically across various locations that
communicate via a computer network.
 CENTRALIZED AND CLIENT/SERVER
ARCHITECTURES
• Database resides on a single computer system that allows access by
remote terminals.
Centralized Systems
• Centralized database systems will run on a single computer system
and do not interact with other computer systems.
– General-purpose computer system: This system has one or more
CPUs and a number of device controllers that are connected through
a common bus that provides access to shared memory.
– Single-user system(e. g PC or Workstation): This system has Desktop
unit, single user. It usually has only one CPU and one or two hard
disk. OS may support only one user.
– Multi-user system : Has more disks, more memory, multiple CPUs & a
multi-user OS Serve a large number of users who are connected to the
.,

system via terminals. Are often called server systems.

• Database systems designed for use by single users
 Centralized Systems

•Centralized systems have a single point of control or

authority where all data processing and decision-making
occur.
•They lack distribution of resources or decision-making
power, making them efficient but vulnerable to single points
of failure.
 Drawbacks Of Centralized Systems
• Single Point of Failure: A centralized system has a single point of failure. If
the central server fails then the entire system becomes inaccessible
• Data Security Concerns: All data is stored on a single server, making it a
tempting target for security breaches. If a breach occurs, it can result in
the exposure of sensitive information for the entire organization.
• High Maintenance Costs: Maintaining and upgrading a centralized
database system can be expensive, as it requires substantial hardware and
software investments.
• Limited Autonomy: Users or departments may have limited control over
their data and processes in a centralized system, leading to inefficiencies
and delays in decision-making.
• Lack of Flexibility: Centralized systems can be less adaptable to changing
business needs or technological advancements, making it difficult to
implement new features or technologies.
 Client-Server Architecture
• It is divided between two types of entities: clients
(front end) and servers(back end).
• The front end of a database system consists of
tools such as the SQL user interface, forms
interfaces, report generation tools and data
mining and analysis tools.
• The back end manages access structures, query
evaluation and optimization, concurrency control,
and recovery.
• Interface is a application program between front
end & back end
 Client-Server Architecture
Clients:
• Clients are user devices or applications that request services or resources
from servers.
• They typically initiate communication, send requests and display results to
users. Examples include web browsers, mobile apps and email clients.
Servers:
• Servers are powerful computers or software applications that provide
services or resources to clients.
• They listen for incoming requests, process them and send back responses.
• Servers can specialize in various functions such as file storage, database
management, web hosting or application processing, maintain security &
privacy, avoid unauthorized access of data
Network Interface:
• Clients are connected to the server by network interface.
• It is useful in connecting the server interface with the user interface so
that the server can run his applications over its clients.
• There are more than one server. Sometimes, a server is used as Database
Server, other as Application Server, other as Backup Server etc.
 Types of Client Server Architecture
• Client-server architecture can take on different forms. some
common types of client-server architectures:
• Single-Tier Client/Server Architecture.
– Single-tier architecture is the first type of client/server
computing model.
– This system is used on a personal computer.
– Database is centralized , which means the DBMS software and
data in one location and dumb terminals were used to access
the system.
• Advantage
The data is easily and quickly available since it is located in the
same machine.
• Disadvantage
This architecture is completely not scalable.
Only one user can access the system at a given time through the
Types of Client Server Architecture
Two-Tier Client-Server Architecture:
– Also known as the "client-server" model.
– Consists of two main components: the client and the server.
– Clients request services or resources from the server and the
server processes these requests.
– Commonly used in database systems, where clients
(applications or users) interact with a database server.
Advantages
– Easy to maintain and modify.
– Communication between client and server in the form of
request response messages is quite fast.
Disadvantage
– If client nodes are increased beyond capacity in the architecture
then the server is not able to handle the request over flow and
performance of the system degrades.
Three-Tier Client-Server Architecture
Three-Tier Client-Server Architecture
– Adds an additional layer, known as the application or middleware
tier between the client and server.
– The client communicates with the application tier which in turn
communicates with the server.
– This architecture separates user interface, business logic and data
processing, enhancing scalability and maintainability.
– Commonly used in web applications where the client (web browser)
interacts with a web server that communicates with an application
server interacts with a database server.
Advantages
– Provides much better service and fast performance.
– Structure can be scaled according to requirements without any
problem.
– Data security is much improved
Disadvantage It is quite complex due to advanced features
 SERVER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES

Server systems can be broadly categorized into two kinds:

• Transaction Servers: These servers are widely used in
relational database systems.
• Data Servers: These servers used in object-oriented database
systems.
 Transaction Servers

– This is also called Query Server Systems or SQL Server Systems.

