EXOGENIC PROCESS

The processes that occur at the earth's surface due to the influence of exogenic forces.
Weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and deposition are the main exogenic forces

What is WEATHERING
is the process of disintegration (physical) and decomposition (chemical) of rocks. Weathering is
a process of breaking down rocks into small particles such as sand, gravel, and other
fragments.

Types of Weathering

PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING

-is the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in its composition. In this process, the
size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs because of the following factors,

Processes that cause physical weathering

1. Pressure
Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form mountain range. After the granite ascends and
cools, the overlying rocks and sediments may erode. At the point when the pressure diminishes,
the rock expands, cools, and became brittle and fractured.

2. Temperature
Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to high temperature. However, if the temperature
drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it contract and causes fracture.

3. Frost wedging
When water collects in the rock pores and slits, it expands when it freezes. The freezing creates
cracks, when the ice thaws, the water seeps into cracks and causes more cracks as it freezes.
Soon the rocks break apart.
- Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and when water accumulates in the crack
and at that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock apart
5. Abrasion
The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and friction. This primarily occurs during collision
of rocks, sand, and silt due to current or waves along a stream or seashore causing sharp
edges and corners to wear off and become rounded.

6. Organic Activity
The roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in the long run, break the rock.
7. Human Activities
Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and cultivating land contribute to physical
weathering.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
-is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical reactions. These reactions
include carbonation, hydrolysis and oxidation. These processes either form or destroy minerals,
thus altering the nature of the rock's mineral composition.

Processes that bring about chemical Weathering

1. Oxidation
- Oxygen combines with compound elements in rock to form oxide and weaken the rock
This is due to oxidation, which is when the iron in rocks mixes with oxygen and creates rust.
- The reaction between rocks and oxygen. This occurs when oxygen, combines with
another substance like minerals in rocks, they form compounds called oxides.
Oxidation is what turns apples brown when they come in contact with air
(Ex. The oxidation of iron bearing minerals like biotite and pyrite produce iron oxide (hematite))

2. Carbonation
Dissolved carbon dioxide in rainwater or in moist air forms carbonic acid and this acid
chemically alters or reacts, causes the minerals to dissolve in the rock
- This type of weathering is important in the formation of caves.

- Carbonation: when weak acid solutions are able to dissolve through rock.
Stalactite - A type of formation that hangs from the ceiling of caves
Stalagmite - A type of formation that rises from the floor of a cave
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3. Hydrolysis
- Occurs when water reacts with minerals in the rock and changes the chemical composition of
the rock. This change weakens the rock and makes it more susceptible to breaking down.
Chemical breakdown of a substance when combined with water.
"hydro" means "water" and "lysis" means "to break down" (ex. Feldspar Hydrolysis and
Feldspar-> kaolinite)

Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil. Soil is a mixture of grains, organic
matter, H20, and gas.
Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents like water,
wind, causes transportation of the material to where they are deposited.

The movement of sediments downslope under the influence of gravity is called MASS
WASTING

DEPOSITION
Deposition is the geological process in which the weathered materials carried out by erosion
settle down in a particular location

ENDOGENIC:
Endogenic Process
-is a geological process that was formed, originated, and located below the surface of the earth.
It involves geologic activities like tectonic movements, metamorphism, seismic activities, and
magmatism.

Magma
Magma is composed of semi- liquid hot molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in
the melted mantle rock and oceanic plate. This molten state, when solidified, creates igneous
rocks found on the surface of the Earth.

Magma and lava are both molten rocks. However, they differ in location. Magma is found in the
magma chamber of the volcano while lava is found on the surface of earth once the volcano
erupts.

● Partial Melting
Different minerals in rock melt at different temperatures and pressure.
Occurs in the lower crust and upper mantle.

PROCESS OF PARTIAL MELTING

conditions for melting the rocks Melting in the mantle requires one of three possible events to
occur:
- Increase in temperature
- Decrease in pressure
- Addition of volatiles

DIFFERENT MELTING PROCESS OCCUR IN MANTLE:

Decrease in Pressure (Decompression Melting)
Rocks beneath the earth remain solid when exposed to high pressure.
During convection, if a rock that is hot enough to be close to its melting point is moved toward
the surface, the pressure is reduced, and the rock can pass to the liquid side of its melting
curve. At this point, partial melting starts to take place.

