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45 viewsEdexcel further pure 2
The document is a resource for Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics, specifically focusing on Further Pure Mathematics 2. It includes various mathematical topics such as number theory, complex numbers, and matrix algebra, along with exercises and online content for enhanced learning. The publication emphasizes mathematical argument, problem-solving, and modelling, providing structured exercises and review opportunities to prepare students for assessments.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
45 viewsEdexcel further pure 2
The document is a resource for Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics, specifically focusing on Further Pure Mathematics 2. It includes various mathematical topics such as number theory, complex numbers, and matrix algebra, along with exercises and online content for enhanced learning. The publication emphasizes mathematical argument, problem-solving, and modelling, providing structured exercises and review opportunities to prepare students for assessments.
Uploaded by
Caleb CheungCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 272
11 — 19 PROGRESSION , ors for
Pearson Edexcel
Qualifications
Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics
Further Pure Mathematics 2
FP2
Series Editor: Harry Smith
Authors: Greg Attwood, Dave Berry, lan Bettison, Lee Cope, Tim Garry, Bronwen Moran,
Petree eeu tent a cera Erp m Sa Mero acl om ies VZt NA ch
Pp Bor tecroye) Published by Pezrson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R CPL
wor.pearsonschooisandecolleges pages 8-10
~> pages 10-15,
Solve simple congruence equations
Use Fermat's little theorem to find least posi
Solve counting problems
eeeecee
Se urs
Prove, by contradiction, that there are
infinitely many prime numbers.
€ Pure Year 2, Chapter 1
Prove, by induction, that for all € Z,
n2T,3" pages 20-25,
itive residues > pages 26-27
> pages 28-37
‘Check’ digits in bar codes and book
identification numbers help to identify
and correct scanning errors, They are
generated using modular arithmetic. Chapter 1
BD the division algorithm
Number theory is the study of systems and properties of numbers. Of particular interest are the
system of integers, Z and the system of natural numbers,
N=(1,2,3,...). The concept of divisibility is very important in number theory.
= If and b are integers with « # 0, then bis divisible Mais
by aif there exists an integer k such that b= ka. CED cates civer
In this case, we say that a divides 4 and denote this
by a | b. If adoes not divide h, then we write a{ b.
in the past, you may have only considered the positive divisors of a number, but the definition above
applies to both positive and negative integers
Given that a Is show that -a|b.
b= ka for some integer k
If kis an integer, then -k ip also an integer.
and b = (-k)-a) 50 ~a| b as required.
ex)
For each pair of integers below, determine whether the first integer divides the second.
a 11,143 b -4, 28 © 15,47 d 3,2
a 143 = 13x 11! | 143
b 26=(-7)-4) => -4 | 26
© 3x15 = 45 and 4 x 15 = 60 50 15} 47
4 Ox3=Oand1x3=350342
Cx)
Find all the divisors of:
as bil
a dt, £2, 44,48
b bt and 411
i Number theory
You need to be able to apply the following properties of divisibility:
* For any a, b,c € Z, witha £0:
+ aa (every integer divides itself)
@| 0 (Qis divisible by any integer)
a|bandb|c=> ale
«means Hand only if.
it means that the implication works
a|b <> anlbnforalln€ Z,n 40 inboth directions, so a b= art| bn
and ait|n => a\b.
a| band a| c= a|bn+cmforall m,n eZ
If aand h are positive integers and a|bthena 0, then there exist unique You call g
integers q and r such that a=hy +r, withO né = 1692 = 4(4g2), £0 remainder is O when ‘ncan be written in the form 4q + rwhere
divided by 4. 1=0, 1,2 0r3. Consider each possible value
ps1 1? = 16g? + Bg+ 1 = 44g? + 29) +1, 50 ‘of r separately. This is an example of
remainder is 1 when divided by 4. proof by exhaustion.
‘+ Pure Year 1, Section 7.5
ra 2 sn? = 16g? + 16q+ 4 = 44g? + 4941), 50
remainder is O when divided by 4.
ra 3 ne = 16g? + 24g 4+ 9 = 414g? + Sgt 2) +1,
90 remainder is | when divided by 4.
Therefore, in all cases, the remainder when n? is
divided by 4 is O or 1.
Exercise QZ)
1 For each pair of integers below, determine whether the first divides the second.
a 7,21 b 82 © -25,25 d 12, 140
2 Given that x € Z and n| 15, write down all the possible values of 1.
3 Find all the divisors of:
al2 b 20 ce -6 di
4 Prove, for positive integers a and b, that a |b => an| bn for all n € Z,n #0.
5 Prove that if a|b and b|c then ale.
eo
4 Number theory
6 For each of the following integer pairs (a, b) find integers q and r such that a = gh+r,
where 0<1r-SS PEPER
of the following forms, for some k € Z.
: = By the division algorithm, any integer can be written,
9k, K+ 1, 9k +8 in the form 3g, 3q + 1 or 3q +2 for some q € Z.
@® 29 Show that the square of any odd integer is of the form 8k + 1 for some integer k.