• Clients send requests to the server.
• Transactions are executed at server.
• Results are shipped back to the client.
– Requests are specified in SQL communicated to the server
through a Remote Procedure Call (RPC) mechanism.
• Transactional RPC allows many RPC calls to form a
transaction.
– Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) is a C language application
program interface standard from Microsoft for connecting to a
server, sending SQL requests and receiving results.
– JDBC standard is similar to ODBC for Java.
Transaction Server Process Structure
 Transaction Server Process Structure
Consists of multiple processes accessing data in shared memory.
Server Processes
• Receive user queries (transactions), execute them and send results
back.
• Multithreaded- allowing a single process to execute several user
queries concurrently.
• Multiple multithreaded server processes
Lock manager process
Lock grant, lock release and deadlock detection.
Database writer processes
Output modified buffer blocks back to disk on a continuous basis.
Log writer process
• Server processes simply add log records to log record buffer
• Log writer process outputs log records to stable storage.
Checkpoint Process
• Perform periodic checkpoints
Process Monitor Process
• Monitors other processes and takes recovery actions if any of the
other processes fail.
 Data Servers
– Data servers in a DBMS manage data storage, retrieval and
processing.
– They ensure data security, handle concurrent access and
support transactions.
– Data servers also enable scalability, backup, recovery, logging
and monitoring, making them vital for efficient database
management.
– Used in high-speed LANs for processing power, compute
intensive task & when full back-end functionality is required.
– Used in many object-oriented database systems.
– Issues are:
❑ Page-Shipping versus Item-Shipping- pre-shipping involves all
the preparations made before the actual shipping of the
item, while item shipping focuses on the logistics of getting
the item from point A to point B
 Data Servers
❑ Locking Can grant locks on requested and prefetched items with
page shipping, transaction is granted lock on whole page.
❑ Data Caching
But check that data is up-to-date before it is used (cache
coherency).Check can be done when requesting lock on data item
❑ Lock Caching
• Locks can be retained by the client system even in between
transactions.
• Transactions can acquire cached locks locally, without contacting
server.
• Server calls back locks from clients when it receives conflicting lock
requests.
• Client returns lock once no local transaction is using it.
 Parallel systems
• It refer to the use of multiple processors or nodes to
perform database operations concurrently.
• This approach aims to improve the system's performance
and throughput by dividing tasks and processing them
simultaneously.
• It's particularly beneficial for handling large datasets and
complex queries.
• Parallel processing can significantly speed up tasks like data
retrieval, analysis and reporting
Advantages:
• Parallel systems in DBMS offer improved performance,
scalability, high availability, and efficient data processing.
• They balance workloads, support real-time processing,
optimize complex queries, and handle big data.
• They are cost-effective in the long run and ensure business
continuity.
 Parallel systems
Disadvantages:
It include
• Complexity in setup and maintenance
• Higher initial costs
• Difficulty in debugging and monitoring
• Need for specialized hardware and software.
• Coordination among parallel processes can
also be challenging.
• In Parallel Databases, mainly there are three
architectural designs for parallel DBMS. They
are as follows:
• Shared Memory Architecture
• Shared Disk Architecture
• Shared Nothing Architecture
 Parallel Database Architecture

Shared common memory Shared common disk Share neither common memory
nor disk
 Shared Memory Architecture
• Multiple CPUs that are attached to an interconnection
network or bus network.
• They are able to share a single or global main memory and
common disk arrays.
• Efficient communication between multiple processor.
• It is also known as Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).
• This architecture has a very wide range which starts from
personal workstations that support a few microprocessors
in parallel via RISC.
Advantages :
• It has high-speed data access for a limited number of
processors.
• The communication is efficient.
Disadvantages
– Architecture is not scalable beyond 32 or 64 processors
– Widely used for lower degrees of parallelism(4 to 8).
 Shared Disk Architecture
• Various CPUs are attached to an interconnection network.
• Each CPU has its own memory and all of them have access to the
same disk.
• Here the memory is not shared among CPUs therefore each node
has its own copy of the operating system and DBMS.
• It is a loosely coupled architecture optimized for applications that
are inherently centralized. They are also known as clusters.
Advantages :
• The interconnection network is no longer a bottleneck each CPU
has its own memory.
• Load-balancing
• There is better fault tolerance.
Disadvantages :
• If the number of CPUs increases, the problems of interference and
memory contentions also increase.
• There’s also exists a scalability problem.
 Shared Nothing Architecture
• Multiple processor architecture in which each processor
has its own memory and disk storage.
• In this, multiple CPUs are attached to an interconnection
network through a node.
• No sharing of memory or disk resources is done. It is also
known as Massively parallel processing (MPP).
Advantages :
• It has better scalability as no sharing of resources is done
• Multiple CPUs can be added
Disadvantages:
• The cost of communications is higher as it involves sending
of data and software interaction at both ends
• The cost is higher than that of cost of shared disk
architectures.
Parallel Database Architecture

Hybrid Architecture
 Hierarchical or Hybrid Architecture
• This architecture is a combination of shared
disk, shared memory and shared nothing
architectures.
• This architecture is scalable due to availability
of more memory and many processor.
• It is costly to other architecture.
 Distributed Systems
Distributed Systems in Database Management Systems (DBMS) refer to a setup
where data and processing are spread across multiple interconnected computers
or nodes.
 Distributed Systems
• Data Distribution: In this data is stored across multiple locations or
nodes, often in a network. Each node may hold a subset of the
database.
Advantages:
• Improved Performance: Data can be accessed locally, reducing latency.
• Scalability: Easy to add more nodes to handle increased load.
• Fault Tolerance: Redundancy can help in data recovery and fault
tolerance.
Disadvantages :
• Data Consistency: Ensuring data consistency across distributed nodes
can be complex.
• Network Overhead: Communication between nodes can introduce
delays and overhead.
• Security: Distributed systems require robust security measures to
protect data.
 Types of distributed databases
• Homogeneous distributed databases
– It is a network of two or more databases (With the
same type of DBMS software) which can be stored on
one or more machines.
– In this system data can be accessed and modified
simultaneously on several databases in the network.
– Easy to handle.
– Example : Consider that we have three departments
using Oracle-9i for DBMS.
– If some changes are made in one department then it
would update the other department also.
• Heterogeneous distributed databases
– It is a network of two or more databases with different types of
DBMS software which can be stored on one or more machines.
– In this system data can be accessible to several databases in the
network with the help of generic connectivity (ODBC and JDBC).
• Difference between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Distributed databases:
– Homogeneous distributed databases maintain consistency by
using the same DBMS and data model at all sites.
– Heterogeneous distributed databases, on the other hand,
embrace diversity by allowing different DBMS types and data
models at different sites,.
• Differentiate between local and global transactions :
– A local transaction accesses data in the single site at which the
transaction was initiated.
– A global transaction either accesses data in a site different from
the one at which the transaction was initiated or accesses data
in several different sites.
 Distributed Database Management Systems

• A Distributed Database Management System

(DDBMS) is a type of database management
system that manages a database spread across
multiple locations or nodes in a network.
• This distribution can be in the form of data
replication, fragmentation or a combination of
both.
• It is a centralized software system managed as if
it were all stored in single location
 Distributed Database Management
Systems
• Features:
– It is used to create, retrieve, update and delete distributed
databases.
– It synchronizes the database periodically and provides
access mechanisms which is transparent to the users.
– It ensures that the data modified at any site is universally
updated.
– It is used in application are as where large volumes of data
are processed and accessed by numerous users
simultaneously.
– It is designed for heterogeneous database platforms.
– It maintains confidentiality and data integrity of the
databases.
 Distributed Database Design
The methodology used for the logical design of a centralized
database applies to the design of distributed database with
three additional factors have to be considered.
Data Fragmentation:
• Determine logical units of distribution.
• The database may be broken up into logical units called fragments
which will be stored at different sites.
• Example : Tables.
Horizontal fragmentation:
• A horizontal fragment of a table is a subset of rows in it.
• It divides a table 'horizontally‘ by selecting the relevant rows and
these fragments can be assigned to different sides in distributed
system
• Example : Tilak Road branch gets the fragment where
myTable.branch='Tilak Road’
Vertical fragmentation:
• A vertical fragment of a table keeps only certain attributes of it.
• It divides a table vertically by columns.
• It is necessary to include the primary key of the table in each
vertical fragment so that full table can be reconstructed if needed.
Mixed fragmentation:
• In a mixed fragmentation, each fragment can be specified by a
SELECT-PROJECT combination of operations.
• In this case original table can be reconstructed by applying union
and natural join operations in the appropriate order.
Data Allocation:
• Each fragment has to be allocated to one or more sites, where it
will be stored.
Data Replication:
• A copy of each fragment can be maintained at several sites.
• It is the design process of deciding which fragments will be
replicated.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
Distributed Database
Advantages:
• Sharing data: users at one site able to access the data residing at some
other sites.
• Autonomy: Each site is able to retain a degree of control over data stored
locally.
• Higher system availability through redundancy: Data can be replicated at
remote sites and systems can function even if a site fails.
Disadvantages:
1. Added complexity: Required to ensure proper co-ordination among
sites.
2. Cost: Extra Software development cost. This database is more
expensive as it is complex and hence difficult to maintain.
3. Security: Greater potential for bugs.
4. Processing overhead: Even simple operations may require a large
number of communications and additional calculations to provide
uniformity in data across the sites.
5. Lack of standard: No standard rules and protocols to convert a
centralized DBMS to a large Distributed DBMS. Lack of standard
decreases the potential of Distributed DBMS.
 Object-Based Databases (OODB)
• It is a database management system in which
information is represented in the form of objects as
used in object-oriented programming.
• It extends the relational database model to include
complex data types such as objects, classes and
inheritance.
• It mainly focus on objects and data which we will
stored in database instead of actions performed on
that data and the actual logic.
• It is used in many object oriented programming
languages like C++, Java, Python, SmallTalk, Ruby etc
• Examples are MongoDB, ObjectDB(Java), ZODB(
Python)
 Advantages of Object-Based
Databases
• Complex data and a wider variety of data types
than MySQL data types.
• It’s easy to save and recover data quickly.
• Seamless integration with object-oriented
programming languages.
• It is easy to model advanced real-world
problems.
• Extensible with custom data types.
• Provide Object Oriented Programming features
like object, inheritance, polymorphism,
Encapsulation etc.
 Disadvantages of Object-Based
Databases
• Not as widely adopted as relational databases.
• No universal data model. Theoretical foundations
and standards are lacking.
• Does not support the views.
• High complexity causes performance problems.
• Adequate security mechanisms and access rights
to objects do not exist.
• Difficult to find Object DB Developer & not
suitable for Non-Programmers
 Object-Based Databases
• ObjectDB: A high-performance OODB for Java, supporting
JPA (Java Persistence API) and JDO (Java Data Objects)
standards. It's suitable for embedded and server use.
• ZODB (Zope Object Database): Used in the Zope web
application server, ZODB is an open-source OODB for
Python. It allows developers to persist Python objects.
• db4o: A lightweight and open-source OODB for Java and
.NET.
• Objectivity/DB: A commercial OODB that offers high-
performance and supports complex data models.
• Caché (InterSystems Caché): Caché also offers an object-
oriented database management system. It's used in
healthcare and financial applications.
• ObjectStore: Enterprise object oriented database
management system for C++ and JAVA
• WakandaDB: Javascript platform to develop & run mobile
or web app