Addition of Volatiles
• Flux Melting - adding impurities like water and gas to lower the melting point of rocks.

Intrusion
-is magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting. What is meant by the intrusion of
magma is the inclusion of the rock layers forming the earth's crust (magma does not get out).

Plutonism
-Plutonism refers to all sorts of igneous geological activities taking place below the Earth's
surface.
-The solidification and crystallization of magma take place mainly inside the Earth's interior.
-When the process of crystallization takes place inside the crust, the magnetic rocks oduced are
called plutonites, which is another major category igneous rock formation.

- In the lithosphere, magma occupies a bag which is called a MAGMA CHAMBER

Extrusion
is an eruption of magmatic materials that causes land formation on the surface of the Earth.
Magma that came out to the surface of the earth is called an eruption. The magma that came to
the surface of the earth is called lava.

Volcanism
-Volcanism is used to describe all geological phenomena that occur on the natural terrestrial
surface, such as the creation of volcanoes and hot springs.
-Molten material in the form of lava that undergoes the process of crystallization on the natural
terrestrial surface gives birth to rock formations known as volcanites. These are one of the
major categories of igneous rock formations.

Pressure and Temperature

- Main factor of regional metamorphism

HEAT TRANSFER:
Heat Energy
- Plays a vital role in our planet. It is one of the extreme factors in what makes the world
habitable.
-is a result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules, or ions in solids liquids,
and gases.

Radiogenic Heat
-is the thermal energy released as a result of the spontaneous nuclear disintegration of natural
radioactive elements inside the planet; Uranium, Thorium an Potassium

Primordial Heat
-is the internal heat energy accumulated by dissipation in a planet during its first few million
years of evolution.
CONDUCTION
-governs the thermal conditions in almost entire solid portions of the Earth.

CONVECTION
-dominates the thermal conditions in the zones where large quantities of fluids(molten rocks)
exist.

In mantle convection, the heat source is the core. It is nearly as hot as the surface of the sun –
about 6000˚C. A convection current is relevant to the movement of the tectonic plate because
the heat builds up pressure underneath the crust (tectonic plates). As they become unstable,
they push against each other (subduction) and rise upwards or one goes under the other.

SUBDUCTION
-is the process by which the collision of the earth’s crustal plates results in one plate being
drawn down or overridden by another.

RADIATION
-the process of heat exchange between the Sun and the Earth.

Tension
- occurs when the plates are pulled apart causing either an elongation or a breakage in
the crust. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges.

- This type of stress is what separated all the continents in the world during the breaking
away of the supergiant continent known as Pangaea.

Compression
- occurs when the plates are pushed toward each other causing them to crash.
- Mountains formed due to compression
Folding - occurs when the Earth’s crust bends away from a flat surface.
Anticline – upward bend
Syncline – downward bend

Plate Boundaries
1. Convergent- 2 plates move toward each other.
Oceanic – oceanic
Oceanic- continental
Subduction – denser sinks over the other
Formation of TRENCHES and VOLCANOES

Divergent- 2 plates move away from each other; magma rises to form new land.
- Older rocks are pushed aside.
-Formation of RIDGES

Transform- when plates move and slide past each other; two plates move/slide in opposite
directions.
-Formation of FAULTS

Rocks form layers due to sediments deposited on rocks or some forces that act on them which
causes their deformation.

James Hutton
- The current geologic processes, such as volcanism, erosion & weathering are the same
processes that were at work in the past.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

-Metamorphic rocks formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to pressure,
heat, and volatiles.

Stratigraphy
-a branch of geology that deals with the description, correlation, and interpretation of stratified
sediments & stratified rocks on & within the Earth.
- A study of rock layers

Stratified Rocks- (layers of rocks)

-Rock derivatives (fragmental or crystalline)
-Product of sedimentary process that formed layers.

Stratification or bedding
-is the layering that happens in sedimentary and igneous rocks formed at the surface of the
earth that comes from lava flows or other volcanic activity.

Who is responsible in the study of relative position in sedimentary rock:

Nicolas Steno (Mid 1600s)
a Danish Scientist studied the relative position of sedimentary rocks.
-He made the Stratigraphic laws of the rock layers

Law of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphic Laws
-are used by geologists in conducting relationships or rocks or rock layers.