©® 10 Use the division algorithm to prove that the fourth power of any integer is of either of the
forms Sk or 3k + 1 for some k € Z.
@® 11 Show that, for all integers a = 1, oie)
3
a Prove that there exist unique integers p and s such that a=bp+.s
wees
is an integer.
b Find p ands given that a ~ 49 and b = 26.
@® The Euclidean algorithm
You can use the definition of divisibility to write formal definitions of common divisors and greatest
common divisors.
= Ifa, 5, and care integers and c + 0, then cis called a common divisor of a and b if ¢| a and
cl.
Fa and b are integers with at least one of them not equal to zero, then you define the greatest
common divisor of a and b as the largest positive integer which divides a and b.
= The greatest common divisor of two integers a and bis a positive integer d that satisfies the
two conditions:
+ dlaandd|b CED the greatest common
+ Ifcisa common divisor of a and b, then ¢ b:
1 Apply the division algorithm to a and b to find integers q, and r, such
that a = qyb +r, where 0 0, prove that 2 > d.
® Modular arithmetic
Modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic that is restricted to the remainders when integers are
divided by a given integer, called the medulus. You can visualise the case when the modulus is 12 by
looking at the hour hand on a standard clock face:
Shours afternoon, the hour After a further 12 hours, the hourhand —_After 29 hours have passed,
hand points at 5 oclock. points at § o'clock again. 17 hours have the hour hand points at
passed in total. In arithmetic modulo 12, 5 o'clock again. 29 is
the numbers 5 and 17 are congruent. congruent to both 17 and 5
You write 5 = 17 (mod 12). modulo 12,
This relationship is called modular congruence. You can define it for any modulus using divisibility.
= Let be a positive integer. If a and 5 IF@is congruent to b modulo m, then
are Integers, then a Is congruent to you write a = b (mod m). IFa is not congruent to
‘bmodilo aif | (2-0). ‘modulo m, then you write a # b (mod m).
10 Number theory
In the example of the clock face, 29 - 5 = 24 and 12| 24, so 29 = 5 (mod 12). You can think of integers
that are congruent modulo m as having the same remainder when divided by m.
= «= b (mod m) if and only if a and p leave the same
remainder when they are divided by 1. CEE ese io
Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
a 24=9(mod 5) bs IL (mod 8)
a 24-9 =15 and 5| 15 so true
b 5 ~(-11)=16 and 6 | 16 so true
© 4-17 =-13 and 2 {-13 so false
Adding or subtracting integer multiples of the modulus produces congruent numbers.
* Ifa, 6 Z, then a= d (mod m) for some positive integer if and only if there exists an
integer k such that a= b+ km.
You can use this fact to find numbers that are congruent to a given number.
Given that n = 10 (mod 3), write down:
a three different possible values of n b the greatest negative value of m
the value of » contained in the set {0, 1, 2}
You need to know the following properties of congruences
= a= 0 (mod mi) if and only if mla 28 =0 (mod 4) and 4|28
= @ a (mod m) —_________3=3 (moa)
= Ifa =b (mod m), then b =a (mod m) ——_______7 = 4 (mod 3) and 4 = 7 (mod 3)
= If @=b (mod m) and b= c (mod m),
then a = c (mod m)
(mod 3) and 8 = 2 (mod 3), then
(mod 3)
u Chapter 1
and
iven that a = b (mod m) and b= c(mod m), prove that a= ¢ (mod m).
|@=b (mod m) > m| (a-6)
|
| So there exists an integer k such that km=a-b (1)
b=elmod m) > m| (bo)
So there exists an integer j such that im=b-¢ — (2)
| Add together (1) and (2)
(kh +jm=a-e
| Since k and j are integers, k + j must be an integer.
| Semi |a= ose eee
You also need to know the following rules of arithmetic for modular congruences.
® Let a,b, ¢, d,m,n& Zand m, n> 0, with a= b (mod m) and ¢ = d (mod m). Then:
+ atc=h+d(modm)
+ ae = bd (mod ma)
+ ka = kb (mod m)
sa (mod m)
Show that 2375 = 1 (mod 11).
|23
Find the remainder when 3435 is divided by 11.
(243-231 x11 250.349 = 2 (moa 1) ———— Find the ealnder hen 343 divided by 11,
So 343° = 29 32 (mod 11)
\S0 343° = 10 (mod It)
| So the remainder when 343° is divided by 11
15 10.
(mod M1) => 23759 = 1759 = 1 (mod 11)
12 ee
Work out the final digit in the number 513*.
513 = 3 (mod 10)
So 513° = 3° (mod 10)
op 4 (mod 10) i mu
BOF a P= <1 = 9 (nod 10) 3% still too large to work out on your calculator,
So the last digit of 513° is 9. Look for ways of simplifying the power, You can
write 3° as (3%)? = 97°, Because 9 = —1 (mod 10)
‘tis easy to work out large powers of 9 (mod 10).
Find the remainder when 19°7) is divided by 12.
19 =7 (mod 12)
19? = 49 (mod 12)
bur 49 = 1 (mod 12) = 19° = 1 (mod 12)
1979 = 19772 x 19 = (19%) x 19
(192) = 156 = 1 (mod 12)
So 19773 =1x
sills? — aa
‘So the remainder when 19°7 is divided by 12
157,
Find the remainder when 1! + 2! + ... + 100! is divided by 15
S++ 3l+4!+0+... +O (mod 15)
314246 +4 24 (mod 15)
= 3 (mod 15)
So the remsinder is 3.
13 Chapter 1
ist
1 The diagram shows a clock face 9 hours after noon.
Determine the number that the hour hand is pointing to:
a 13 hours after noon b 20 hours after noon
© 100 hours after noon d_999 hours after noon
2 Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
a 15=3 (mod 6) b 19 =-6 (mod 5) ¢ 102 = 245 (mod 2)
d 431 =277 (mod 11) e 2146 =0(mod 4) f -50= 118 (mod 12)
3. Given that 2 = 8 (mod 7), write down:
a three different possible positive values of n
b three different possible negative values of
¢ avalue of # such that 0 N =O (mod 10) > 10| N you need to prove both directions:
Conversely, 10| N + N =O (mod 10) Last digit 0 +10| N and 10| N = last digit 0
> a
— |
You need to know and understand similar rules for divisibility by 3, 4, 6,9 and 11:
® An integer is divisible by:
+ 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3
+ Gif and only if the two-digit number formed by its last two digits is divisible by &
+ 6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and 3
+ 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9
11 if and only if the difference between the sum ‘This Is the alternating sum of the
ofits digits with even iesuntet digits. If a number has digits abcde...
fe da ec ; then itis divisible by 11 ifand only if
Hes digits with odd position is divisible by 43 a-b+e—d+e-...is divisible by 11.
16 Number theory
ean
Nisa 3-digit number abe, so that N = 100d + 10b + , where a, b, € € {0, 1, 2.3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9} and
azo.
Prove that 11|.N if and only if 11|(a-6 + ¢).
| Let N= 1004+ 106 +6
100 = 1 (mod 1)
10 = =1 (mod 11)
Ee _——_
So N = 0 (mod 11) if and only if
a-b += 0 (mod Nl)
So 11 | N if and only if 1|@-b+0
Example EDD covyou
Use the divisibility rules to determine whether: eri biity caste deine Genie bias
a 7146 is divisible by 9 b 5838 is divisible by 6
© 2261914 is divisible by 4 d_ 813747 is divisible by 11
a 74144462 18 and 9|18,209| 7146
b 2/6 50 2/5838
5+6434+8= 24 and3| 24 903 | 5636
Hence 6 | 5636
|
6 4 =3x 442504414,
So 442261914
d6-1+3-74+4-7=0
1105011 | 818.747
Hl
Ww Chapter 1
You can apply these rules for divisibility to find numbers with given properties.
Nis a 3digit number abe, so that N= 100a + 10h + ¢, where a, 6 and c are integers between 0
and 9, with a # 0. N has the following properties:
+ Nis divisible by 9
+ The sum of the digits of ‘Vis even
+ N=3 (mod 11)
Find all possible values for NV, showing your working clearly.
some p EZ
|tacki2s a+5-+0= 24 br sone ged
Sika eS 9.0404 eS07 Remember that a, b and c represent decimal
Is Caenliaisiond digits. You will need to use the fact that they must
poiagh re=onener be integers between 0 and 9 to make deductions.
Since a +b + c's even, Make sure you write down all of yaur reasoning.
atbee=8
Fact 3: 100a + 10b+¢
100 = 1 (mod Ni) and 10
(mod
(mod 11)
soa-bte
Since O < a, b,c 39
a-b+c=-8o0r3 or 14 (2)
From (1) and (2),
18 = 2b =-8 or 3 or 14
So 2b = 26 or 15 or 4
Since b is an integer between O and 9
2b = 4 ard b= 2
Hence from (1),
a+24e= 1B >atc=t6
Possibilities are:
a=9,
So the possible values of N are 828, 729
and 927.
18 Number theory
[Sere
®
®
©
®
1 Showing all of your working, use the divisibility rules to determine whether:
a 2502 is divisible by 9 b 5931 is divisible by 3 € 101795 is divisible by 11
€ 51792is divisible by 6 f 1326094 is divisible by 11
2 Prove that a positive integer N is divisible by 2 if and only if its last digit is divisible by 2.
3. Prove that a positive integer Nis divisible by Sif and only if its last digit is 5 or 0.
4 Nisa 3-digit number abe, so that N = 100a + 106 + ¢, where a, b, ¢ € 10, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7.8.9)
and a 40. Prove that 9| Nif and only if 9[(a-+ +0)
5. Nisa S-digit number abcde, so that N = 10000a + 1000b + 100c + 10d + e, where a,b, ¢, d,
e€ {0, 1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8, 9} anda #0. Prove that 11|Nif and only if LI |(a-b+e-d +e).
Nisa postive integer, the sum of whose digits s
divisible by 3. Prove that Vis divisible by 3. (4marks) "You need to prove this Fora general
integer with any number of digits.
7 Prove that any positive integer is divisible by 4 if and only if its final two digits are divisible
by4, (4 marks)
8 Use divisibility tests to show that 6 159 285 is divisible by both 9 and 11, showing your working
clearly. (2 marks)
9 The following 8-digit number has a missing digit.
102[]5761
Given that the number is divisible by 11, find the value of the missing digit. (2 marks)
The following 8-digit number has two missing digits.
2{a]8455[b]8
Given that the number is divisible by both 11 and 9, find the values of the missing digits.
(3 marks)
11 Find all possible 3-digit numbers which are divisible by both 9 and 11.
12 mis. 2-digit number that can be written as ab, so that m = 10a + b, where a, b and ¢ are
integers between 0 and 9, with a 40.
Given that m is divisible by 9 and that m = 5 (mod 11),
a explain why a +b must equal 9 or 18
b show that 6 — a must equal either ~6 or 5.
¢ Hence, or otherwise, show that there is exactly one possible value of m and find that value.
19 Chapter 1
GP) 13 Nisa 2-digit number that can be written as ab, so that N'= 10a + b, where a, b and ¢ are
integers between 0 and 9, with a #0.
Given that the sum of the digits of N is divisible by 4 and that N= 7 (mod 8), find all
possible values of NV. (4 marks)
©®) 14 x is a 3-cigit positive integer which has the following properties:
+ xis divisible by 11
+ The sum of the digits of x is odd.
= 8 (mod 9)
Find all possible values of x, showing your working clearly. (6 marks)
15. Qiis.a4-digit number satisfying 1000 < Q < 9999.
Qccan be written abed, so that Q = 1000a + 100) + 1c + d, where a, h, ¢ and dare integers
between 0 and 9, with a #0, 0 has the following properties:
+ Qis divisible by 11 and 3
* Q=5 (mod 9) and Q = 4 (mod 11)
+ The sum of the digits of Q is even.
+ The digits of Q are strictly increasing, so that a 0 and ged(a, m) = d.
+ If dt b, then the congruence equation ax = b (mod m) has no solutions.
+ If d|b, then the congruence equation ax = b (mod m) has d solutions in the set of least
residues modulo i.
Groce
if dd, then ax = 4 (mod im) will have a unique solution in the set
of least residues modulo ze > Example 28
If gcc(a, mi) = 1 (a and m are relatively prime), then ax = b (mod m)
will have a unique solution in the set of least residues modulo m.
> Example 29
Gee
Explain why the congruence equation 14x = 7 (mod 22) has no solutions.
gcdit4, 22) = 2
2+ 7, 50 the equation has no solutions.
Ifa and b have a common factor you can simplify the equation by dividing. The rules for dividing (or
cancelling) in modular arithmetic depend on whether the divisor and the modulus are relatively prime.
= If ka = kb (mod m) and ged(k, m) = 1, then a = b (mod m).
© If ka = kb (mod m) and ged(k, m) = d, thena =) mod “7
21 Chapter 1
Solve the congruence equation 2n = 26 (mod 14).
ged(2, 14) = 2
x 13 (mod 14)
eae
gcd, 14) = 2, so 2n = 26 (mod 14) will have two
solutions in the set of least residues modulo 14,
or a unique solution in the set of least residues
modulo 4 =7.
You could write the solution as n = 6 oF 13 (mod 14).
Solve the congruence equation 42y = 168 (mod 35).
So 14 x 3y = 14 x 12 (mod 35)
3y = 12 (mod 5)
y= 4 (mod 5)
If you know that ax = h (mod m) has a solution, and you have reduced the equation as much as
possible by cancelling, then you need to find a multiplicative inverse of «a.
= A multiplicative inverse of a modulo mis an Problem-solving
integer p that satisfies ap = 1 (mod m). IF the equation has a solution then
The multiplicative inverse exists if and only ‘gcd{a, m) |, so you can use the laws of
if ged(a, m) = 1. Mixed exercise, Challenge
You can use Fermatts little theorem
to state without any calculation thet, for example
23.is.a prime number.
50020
= 96 (mod 101)
101 isa prime number.
Find the least residue of 3”? modulo 11.
By Fermat's
+ FZ
So 3*
theorem, 3° = 1 (mod 11)
ox 3? = (9) x 3? = 1x9 (mod M1)
9 (mod 11)
If you have to solve a congruence equation with a prime modulus, you might be able to use Fermat's,
little theorem.
If pis prime and p ta, then ged(a, p) = 1, so ax = (mod p) has exactly one solution in the set of least
residues modulo p.
ax = b (mod p)
a2 ax = at-2b (mod p)
x= a?-*h (mod p)
Multiply both sides by ar-2,
oases
(mod p), by Fermat's little theorem,
= If and bare positive integers and p is a prime number with p { a, then
+ ais a multiplicative inverse of a modulo p
+ the solution to the equation ax = b (mod p) is given by x = a’ 2h (mod p).
26 Number theory
PB sind the solution tothe linear congruence 7x = 10 (mod 11)
By Fermat's little theorem,
7? x 10 (mod 11)
4 (mod M1) = 79 = 4 x 2 (mod 11)
(mod 11)
Find the remainder when 2! is divided by 13.
2% =1 (mod 13)
2)03 = 1 (mod 13)
x 24 = 2 = 16 = 3 (mod 13)
So the remainder is 3.
C=)
1 Find the least residue of:
a 33! modulo 7 b 5% modulo 17 © 128! modulo 17 @ 9% modulo 11
©) 2 Find the least residue of 8% modulo 13. (3 marks)
(E/P) 3 Solve the congruence equation 4: 3 (mod 1). (S marks)
@/P) 4 Show that 2° + 3 + 44 + 5% + 6 is divisible by 7 (S marks)
©) 5 a State Fermat's litle theorem. (2 marks) Inparta, make sure you
b Hence, or otherwise, show that 28 = 4 Psa 3 state the conditions on a and p carefully,
©) 6 a Using Fermat’s littl theorem, show that the congruence equation x! = 4 (mod 11) can be
reduced to x = 4 (mod 11).
b_ Hence, by inspection, find a value of x between 0 and 10 that satisfies this equation.
¢ Given that x satisfies x? = 4 (mod 11), explain why x + I1é also satisfies the equation for any
kez.
Prove that $* + 172 = 6 (mod 11). (4 marks)
By means of a counter-example, disprove the following statement.
For any integers a and p, a=! = 1 (mod p) (2 marks)
27 Chapter 1
® Combinatorics
9 combinatorics is the branch of mathematics that deals with counting,
In GCSE you used the product rule of counting to work out numbers of possible combinations.
For example, if you have 7 different t-shirts and 3 different pairs of jeans, then there are 7 x 3 = 21
different ways of choosing a t-shirt and a pair of jeans,
PH -x
® If you can choose one item in m different ways, and a second item in n different ways, then
the total number of ways of choosing both items is m x 1.
You can extend this rule to situations when you have to choose more than two items.
= Ifyou need to choose é items, and the kth
item can be chosen in n, different ways,
then the total number of ways of choosing
all A items is 1, x 13% s+. X te
A number plate consists of two letters, followed by two digits, followed by three more letters.
The letters can be chosen from the entire alphabet except the letters I, Q or Z, and the digits ean be
[ AL2I BCJ
a. Find the total number of different number plates that can be generated in this way.
All number plates registered in one particular region must start with the letter combinations CW
or CX.
b Find the total number of different number plates that can be generated in this way.
LOELLD You could also say that m, x 1.x... Xm
's the total number of possible combinations of these
kitems.
a 23 x 23 x 10x 10x 23x 23 x 23
= 643 634 300
28 Number theory
Find the total number of 43-digit even numbers.
The first digit can be chosen in 9 different
ways.
The second digit can be chosen in 10
different ways.
|
The third digit can be chosen in 5 different
ways.
Total number of possibilities = 9 x 10 x 5
= 450
You can find the number of combinations in more complicated situations by adding or subtracting
possibilities.
Amn
Find the total number of positive integers less than 1000 that contain the digit 5:
a exactly once b at least once
a tdigit numbers: 1 possibility,
= 17 possibilities
3-digit numbers:
1x OKDFOXIX9FBXOXT
1+ 72 +72 = 225 possbilties
In total, there are 1417 + 225 = 243
possibilities ecu
You could consider 1-,2- and 3-digit numbers
‘simultaneously by allowing 0 in the first or second
digit: 1x9x9+9%1%9+1%x9x9=243
b Number of positive integers less than
1000 that do not contain the digit 5:
‘edigit numbers: 8 possibilities
2-digit numbers: 8 x 9 = 72 possibilities
B-cigit numbers:
8x 9x9 = 646 possibilities
In total, there are 8 + 72 + 648 = 726
So there are 999 - 728 = 271 positive
integers less than 1000 that contain the
digit 5 at least once.
eeu
‘There are 999 positive integers less than 1000,
Work out the number that do not contain the
digit 5, then subtract this from 999.
29 Chapter 1
[examnte @)
p A set S= (1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6}. Find the total number of possible subsets of S.
S contains 6 elements.
Each element can be either selected for the A subset of Sica set whose elements
subset or not selected. are all contained in S. Examples of subsets of S
are {2, 4, 6] and {3}. Sis a subset of itself, and the
empty set, {] or 2, is also a subset of S.
So the total number of possible subsets is
given by:
2x2x2x2x2xn2=2
= Ifa set S contains x elements, then the total number of possible subsets of Sis 2".
A group of 10 students are being selected to clean up a local park, Given that at least one student
must be selected, how many different groups of students could be selected to clean up the park?
‘There are 10 students.
So there are 2” = 1024 possible subsets of
the group of stucients
At least one student must be selected, so
the total number of zossble groups is Subtract 1 as you cant have the
2-1 = 1023 ‘empty set (no students) in this case.
You can use the product rule of counting to determine the
number of ways 1 items can be arranged.
‘Suppose you have 5 different textbooks that you want to arrange on a shelf:
Maths (M), Physics (P), English (E), Biology (B), and History (H).
Each book can be placed in one of five positions:
SedTe
You can put any book in position 1, so you have five choices. Once you have placed the first book (your
maths book, for example), you have four different choices for the book you can place in position 2:
MP, MB, MH
T2345 2345 T2345 12345
‘Once you have placed books in positions 1 and 2, you have three different choices for the book you
can place in position 3:
ols
MEE MEEBO ME
12345 12345 12345 Number theory
Once you have placed the first three books, there are two books available for position 4, and only one
book available for position 5. So, the number of ways of arranging all 4 books is
5x4x3x2x1=120=51
= There are n! different ways of placing # items in order. @PESIEEB this is also called he
number of permutations of 7 items.
Consider the letters ABCDEF.
a Find the number of different strings of length 6 that can be written using these letters exactly
once each.
b Find the number of these strings that contain:
i the substring DEF the letters DEF together in any order.
a G=720
b i Consider 4 ite and DEF
‘The number of possible permutations of
these four items is 41 = 24,
There are 24 strings containing the
substring DEF
fi There are 4! = 24 permutations
containing the string DEF in order.
‘The string DEF can be arranged in
31 = 6 different ways.
So there will be 4! x 3! = 144 ways of
arranging them,
There are 144 strings containing DEF
together In any order.
In the above example you were arranging all 6 of the items you were given. In many cases, you may
want to arrange a subset of the whole collection rather than the entire collection, For example,
suppose you want to shelve 3 of 5 books rather than all 5.
You now only have three positions. in the first position you can select any of the 5 books (your maths
book, say). In the second position you can choose from the four remaining books, as shown here:
ME ME, ME MB,
a» 123
T T23 ‘123
In the thitd and final position, you only have three books TER) xeore permutations CP
remaining to choose from: iieing Geotebra,
MEE MPB, Mo,
123 123 1
In total, there are 5 x 4 x 3 = 60 ways of shelving the books.
ae
23 Chapter 1
5xhx3xZ%x¥ 51
ZxE a!
= The number of possible permutations of r items taken from a set of n items, where n > r, is
given by
: CESED », or permuter
ra is sometimes written as ,P,, Pr
or P(n, 1). Your calculator might
have a key marked [nPr]
DB vstcnnenscaxanconancmnaces
You can see why this result is true by imagining that you are arranging r books on a shelf, chosen from
a collection of m books. The book in the first position can be chosen in n ways. The book in the second
position can be chosen in (rv — 1) ways, and so on up to the book in the rth position, which can be
chosen in m= (r= 1) ways.
no on-ln 20-3 n-(r-1)
ER L
Tes ea
The total number of arrangements is
nl
"P=nxin-1)xn-2)x...xln-r+ DE
(n-r)!
15 runners compete in a cross-country race.
Find the number of different ways the top 6 positions can be filled.
“5 = 67 = BEEP — eee
if some of the objects are identical, this reduces the total number of possible unique permutations.
Suppose you wanted to permute the letters in the word CARRIER. This word contains the letter R
three times. f you counted the number of possible permutations using the rule above you would
count T! = 5040 arrangements. But you would have counted some identical arrangements more than
once. For example, if the Rs are denoted as R,, Re and Ry, then you have counted R,CER.AR;| and
R,CER,ARA separately, even though they represent identical strings of letters.
In any string, the three Rs can be arranged in 3! =
different ways, so you have counted incorrectly by
1
5) 7 840
a multiple of 6. The correct number of permutations is
= The number of permutations of 7 items, of which rare identical, is given by "t
= The number of permutations of 1 items, of which r, are identical, r, are identical, and so on,
is given by ne
x
32 Number theory
p
Find the number of possible different permutations of the letters in the word WINNINGS.
This is a set of 6 items in which:
2 are identical (\)
3 are identical (N)
‘When you were calculating permutations of objects, the order of the objects was important.
For example, when you were shelving 3 books from a set of § different books you wanted to count.
MPE separately from EPM.
Suppose now that you are interested in the number of ways of choosing 3 books from a set of
5 books if order is not important.
5!
6-3)!
for example, all possible permutations of the set (M, P, E):
MPE, MEP, PME, PEM, EPM, EMP
You already know that there are ‘= 60 ways of choosing the books in order. This includes,
In this instance, you only want to count 1 for all of these
possible options, so you need to divide the total number CED Explore combinations
of permutations by the number of ways of permuting using GeoGebra
3 items, or 3!
5!
The number of ways of choosing 3 items (in any order) from a set ofS items is =
= The number of possible combinations of r
items (in any order) taken from a set of
nitems, where n > r, is given by
"01 in choose ris sometimes
written as a5 ,C,, C? or C(u.1). Your calculator
might have a key marked [Cr], You have
‘encountered it before in your work on the
binomial theorem. Pure Year 1, Chapter 8
‘This is the number of ways of choosing r items in order divided by the number of possible orderings
of those r items:
33 _
Bina lottery game you choose 6 numbers from a choice of 45 by
shading in a grid.
6 numbers are selected at random and if you match all six you win
a jackpot prize.
Find the probability of winning a jackpot prize.
In poker, a deck of 52 different cards is used. There are 13 cards in each of four suits.
A hand is made up of five cards, arranged in any order.
a Work out the total number of different hands that are possible.
A flush is a hand containing five cards of the same suit.
b Work out the number of hands containing five cards of the same suit.
Four-of-a-Kind is a hand containing four cards of the same value, such as four 7s, or four queens.
© Work out the number of four-of-a-kind hands
2598960
13) -
F (5) x4nsme ——ae
The set S = {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8). Find:
a the number of subsets of S containing exactly 4 elements
b the number of different 4-digit numbers that can be made using the elements of S. (Each element
‘can be used only once.)
= (=70
!
!
|b °P, = 1680
:
34 1
8
EP) 8
Number theory
Evaluate:
a SP, bscy © ®P, a 8p, eC; £ 1c,
You are buying a computer and have the following choices:
+ three types of hard drive
* two memory capacities
+ four types of graphics cards.
Find the total number of possible configurations for this computer.
A set menu in a restaurant has a choice of 3 starters, 4 main courses, and 3 desserts.
Find the total number of possible combinations of courses.
A multiple choice test consists of 12 questions, each with four possible options.
Find the total number of possible ways of answering these 12 questions.
The lock on a briefcase has three dials. The first dial can be any letter and the last two dials can
be any digit from 0 to 9. Here is one possible combination:
ZS
a How many different ways are there of setting the code? (2 marks)
A different suitease has four dials. The first two dials can be any letter from A to E, and the last
two dials can be any even digit greater than 0. Here is one possible combination.
CMe
b How many different ways are there of setting this code? (2 marks)
A password uses the digits 0, 1, 2. 3.4, 5, 6, 7.8.9.
The password must consist of 3 distinct odd digits followed by any other three distinct digits.
No digits are repeated.
Find the total number of passwords that can be generated in this way. (2 marks)
Find the total number of 5-digit odd numbers that do not contain the digit 0. (3 marks)
Find the number of three-digit numbers that contain the digit 7
a exactly once (2 marks)
b at least once marks)
Alison has 7 different textbooks. Find the number of different ways of shelving:
a all 7 textbooks b 2 textbooks © S textbooks
The 1] members of a football team are cach assigned a number from | to 11.
Work out the total number of possible assignments of numbers to players. (2 marks)
35 Chapter 1
é"
€)
EH
@s
36
Jonjo has the number cards[7][3]1[5][6.
a Find the number of different
i S-digit numbers ii 3-digit numbers
he can make with these number cards. (marks)
Jonjo adds an extra number card showing [7
b Find the number of different 6-cigit numbers Jonjo can now make (2 marks)
Find the number of possible different arrangements of the letters in the word REDEEMED.
(marks)
Four couples are sitting in a row of eight seats at a cinema,
Find the number of possible seating arrangements if!
a there are no restrictions on who sits where (2 marks)
b the two members of each couple must sit next to each other. (4 marks)
A lottery game at a féte requires players to choose four different numbers from | to 10.
At the end of the day, four balls are chosen at random, without replacement, from 10 balls
numbered from 1 to 10.
A player who matches all four numbers wins a star prize.
Find the probability of winning a star prize. (2 marks)
A photography club has 17 members. The club has to elect three officers: president, deputy,
and treasurer.
a Find the total number of ways that the three officers can be elected from the members.
(1 mark)
The 17 members of the club consist of 10 females and 7 males.
b Find the total number of ways that the three officers can be elected such that:
i
the president is female
the president and deputy are of the same gender
the three officers are not all of the same gender, (4 marks)
‘The club decides to elect three officers of any gender, and not to assign specific roles to each
of them.
¢ Find the number of ways in which this could be done. (2 marks)
The digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are to be used to generate a 4-digit number. Each digit can be
used more than once, Find the total number of possible numbers with:
a no repeated digits, such as 6519 (2 marks)
b one repeated digit, and two distinct digits, such as 2717 (2 marks)
¢ two repeated distinct digits, such as 3993. (2 marks)
The set $= {1, 2, 3,4, 5}.
a_ Find the total number of possible subsets of 5. (2 marks)
b Find the number of subsets of S which contain 3 elements. (2 marks) Number theory
a Find the number of elements in S. (2 marks)
N18 The set S= {n € Z*:n < 1000 and mis divisible by 9}
(GD)
b Find the number of subsets of S which contain 3 elements or fewer. (3 marks)
19 A school chess club consists of 9 boys and 12 girls. A team of four members is needed for an
upcoming competition.
a Find the total number of teams that can be formed. (2 marks)
b_ How many of these teams have the same number of boys and girls? (2 marks)
¢ How many of these teams have more boys than girls? (3 marks)
20 A shipment of 100 hard disks contains 4 defective disks, A sample of 6 disks is chosen for
inspection.
a Find the total number of possible samples. (2 marks)
b Find the probability that this sample contains at least 1 defective disk. (3 marks)
21 The England football World Cup squad consists of 23 players. A starting team of 11 players
is to be chosen for the first match in the group stage. Calculate the total number of different
possible teams in each of the following circumstances.
a Any player can play in any position, and positions are not assigned. (2 marks)
b Any player can play in any position, and each player is assigned to a unique position.
(2 marks)
€ Players must be chosen from the following specialisms, but positions are not assigned within
‘each specialism.
‘Specialism Goalkeeper | Defender | Midfielder [Forward
Number of players avatlable 3 10 3 s
‘Number of players to be chosen 1 5 3 2 (3 marks)
Challenge
The diagram shows a 4 x 4 grid with a route from the bottom left (4) to
the top right (B) shown.
B
4
Given that routes may only travel along grid lines to the right, or up,
find the number of different possible routes from A to B on this grid.
'b Find an expression for the number of such routes on an n x » grid.
7 Chapter 1
ed exercise @)
©® 1 Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor of 60 and 444, (2 marks)
GP) 2 a Use the Euclidean algorithm to show that 150 and 721 are relatively prime. (marks)
b Hence find integers a and b such that 1500 +7210 = 1. (marks)
¢ Use your answer to part b to find integers p and g such that 150a + 7216 (1 mark)
GP) 3 a Use the Euclidean algorithm to show that 21 and 362 are relatively prime G marks)
b Hence find a solution to the equation 21x + 362y = 10, x, y €Z marks)
(iP) 4 a Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the highest common factor of 99 and S07. (3 marks)
b Find integers a and 4 such that 99a + 507 = 24. G marks)
@®_ 5 International Standard Book Numbers (ISBNs) are used to identify books. 10-digit ISBNs
contain a final ‘check’ digit, which is chosen so that the sum of each digit multiplied by its
position (starting from the right) is equal to 0 (mod 11). If a final digit of 10 is needed then the
character X is used. For example, this book has 10-digit ISBN 1292183365.
ISBN digit tT27;o T2717 syst 3 fess
Position multiplier | 10 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5s [4/3 [2/1
Product wf is[2[m[6 | 4fi2[9 fii s
‘The sum of the products is 198 = 0 (mod 11), so this is a valid ISBN.
a Show that 0521735254 is a valid ISBN.
b The first 9 digits of some ISBNs are given below. In each case determine the final ‘check’
digit:
i 014143976 ii 046502656
iP) 6 Find the remainder when 23% is divided by 7. (4 marks)
7 Show that 995 + 51” = 50 (mod 100). (3 marks)
© _ 8 Show that 50” = 1 (mod 7). (2 marks)
© 2 Find the units digit in 3™. G marks)
© 10 Find the remainder when 13” is divided by 170. marks)
© 11 Use divisibility tests to show that the number 335 049 is divisible by both 3 and 11.
Show your working clearly Q marks)
12 Nisa 3digit number abc, so that N = 1004 + 10b + c, where a, b, ¢ € {0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 7.8, 9}
anda £0.
Prove that 3|.V if and only if 3|(a+6 +0). (4 marks)
38 13
Number theory
The following 7-digit number has wo missing digits.
ol fa ofa
Given that the number is divisible by both 9 and |, find the value of the sum of the missing
digits. marks)
A S-digit number 1V has two missing digits.
N=7(a)28[6
Given that Nis divisible by both 4 and 11, find all the possible values of N. (4 marks)
Nisa 3-digit number satisfying 100 < V < 999.
Nean be written as abc, so that N= 100a-+ 10h + ¢, where a, b and ¢ are integers between
Oand 9, with a 4 0. N has the following properties:
+ Nis divisible by 9
+ N= 10(mod 11)
+ The sum of the digits of N is odd.
Find all possible values of .V, showing your working clearly. (6 marks)
a Use the Euclidean algorithm to find integers a and b such that 75a+299=1. (4 marks)
b Hence solve the congruence equation 75x = 5 (mod 299) (2 marks)
a Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the highest common factor of 60 and 741. (3 marks)
b Hence state the number of distinct solutions to the congruence equation 60x = 30 (mod 741)
in the set of least residues modulo 741, (1 mark)
¢ Find all of these possible solutions. (4 marks)
Find all possible integers in the range 0 (or bot.
a Using Bezout's identity, prove Euclid’s lemma,
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is a prime number then
a? =a\modp)
Let a be a positive integer not divisible by p.
b Prove that when the numbers {a, 2a, 34, 44, ..., (p—1)a) are reduced
to least residues modulo p, they are exactly the members of the set
(1.2,3,4 ....p~1,in some order.
« By considering the product ofall the numbers in each set. prove that
a? = almod p) Number theory
‘Summary of key points
1 Ifaand bare integers with a # 0, then dis divisible by a if there exists an integer k such that
b= ka.\n this case, we say that a divides b and denote this by a>. if a does not divide b, then
we write a4 b.
2 Foranya, b, c€ Z, witha £0:
+ a|a (every integer divides itself)
+ a|0 (O's divisible by any integer)
+ a|band ble ale
+ a\bandale= albn+cmforallmncZ
+ |b an|bnforalln< Z,n 40
+ Ifaand b are positive integers and a| 6 then a 0, then there exist unique
integers g and such that a= bg +7, with r h:
+ Apply the division algorithm to a and b to find integers g, and r, such that
a= qyb + ry, where 0
