UNIT-4 : Learning, Memory & Forgetting

Concept
Learning simply refers to acquiring the ability to do something that we have not done before.
Learning can be defined as the process of changing, developing and maintaining skill, knowledge,
and attitude of people. Learning is often defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the
result of experience. In other word learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or
weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.
According to Baron, “Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior (orbehavior potential)
resulting from experiences.”
Myers, “Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organisms’ behavior dueto experience.”
Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things
and it operates in individuals attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It
represents progressive changes in behavior. It enables individuals to satisfy interests to attain goals.
Importance of Learning
“Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at death.” Einstein. It reflects the
importance of learning. Further learning is important because it boosts confidence, is enjoyable and
provides happiness, leads to a better quality of life and helps boost personal development. The
importance oflearning is as follows:
 Make life meaningful
Learning is essential to all organisms and without learning, a living soul is of no use. One who
doesn’t understand his environment at least will be dead in no time.
 Adapt in new environment
Learning helps to adapt to a new environment. If only we know how to change our ways according
to changes in our locale, will we survive. We have to adapt ourselves every day to new people,
places, jobs and relations, only learning canassist us in this.
 Understand basic necessity
Learning helps us understand basic necessities of life, and gives us a way of acquiring and mastering
them.
 Improve skills and knowledge
Greater learning can provide you with deeper knowledge of a subject, which cannot be imparted
from bookish education. Managers attempt to design a learning element to maintain or improve
desired levels of skills and knowledge ofemployees.
 Behavioral development
Learning can help persons or managers to check the dysfunctional behavior and boost up functional
behaviors by applying new rewards and interventions.
 Multiple impact
Every activity in organization is influenced by learning. Almost all dimensions of individual’s
behavior or organizational performance such as knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, personalities,
loyalties, job performance are responsive to learning.

Theory of Learning
Broadly theories of learning are classified into two categories. They are behavioristic theories
(perspectives) -Classical conditioning and operant conditioning- and Cognitive theories
(perspectives) -cognitive and social learning or observational learning.
1) Classical Conditioning
Conditioning refers to automatic response over the situation through repeated activities. The
classical conditioning theory of learning was developed by Ivan Pavlov a Russian psychologist.
This theory is also called respondent condition or Pavlovian theory of learning. According to
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 this theory when a stimulus is paired with another stimulus that will create a response which is called
condition learning. It involves the stimulus response connection and deals that stimulus elicit
response that is a form of learning.
🞭 Experiment
Pavlov presented a piece of meat, the dog produced saliva. Then Pavlov rang the bell but the
dog did not make any response.
Subsequently, Pavlov presented a piece of meat with ringing the bell at a time.The dog again
produced saliva.
Again, Pavlov rang the bell with holding the meat, the dog also produced saliva.
Pavlov paired the sound of bell with the flash digit the dog also produced saliva.
Finally, When the Pavlov used only flash light the dog produce the same response. In his
experiment, he termed meat is an Unconditional stimulus and the saliva produced due to the
presentation of meat is an unconditioned response. The sound of bell and flash of light are
conditioned stimulus whereas the response of dog is conditioned response.
So, Pavlov concluded that when conditioned stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus
that will eventually lead to a response which is calledconditional response.
The classical conditioning theory explains simple and reflexive behavior. It deals when
something happens, people reacts in specific ways. However, human behavior is complex and it
can’t explain all aspects of human behavior.
🞭 Basic elements of classical conditioning
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
A stimulus that naturally, automatically and reliably triggers a particular response without previous
learning for example food, or smell of food.
 Unconditioned response (UCR):
An automatic and unlearned response triggered by UCS is called UCR for example flow of saliva
when food is presented. It is an unlearned and occurs because of genetic wiring in nervous system.
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that does not automatically cause a response until it becomes linked to
unconditioned stimulus. This means unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are associated
with each other.
 Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called conditioned response. It is the response
to conditioned stimulus.
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov experiment revealed five major processes or principles of classical conditioning:
🞭 Acquisition
Acquisition is the process by which a conditioned stimulus acquires the ability to elicit
conditioned response through repeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned
stimulus.
🞭 Extinction
It is a process through which a conditioned stimulus gradually loses the ability to evoke
conditioned response when it is no longer followed by the unconditioned response. This means,
previously learned responses decreases in frequency and eventually disappear.
When the dog produce saliva at the ringing of bell, but if the bell is repeatedly rang without
presenting any stimulus, that will produce extinction.
However, the extinguished conditioned response can be re-emerged with no further
conditioning after a period of rest, that is called spontaneous recovery.
It is reappearance of a weakened conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus after an
interval of time following extinction.
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 🞭 Stimulus generalization
Generalization is the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original
conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. In Pavlov experiment, even though that was
learned to salivate in response to specific bell that also salivates when there is a slight change in the
sound of bell.
🞭 Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli. It is the
process by which organisms learn to respond to certain stimuli but not others. If two stimuli are
sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not.
When the dog salivates at ringing bell, but using another stimulus like flash light without any
conditioning, the dog will not produce saliva.
🞭 Higher order conditioning
It is also called second order conditioning. When a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a
neutral stimulus that cause neutral stimulus to become second stimulus is called higher order or
second order conditioning. In the Pavlov experiment, when neutral stimulus flash light is paired with
a strong conditioned stimulus bell, the dog produced the same result. (i.e. NS + CS = CR)

2) OPERANT CONDITIONING
The operant conditioning theory was developed by an American Psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner
was deeply influenced by J.B Walton's psychology and Edward L.Thorndike laws of effect.
Operant refers to the volunteer behavior such as walking, working, eating, talking, sleeping, etc. So,
the learning applies to voluntary behavior is calledoperant conditioning.
According to this theory human being involves in voluntary behavior that produce specific
response. The response finally determines their further behavior. If the consequences are rewarding
the response will be repeated and will grow in strength. It is guided by the Thorndike law of effect
that states that if response is followed by pleasurable consequences, it will tend to be repeated and
followed by unpleasant consequences, it will not be repeated. So, the relationship between reward
and response is the essence of operant conditioning.
By this theory, skinner concluded that individual's behavior is developed, controlled and changed by
the consequence or behavior is the function of it's consequence. It is also called instrumental theory
or re-enforcement theory orresponse stimulus model.
• Experiment
Skinner developed special testing environment called operant conditioning chamber or skinner box.
The box was typically sound proof with a bar or key inside it. If it is pressed pecked it will releases
food or water as reward. The chamber was large enough to allow animals to move within it.

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 Skinner used a rat and pigeon in his experiment. He placed the rat in a box called Skinner box. When
a rat is placed, the rat was started to move around the box suddenly pressed on the lever. The lever
delivered a pellet of food. Then, the rat repeatedly presses the lever and got the food over and again.
In this theory the rat learned that when the lever is pressed that would deliver the food.
In this theory, the food is the consequence or reward where repeated pressing the lever is behavior.
So, the behavior is determined by reward. Therefore, it is also called reward stimulus theory. By this
theory skinner concluded that individuals learn to get what they want and avoid to learn what they do
not want.

Major concepts of Operant Conditioning Theory

Common concepts of Operant Conditioning theory are as follows:
 Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the central concept of operant conditioning. It is the process by which a stimulus
increases the probability the preceding behavior will be repeated. It increases the likelihood that
learned behavior will be repeated. It increase the strength of response and increases its probability of
being repeated.
It involves either presentation or withdrawal of pleasant consequences that consequence is called
reinforcer. There are basic three types of reinforcers:
 Positive and Negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is the presentation of pleasant consequences or stimulus that make the
behavior more likely to be repeated. It strengthens desirable behavior by providing rewards at every
time. Food pallet or grain is a positive reinforcer to the rat or pigeon that pressed the bar.
Appreciation, medal, monetary reward etc. are the positive reinforcer to human being.
Negative reinforcement refers to the unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in
probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. It is reinforcement of response
by the removal, escape from or avoidance of unpleasant stimulus to strengthen desirable response or
weaken undesirable response.
 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
The stimulus used to reinforce a certain behavior can be either primary orsecondary.
A primary reinforcer, also called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that has innate
reinforcing qualities. These kinds of rein forcers are not learned.
Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, and pleasure are all examples of primaryrein forcers.

Money is one of the best examples of a secondary reinforcer: It is only worth something because you
can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfybasic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary
rein forcers) or other secondary rein forcers.
• PUNISHMENT
• SHAPING
 Extinction
Extinction, in operant conditioning, refers to when a reinforced behavior is extinguished entirely.
The rate of responding or pressing the bar when the reinforcement or food is consistently absent. The
extinction process occurs when the rat does not get any food after pressing the bar and it diminishes
the tendency to press the bar or lever.
 Spontaneous Recovery:
It is the recurrences of conditioned response after the extinction. The phenomena of spontaneous
recovery is also applied in operant conditioning. When the rat receives food after the lapse of time it
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 starts to press the lever to deliver food again.
 Stimulus generalization
It is quite similar both in classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Skinner trained a pigeons
to peck at a key illuminated by yellow light, later, same pigeons were tested with light of varying
wavelengths, the result shoed the generalized effect. As the light became less similar to the original,
the pigeons were less inclined to peck the key.
 Stimulus discrimination
Like the classical conditioning, rat and pigeon learn to discriminate between the stimuli. The rat was
trained to press the bar when green light is on. The rat presses the bar only when the green light is on
and does not press the bar whenthere is no green light. The light becomes discriminating stimulus for
response.

Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning theory:

Both the classical conditioning and operating theories try to bring changes on human behavior.
Despite the similarity the difference between these two theoriesare mentioned below.
 a) Determinants: In the classical conditioning, stimulus are the determinants of behavior where as in
operant conditioning, reinforcementof rewards are the determinants.
 b) Reward: In classical conditioning reward is presented every time where as in operant conditioning
reward is attached to the behavior.
 c) Types of behavior: Classical condition explains elicited or passive behavior where as operant
conditioning explains emitted or activebehavior.
 d) Approach: Classical conditioning is a reactive approach where as operant conditionings is a
proactive approach of learning.
 e) Model: Classical conditioning is based on stimulus responses (S"R) model whereas operant
conditioning based on response stimulus (R"S) model.
 f) Pre-requisite: In classical conditioning stimulus is pre-requisite for clearing whereas in operant
condition consequences or re-enforcement ispre-requisite per learning.
Cognitive Theory of Learning
Concept
Cognitive theory is related to the term cognition which refers to act of thinking, perception, use of
intuition, experience to gain knowledge.
The cognitive theory of learning was developed by American Psychologist Edward C. Tolman
According to this learning is not caused by stimulus response (S -R) interaction rather it is the result
of individual's cognition and environmental cues. It is based on stimulus – stimulus connection. One
stimulus leads to anotherstimulus.
When an individual's behavior is directed towards objective they confront different environmental
situation and find their ultimate objectives. So, learning is the consequence of human brain, or
thinking and knowing but not the stimulus response or response stimulus reaction.
 Experiment
Tolman experimented taking a rat and complex maze. He used three groups of rats in the same maze
with or without reward. The rat was trained to run througha complicated maze.
The first group was reward group where reward (food) was placed at the end of maze. The second
group was non-reward group, never received reward and third group was no-reward/reward group,
did not receive food reward until the eleventh day of training.
Tolman put a food at the corner of the maize and placed the rat, that rat moved straight forward as
soon as the rat reached to the station or choice that got confusion but the rat was able to use
environmental cues through sense of organsand followed right path. Finally, that rat got the food.
However, the rat in a reward group found the reward at lower rate of error whereas rat with non-
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 reward and reward cum non-reward showed higher errorsand similar levels of performance
By this theory Tolman concluded that when the rat got the food learning tookplaces.
🞭 Application of cognitive learning
1. The cognitive theory combines characteristics of both classical conditioningand operant conditioning
theory. Therefore, it has a broad area of application. It can be applied in following ways:
2. Key in overcoming many negative impact of personality.
3. Cognition always precedes behavior and emotions therefore changing our thoughts may lead to
change in our behavior.
4. It is useful in increasing short term and long term memory of students.
5. The concept of cognitive theory can be equally applied in human resources management and
industrial training.
6. The map used in cognitive theory can be used to identify the material stored in the store room. So it
promotes efficiency and saves time.
7. The cognitive theory is also useful in social life. By using the cognitive map, we can reach new
destination. It is more applicable in tourism industry.
Observational learning theory
Concept
Observational learning Theory is the result of empirical research on human behavior. It was
developed by Albert Bandura.
According to this theory neither stimulus from environment (Classical and operant theory) nor the
self-determination (Cognitive theory) determine the learning, rather, learning occurs through the
direct observation and experience of an individual.
Bandura combined classical conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive theory of learning to
develop the new way of learning.
According to Bandura, individuals are the social being who live in the society and have a contact
with different person such as father, mother, colleague friends, teachers, managers and other
celebrities. They earnestly observe their behavior and put in practice that behavior which they like or
prefer most that family creates the new way of behavior.
• Experiment
Bandura experimented with preschool child, a model and “Bobo” doll. In the experiment room, a
model interacted with doll in a room in front of child.
In one condition the model interacted with toy in a non-aggressive manner completely ignoring the
presence of Bobo doll.
In other condition, the model became very aggressive with the doll, kicking it, yelling at it, throwing
it in the air and hitting it with a hammer.
When each child was left alone in the room where a camera filming was set and given opportunity to
play with the toy. He found through the camera that children who were exposed to the aggressive
model, they were beating up the doll in exact imitation of the model. The children who saw the
model ignore the doll, did not act aggressively.
He concluded that learning can take places without actual performance and labeled latent learning.
He further explained that observational learning require the presence of four elements or steps via
attention, retention, motor reproduction and reinforcement.
🞭 Attention process:
Attention is the first basic process in observational learning. The learner must pay attention over
different activates of model. Normally people or learner pay more attention to that model they
perceive as similar to them and they perceive as attractive.
🞭 Retention process:
It is keeping the model’s behavior in memory. The learner must be able to store and retain the

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 observed model in the mind and develops image of the model so that s/he can retrieve at any time
when that is required.
🞭 Motor reproduction process:
It is the imitation process and translating memories into behavior. The learner must be capable of
reproducing or imitating the action of model. In this stage, the most liked or preferred model is put
into practice. In other words, individualsapply that model which sine has given the preferences.
🞭 Reinforcement:
It is the motivational process. When the individual gets support or appreciation by applying the
preferred model she will repeat the model over and again and vice- versa.
Social learning stress on reinforcement facilities. It emphasized that people are not only influenced
by their experience but also by the observed consequencesthat is called vicarious learning.
Application of Observational Theory
There are many possible uses of observational learning. It has both negative and positive impact. The
application or usefulness of observational learning are as follows:
 Observational learning is the main method to learn about our culture, customs, tradition and
environment.
 Observational learning helps to advocate productive behavior. For example, observing parents
behavior, children perform many tasks.
 Observational learning can be applied to reduce or treat phobia, anxiety and fear of children through
modeling.
 Observational learning can be useful to prevent the global organization and individual from cultural
shock.
 Observational learning may contribute to the development of unhealthy
behavior including smoking, alcohol, drug addiction among adolescents.
 Sometime it may be impacted by wrong model.

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 MEMORY
Concept
Memory is the term given to the structures and process involved in the
storage and subsequent retrieval of information. Memory is our cognitive system
for storing and retrieving information. It is the process by which we encode, store
and retrieve information.
Memory is a basic cognitive function by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present consciousness.
According to Baddeley ,“Memory is an active system that receive information from
sense, organizes and alter it; as it stores it away and retrieves the information from
storage.”
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored,
andretrieved. Memory is a system or process by which result of learning are stored
for the future use.

Memory process
Memory is essentially the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Three
processes are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All three of
these processes determine whether something is remembered or forgotten:

1. Encoding
It is getting information in. The first step in the memory process is to get sensory
information in to the brain that is called encoding.
Encoding is a set of mental process that people perform on sensory information
to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.
Like the computer key board entries and transforms symbols to electronic
process which may be stored in computer disk, our sense of organs collect
information and convert in to neural events that can be stored and used by the
brain.
2. Storage
The next step in the memory is to hold the information for some period of
time that is called storage. It is the retention of information in the brain. Memory
has been often called store house. Some information are stored for one period of
time, use very less and discarded while other are frequently used and stored more
permanently. The encoded information recorded in the nervous system is called
memory trace. Some memory traces are isolated and being used in practice
frequently, they will be pushed out of memory and then forgotten.
This period of time will be actually different lengths depending upon the stage
of memory being used such as sensory memory, short term memory and long term
memory.
Sensory memory stores information only the fraction of a second whereas
short term memory retains for 12 to 20 seconds but long term memory retains
information unlimited time.
3. Retrieval
Once, information are stored in computer, it can be obtained whenever we
want. So, the way of bringing the stored information in conscious mind is called
retrieval. It is the final stage of memory process where stored information can be
used.
Psychologists have explained three distinct ways of retrieving
information i.e. recall, recognition and relearning method.
Recall is bringing past experience into present consciousness in the absence
of stimuli. Where information is retrieved in the presence of stimulus, we have
already experienced is called recognition. It is the process of relearning of
forgotten information where individuals’ feel easier than before.

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory was first developed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that once information enters the brain, it must
be either stored or maintained and that the information which is stored goes into
three distinct memory systems: the sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory.
Let's look at each of these components more carefully.
 • Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is also called sensory registration. The sensory memory is
the first memory system that information passes through. The sensory register
perceives and retains information that is received via the five senses for a very
short amount of time, i.e. a few seconds.
Though we have sensory registers for all five senses, only two have been well-
studied. Research has primarily focused on iconic memory (visual memory) and
echoic memory, (auditory memory).
It's estimated that we can hold information in iconic memory for less than one
second, while we can keep information in echoic memory for up to five seconds.
We can think of sensory memory as a holding bin that keeps information until
wedecide which items we want to pay attention to.
Most information that is not attended to is forgotten. Paying attention allows us
to move information from sensory memory to short-term memory.
• Short term memory (STM)
Information moves from sensory memory to the next stage of memory
throughthe process is called short term memory.
Short-term memory is where we keep the content of our current thought. We
can think of short-term memory as where we store information that we can actively
work with and use.
It's estimated that we can hold information in short-term memory between
12 and 20 seconds, though there are techniques that we can use to increase this.
For example, many people remember phone numbers by repeating them
over and over in their heads until they can write them down or dial them. By
continually repeating the numbers, you are rehearsing, which extends the length of
time that you can recall the numbers. This brings up another point: the more that
we repeat or use information, the more likely it is to move into long-term memory.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity. Maintenance rehearsal and chunking
methods are useful to keep short term memory.
• Long term memory (LTM)
The third stage of memory is long term memory. Long term memory is the
system of memory in to which all information is placed to be kept more or less
permanently.
Long term memory is a storehouse which consists of facts, images, thoughts,
feelings, skills, experiences, words languages, sentences, ideas, concepts etc. it has
limitless capacity. LTM makes possible to retain information for long time. if there is
LTM same things need to be learned over and again.
Long-term memory has an almost infinite capacity, and information in long-
term memory usually stays there for the duration of a person’s life. Information can
be transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory by elaborative
rehearsal. However, this doesn’t mean that people will always be able to remember
what’s in their long-term memory—they may not be able to retrieve information
that’s there.
 memory, explicit memory is a conscious recollection or retrieval of
information for examplerecalling the words lists.
Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic.
1. Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is recall of general facts. A memory system that
stores general, abstract knowledge about the world information we can’t
remember acquiring at specific time and place is semantic memory.
Semantic memory stays very long, highly organized and very little
forgetting in rule and meaning while using them. Such memory includes
meaning of words, typical events in everyday life and other countless facts
we learned during ourschool years
2. Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is recall of personal facts. It consists of memories of
particular events, time and places. In other words, It is the memory of
factual information that we have acquired at specific time. it is a memory
that allows you to go back in time and to remember specific thoughts or
experiences you had in the past.
Remembering what happened in the last tour managed by BBM program.
 Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is also called non declarative memory. It is a type
of long term memory that includes memory for skills, procedures, emotional
association, habit and conditioned response that may or may not be
conscious, but memoriesare implied because they affect conscious behavior.
Procedural memory is usually considered implicit memory because
people don’t have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills.
It recalls how todo things such as swimming or driving a car.
It makes people able to do something who are not able to express in the
words. Such people suffered from Alzheimer’s disease can’t tell other how to
walk, fastenclothes or shoes but they can do these activities.
Procedural memories make people never forgetting and it would be

Improving Memory
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of past we cannot operate in
the present or think about the future. Without memory we could learn nothing. So
we need to improve our memory. A varieties of strategies are available to enhance
human memory. Common strategies are as follows:
• Rehearsal
Practicing material or information over and again is called rehearsal. It helps people
to remember materials . The more people rehearse information, the more likely they
are to remember that information.
• Over learning
Over learning, or continuing to practice material even after it is learned, also
increases retention.
• Distributed Practice
Learning material in short sessions over a long period is called distributed practice or
the “spacing effect.” It is a spaced learning or part learning, where learning materials
are distributed in to small units for study by which difficult and lengthy materials can
be memorized better way than cramming or massive learning.
• Minimizing Interference
People remember material better if they don’t learn other, similar material
right before or soon after their effort. One way to minimize interference is to sleep
after studying material, since people can’t learn new material while sleeping.
• Deep Processing
People also remember material better if they pay attention while learning it and
think about its meaning rather than memorize the information by rote. One way to
process information deeply is to use a method called elaboration. Elaboration
involves associating the material being learned with other material.
• Chunking
It is a grouping principle, where information or materials are combined into
meaningful segments or chunks, people can remember long sequences of
numbers, such as social security numbers, cell numbers by chunking them into
two-, three-, or four-digit segments. Like 98520- 62- 123.
• Narrative methods
Narrative methods involve making up a story to remember a list of words. For
example, people could remember the colors of the rainbow in the right order by
making up a short story such as this:
Red Smith stood next to an orange construction cone and flagged down a yellow
cab.
He told Anu she was feeling very green and asked to be taken to a hospital.
Anu took him to a hospital, where a nurse in a blue coat guided her to a room
with indigo walls. She smelled a violet in a vase and passed out.
• Imagery
Images are taken powerful aid to memory and provide capacity to individuals
relate events mentally to form new concept. So, a process by which all items or
materials being experience or learned are visualized is called imaginary.
If a learner learns the material by developing image, s/he can remember better.
Students form mental picture about their notes and perform better in exam.
• Method of Loci
Loci is a Latin term for place. It is mnemonic device used to visualize each of item
that a person wants to remember in different spatial location. Individuals use
different locations and link the locations with information or materials so that they
can recall information in better way.
• Peg Word Method
It is a technique for memorizing lists. The peg word is similar to loci but it uses
familiar lists of items or numbers than locations as memory cue to visualize the
information or materials.
For example, in case of managerial application of emotion one is a selection, two is
creativity, three is a decision making, four is motivation, five is leadership, six is
negotiation, seven is customer service, eight is job attitude, nine is deviant behavior,
and, ten is a forgiveness. They then visualize each item on their list being associated
with selection, a creativity, decision making, and so on.
Provision of speed dialing system in mobile is also example of peg word method.
• Acronyms
Acronyms are words made out of the first letters of several words. For example, to
remember the colors of the spectrum, people often use the name ROY G. BIV,
which gives the first letters of the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet in the right order.

FORGETTING
CONCEPT
Individuals preserve countless information in long term memory and recall or
retrieve when they need to use. When they failed to recall or retrieve or bringing out
information retained in the memory that is called forgetting. So forgetting is apassive
mental process and failure to recall the past memories and experiences.

According to Munn, “Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to

recall or recognize something learned earlier.”

According to Drever, “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience

when attempting to do so or to perform action previously learned.”

Forgetting refers to the loss of information encoded and stored in the long term
memory or failure of an individual to revive consciousness. It is failure to retain
what has been acquired.
Causes of Forgetting
What cause us to forget? Psychologists have proposed several explanations to
deal about causes of forgetting. The most common cause of forgetting is the
failure of encoding. Other causes are below:

1. Decay
Decay means decline or fade. It is the oldest and commonly accepted
explanation of forgetting. Decay is the loss of information in memory through its
nonuse or disuse. It explains that forgetting takes place through the passage of time
due to the fading of memory trace. Memory trace involves some sorts of physical
changes when new material is learned and simply old material fade away over a
time.

This means, with the passage of time, the normal metabolic processes and
chemical reaction of the brain cause decline or decay of the memory. People might
easily remember their first day in junior high school but completely forget what they
learned in class last Tuesday.

However psychologists argued that forgetting is more complicated than simply

fading or decaying of memory traces.

2. Inhibition
Inhibition means interference. It refers to the phenomenon by which information in
memory disrupts the recall of new memory.
Psychologists developed interference theory and explained that passage of time is
not the failure of memory but it is the interference of memory by other similar
memories.
When students learn similar theories around the same time, they become often
confused. Cognitive psychologists explained two kinds of inhibitions i.e. retroactive
inhibition and proactive inhibition.
 Retroactive Inhibition
When the new learning interferes with the old one is called retroactive inhibition.
There is difficult in the recall of information learned earlier because of the later
exposure of different material.
Sometime it is important to remember old telephone and address but new
address and new phone numbers only one that comes to mind.
 Proactive Inhibition
When earlier information learned interferes or disrupts the recall of new
information is called proactive inhibition. Old memories that are already stored
may be recalled instead of specific, recent memory we are seeking. It can been seen
in different areas such as when we entered in the new year, we tend to write old
date.

3. Memory Dysfunction
Sometime forgetting occurs due to the some problems with the brain is known as
memory dysfunction. It refers losing memory by the dysfunctional consequences of
our brain. Memory dysfunction occurs in following two ways:
 Alzheimer diseases
Alzheimer is a brain disease that causes memory loss and other cognitive
impairment. Alzheimer's is a disease that robs people of their memory. At first,
people have a hard time remembering recent events, though they might easily
recall things that happened years ago.
People with Alzheimer's might forget their loved ones. They might forget how to
dress themselves, feed themselves, and use the toilet.
 Amnesia
Amnesia is a loss of memory without any mental difficulties. Amnesia is a deficit in
memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia can
also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The
memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was
caused. It is the loss of memory stemming from injury, illness, drug abuse or other
causes. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde
amnesia.
1. Retrograde Amnesia:
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was
acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or
operation. In some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in
others the person may lose only a few months of memory. It is the loss of
memory of events that occurred prior to an amnesia-inducing events. People
suffering from such amnesia may be unable to remember from specific
periods in their lives.
2. Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from
the short-term memory into the long-term memory.
It is the inability to create new memories due to brain damage, while
long-term memories from before the event remain intact. The brain damage
can be caused by the effects of long-term alcoholism, severe malnutrition,
stroke, head trauma, encephalitis, surgery, or other trauma. People with this
typeof amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time.
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