Law of Original Horizontality

sediments are deposited in Flat layers. If not disturbed, they maintain original horizontality

Law of Superposition
heaviest-deepest - oldest
lightest-settled on top- youngest

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship

•there's magma intrusion
•Fault is younger than the other layers

INCLUSION
- rock Fragments Found in another rock/layer must be existing before being part of the
rock.

FAUNAL SUCCESSION
- rock layers contain Fossils that can be used to identify and correlate rocks
Fauna represents “animal Life Flora represents “plant life”

Law of lateral Continuity

- HORIZONTAL LAYERS WITH DIKE

Correlation
-is the process of showing that rocks or geologic events that occur at different locations are of
the same age.

Unconformity
layer of rock that have been deformed or eroded before another layer is deposited, resulting in
rock layer mismatching.

Types of Correlation
Physical Correlation-color, texture, and types of minerals contained within a stratum(layer).
Fossil Correlation-fossils with unique characteristics such as life span& features.
-estimate the age of the rocks or rock layer that contain the fossil.
Methods of Correlating Rocks
1.Rock Types & its characteristic
2.Index fossil
3.Bedrock

Relative Dating
is the process of comparing and correlating rock layers to determine the relative age of rocks

Absolute Dating
-is the process of determining the age of materials like rocks and fossils or rock Layers. It uses
radioactive isotopes(radioactive decay & half-life principles) to identify the exact age of the
materials

HADEAN
(Hades-Greek God of the Underworld

ARCHAEN
The Earth cooled and may now support support life

PROTEZOIC
Existence of bacteria and blue-green algae. By end of this eon, Life in the ocean may have
appeared.

PALEOZOIC
Pangea existed (greek. pangaia) "all the Earth" -beginning of early life -PANGAEA Terrestrial
plants SINAGHAM

MESOZOIC
age of dinosaurs -break PANGAEA into Laurasia & Gondwana

CENOZOIC
age of mammals this is also the era where humans exist and still exist

Notable events under the Paleozoic

Ordovician period
Cambrian period
-Age of invertebrates (water)
-Organisms that do not have a backbone.

Devonian period
Silurian period
-Age of fishes
-Dominant creatures living in the sea

Mississippian period
Pennsylvania period
-presence of atmospheric oxygen
-Presence of plants and trees

Permian period
-presence of amphibians, reptiles, and coniferous plants

Notable events under the Mesozoic

3 periods
- age of dinosaur
1. Triassic
2. Jurassic
3. Cretaceous
-extinction of the
dinosaur due to
an asteroid that
hit the planet.

Notable events under the Cenozoic

2 periods
1. Tertiary
5 Epoch
-Paleocene
-Eocene
-Oligocene
-Miocene
-Pliocene

2. Quaternary
-evolution of human
-2 epoch

Relative Date/Age
-refers to the order in which events occured.

Absolute Age
- refers to the age in years

RELATIVE AGE
-geologists used field observations to determine relative ages. -the determine which layer of
rock/nock is younger or older

Principles Used in Determining Relative Age

• Principle of Original Horizontality
• Principle of Super Position
• Principle of Cross-cutting
• Principle of Faunal Succession
• Principle of Lateral Continuity

RELATIVE AGE
- determines the comparative age where the layers of rocks were formed. It is only limited
in identifying which layer was made first and which was made last.
- The exact age can not be determined using Relative Dating.

ABSOLUTE AGE
-is the use of records of radioactive decay in rocks.
- Radioactive decay happens when unstable isotopes/elements decompose spontaneously.

ISOTOPES - atoms of the same element (same number of proton) but with different number of
neutrons.

PROTIUM
1 proton

DEUTERIUM +
1 proton 1 neutron

TRITIUM
1 proton 2 neutrons

The atomic number of the element represents the number of protons in the atom.
The proton is the positively charged particle of the atom found in the nucleus

Mass Number
is the sum of the proton and neutron in the nucleus. Both elements are carbon, one is stable,
the other is not.

HALF-LIFE
is the time taken for the radioactivity of a specified isotope to turn to half of its original value.
Parent Material
- unstable isotope, radioactive

Daughter Material
- stable element, decay product

FOSSILS

WILSON CYCLE: