STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

The existence of the atoms has been proposed since at the time of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400B.C.) who
were of the view that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. According to them the continued subdivisions
of matter would ultimately yield atoms which would not be further divisible.

The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘ a – tomio’ which means ‘uncut – able’ or ‘non divisible’. These
earlier ideas were mere speculations and there was no way to test them experimentally. These ideas remained dormant
for a very long time and were revived again by scientists in the nineteenth century.

The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm scientific basis by John Dalton , a British school teacher in 1808.
His theory was called Dalton’s atomic theory , regarded the atom as the ultimate particle of matter .

According to the experimental observations made by scientists towards the end of nineteenth and beginning of
twentieth century , these established that atoms can be further divided in to sub – atomic particles i.e. electrons ,
protons and neutrons – a concept very different from that of Dalton.
The major problems before the scientists at that time were :
To account for the stability of atom after the discovery of sub – atomic particles.
To compare the behaviour of one element from other in terms of both physical and chemical properties.
To explain the formation of different kinds of molecules by the combination of different atoms and,
To understand the origin and nature of the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation absorbed or
emitted by atoms
 Sub atomic particles:

Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass , law of constant composition and law of
multiple proportion very successfully.
However it failed to explain the results of many experiments. For example, it was known that substances like glasses or
ebonite when rubbed with silk or fur generate electricity.
Many different kinds of sub atomic particles are were discovered in the twentieth century.
Discovery of electro:
(1) In 1830 , Michael Faraday showed that if electricity is passed through a solution of an electrolyte , chemical
reactions occurred at the electrodes , which resulted in the liberation and deposition of matter at the electrodes.
He suggested a particulate nature of electricity

(2) An insight into the structure of atom was obtained from the experiments on electrical discharge through gases.
People discovered that like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.
(3) In mid 1850s many scientists mainly Faraday began to study electrical discharge in partially evacuated tubes ,
known as cathode ray discharge tubes.
 A cathode ray tube is made of glass containing two thin pieces of metal , called electrodes , sealed in it. The electrical
discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low pressures and at very high voltages.
The pressure of different gases could be adjusted by evacuation.

When sufficient high voltage is applied across the electrodes , current starts flowing through a stream of particles
moving in the tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode) .
These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.

The flow of current from cathode to anode was further checked by making a hole in the anode and coating the tube
behind anode with phosphorescent material zinc sulphide. When these rays , after passing through anode , strike the
zinc sulphide coating , a bright spot on the coating is developed (the same thing happens in a television set).

The results of these experiments are summarised below:

(i) The cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.

(ii) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with help of certain kind of materials
(fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them. [ Television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes and
television pictures result due to fluorescence on the television screen coated with certain fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials].
(iii) In the absence of electrical or magnetic field , these rays travel in straight lines.
(iv) In the presence of electrical or magnetic field , the behaviour of cathode rays are similar to that expected from
negatively charged particles , suggesting that the cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles , called electrons.

(v) The characteristics of cathode rays ( electrons) do not depend on the material of electrodes and the nature of the
gas present in the cathode ray tube.

(vi) Cathode rays produce x – rays when they strike a metallic target.

(vii) Cathode rays produce ionization of gases through which they travel.

Thus, we can conclude that electrons are basic constituent of all the atoms.

Charge to mass ratio of electron:

In 1897 , British physicist J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of electrical charge (e) to the mass of electron (me) by using
cathode ray tube and applying electrical and magnetic field perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of the
electrons.

Thomson showed that the amount of deviation of the particles from their path in the presence of electrical or magnetic
field depends upon:

(i) The magnitude of the negative charge on the particle - greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle ,
greater is the interaction with the electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.
 (ii) The mass of the particle – lighter the particle , greater is the deflection.

(iii) The strength of electrical or magnetic field – the deflection of electrons from its original path increases with
the increase in the voltage across the electrodes , or the strength of the magnetic field.
Experiment:
When only electric field is applied , the electrons deviate
from their path and hit the cathode ray tube at point A.

Similarly when only magnetic field is applied , electron

strikes the cathode ray tube at point C.
By carefully balancing the electrical and magnetic field
strength , it is possible to bring back the electron to the
path followed as in the absence of electric or magnetic
field and they hit the screen at point B.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of
deflections observed by electrons on the electric field
strength , Thomson was able to determine the value of
e/me as:

𝑒
= 1.758820 × 1011 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
𝑚𝑒

Where, me is the mass of electron in kg and e is the magnitude of the charge on the electron in coulomb (C) .
Charge on the electron:

R.A. Millikan (1868 – 1953 ) devised a method known as oil drop experiment , to determine the charge on the electrons.

Millikan found that the charge on the electron to be -1.6 x 10-19C. The present accepted value of charge of electron is
-1.6022 x10-19C.

The mass of electron (me) was determined by combining these results with Thomson’s value of e/me

𝑒 1.6022 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑚𝑒 = = 11 −1
= 9.1094 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑒 1.758820 × 10 𝐶 𝑘𝑔

Discovery of Protons:

Electrical discharge carried out in the modified cathode ray tube lead to the discovery of particles carrying positive
charge , also known as canal rays .
Characteristics of positive rays:
(i) These rays travel in a straight line in direction opposite to the cathode rays.

(ii) In the presence of electric field , canal rays deflect towards the negative electrode. This indicates the constituent
particles of canal rays are positively charged.

(iii) Canal rays produce fluorescence when incident on the zinc sulphide screen.

(iv) Canal rays are also affected by a magnetic field , also confirms the presence of positively charged particles.

(v) The charge to mass ratio of the particles depend on the gas in the discharge tube.

(vi) Positively charged particles carry whole number multiple of the fundamental unit positive electrical charge.

After discovery of canal rays , attempts were made to discover the lightest particle which carries a unit positive charge.
Therefore, canal rays produced by using various gases were analysed and it was found that the lightest positive
particle having unit positive charge could be obtained by using hydrogen gas in the discharge tube.

The value of e/m for the constituent particles of hydrogen gas was found to be minimum. These particles possessed
minimum mass and a unit positive charge.
Determination of mass of these particles revealed that the mass of one particle was 1837 times the mass of an
electron. The particle was called proton.
The presence of proton was further confirmed by radioactive disintegration.
How are positive rays are produced:

When high speed electrons ( cathode rays) strike molecules of gas in the discharge tube , they knock out one or more
electrons from it. Thus a positive ion is formed.

M + e- M+ + 2e- or
M + ne- Mn+ + (n + 1)e-

These positive ions pass through the perforated cathode and appear as positive rays when electrical discharge is
passed through the gas under high electric potential.

The molecules are also dissociated into positive ions that constitute the positive rays.

E. Goldstein (1896) discovered protons in the discharge tube containing hydrogen gas.

H2 2H+ + e-
protons

Mass and charge of proton:

Sir J.J. Thomson studied the nature of protons. He showed that,

1. The actual mass of proton is 1.672 x 10-24g . Proton has mass of 1.00727 atomic mass unit.
2. The electrical charge of proton is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the electron. Thus proton carries a
charge of +1.60 x 10-19C or +1 elementary charge unit.

Since proton was the lightest positive particle found in atomic beams found in the discharge tube , it was thought
to be a unit present in all other atoms.

Earnest Rutherford in 1919 gave convincing proof of presence of proton in the nucleus. He bombarded atoms of
nitrogen and aluminium by alpha particles and found protons are ejected.

Discovery of neutrons:

In early days only proton and electron were known as constituent particles of atom. Hence protons and electron and
were called as subatomic particles. In an attempt to suggest the constituents of an atom , William Prout proposed that
the atoms of the elements are made up of requisite numbers of units of hydrogen atoms. Assuming atomic mass of
hydrogen atom as 1.000 the atomic masses of all elements must be whole numbers.

However observed atomic masses of chlorine and copper were 35.5 and 63.5 respectively. Hence Prout’s theory was
rejected. However this rejection was wrong because there was no knowledge of presence of two natural isotopes of
chlorine and copper.

According to Prout’s theory , oxygen with atomic mass 16 , nucleus must contain 16 protons and there should be 16
extra nuclear electrons. Similarly , helium must contain 4 protons in the nucleus and 4 extra nuclear electrons.
The observation showed that oxygen , helium and almost all atoms of the elements contain almost half numbers of extra
nuclear electrons as compared to the number predicted Prout’s theory.

To account for the discrepancy , a new theory proton electron theory was proposed. According to this theory , some
electrons are also present inside the nucleus. Observed emission of beta particle , i.e. electron from nucleus supported
the hypothesis . This theory is called Proton – electron hypothesis.

The proton electron theory was rejected by Fermi. He proved that electron is too large to be accommodated in a small
space of atomic nucleus of size 10-15 m. The theory also could not explain spin of some nuclei and the energies of beta
particles emitted by radioactive nuclei.

So as to overcome failure of proton electron hypothesis , Rutherford in 1920 proposed the existence of a neutral
particle made from close combination of proton and electron. He named as NEUTRON.

Neutron has no charge and has mass almost equal to the mass of proton. Its existence was accepted by almost
everybody because satisfied all characteristics of atomic nucleus like mass , charge , spin etc.

However neutron remained hypothetical particle , because it was neutral and could not be deflected in electric and
magnetic field.

Lord Chadwick in 1932 first proved the existence of neutron . He bombarded lighter elements like boron and beryllium
by alpha particles. Highly penetrating neutral radiations were emitted.
It was thought that these radiations must be gamma rays , but the radiations differed in interaction with hydrocarbons
and with elements like He , Li , C , O ,N etc.
The nuclear reaction of alpha particle with boron and beryllium is as follows:

11 4 14 1
5𝐵 + 2𝐻𝑒 7𝑁 + 0𝑛
α particle neutron
9 4 12 1
4𝐵𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑒 6𝐶 + 0𝑛
α particle neutron

Immediately in 1932 Heisenberg put forth proton neutron hypothesis. According to this hypothesis an element 𝐴𝑍𝑋 has
atomic number Z and mass number A. The nucleus contains Z protons and A –Z neutrons in nucleus and there are Z extra
nuclear electrons revolving around the nucleus. Protons are neutrons are present in the nucleus . Hence these particles are
called nucleons.
Protons , neutrons and electrons are constituents of atoms , hence are called subatomic particles.

Sub atomic particles:

Beside electrons , protons and neutrons many other sub atomic particles such as mesons, positrons , neutrinos ,
antiprotons etc. have been discovered. A great deal of recent research is producing a long list of sub atomic particles
with names quarks , pions , gluons , bosons , etc.
Atomic number:

The number of unit positive charges present in the nucleus of an atom of a particular element is called the atomic
number of the element.
OR

The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom of a particular element is called the atomic number of the
element.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons in case of a neutral atom

Scientist Mosely proved that the atomic number Z of an element is related to frequency (ν) of x – rays produced by
equation 𝜗 = 𝑎(𝑍 − 𝑘) where a and k are constants. With the help of this equation, Mosely determined the atomic
numbers of several elements. He also corrected wrong atomic numbers of some of the elements.
Mass number:

The sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass number of that atom.

Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Total number of nucleons.

Thus, for a neutral atom 𝐴𝑍𝑋, with mass number A and atomic number Z,

Number of electrons = Z
Number of protons = Z
Number of neutrons = (A – Z)

Isotopes:

The atomic species of an element possessing same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
Thus isotopes are having same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Isotopes of Hydrogen:
Characteristics of isotopes:

1) Since the isotopes of an element have same atomic number , but different mass numbers , the nuclei of
isotopes contain the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

2) Since , chemical properties are mainly determined by number of protons in the nucleus and the number of
electrons in the atom . The different isotopes of an element exhibit similar properties . For example all isotopes
of carbon on burning give carbon dioxide.
Isobars:

The atoms of different neighbouring elements having the same mass number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars.
Due to different atomic numbers , two isobars possess different number of protons and electrons. Due to similar mass
numbers , the sum of protons and neutrons is the same in them.

Isobars posses different chemical properties. They occupy different positions in the periodic table. They are different
atomic species and possess same mass number.
Isotones:
Atoms having different atomic number and
mass number but same number of neutrons.
 Problems set - I

Q.1. The number of electrons , protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18 ,16 and 16 respectively. Assign proper
symbol of the species.
Answer: 32
16𝑆
−2

Q.2. Complete the following table :

Particles Mass Atomic Protons Neutrons Electrons

number number
O 8 8
Al 27 13
Cl- 35 17
Mg2+ 12 10

Q.3. Calculate the mass and charge of one mole of electrons:

Answer: 5.486 x 10-7kg
9.647 x 104 C
Q.4. Calculate the number of electrons which together weigh one gram.
Answer: 1.098 x 1027 electrons

Q.5. Calculate (a) the total number and (b) the total mass of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C (assume mass of a neutron =
1.675 x 10-27 kg)
Answer: 2.408 x 1021 neutrons
4.035 x 10-6 kg
Q.5. An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of positive charge and 30.4% more neutrons than electrons.
Assume the symbol for the ion.
Answer: 5626𝐹𝑒
+3

Q.6. An ion with mass number 37 possesses one unit of negative charge . If the ion contains 11.1% more neutrons
than the electrons , find the symbol of the ion.
37 −1
Answer: 17𝐶𝑙

Q.7. An element with mass number 81 contains 31.7% more neutrons as compared to protons. Assign the atomic
symbol.
Answer : 8135𝐵𝑟
 Atomic models

According to Dalton’s atomic theory , atom is indivisible and consists of positively and negatively charged particles.

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distribution of these charged particles in an atom.

Although some of these models were not able to explain the stability of atoms , two of these models , proposed by J.J.
Thomson and Ernest Rutherford.

Thomson Model of Atom:

J.J. Thomson in 1898 , proposed that an atom possesses a spherical sphere of radius approximately 10-10m , in which
the positive charge is uniformly distributed.
The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement. Many different
names are given to this model , for example , plum pudding , raisin pudding or watermelon.

This model can be visualised as a pudding or watermelon of

positive charge with plums or seeds (electrons) embedded
into it. An important feature of this model is that the mass
of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
atom.
Thomson was awarded Nobel Prize for physics in 1906 , for this theoretical and experimental investigations on the
conduction of electricity by gases.
Limitations:
Although this model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom , but was not consistent with the results of
later experiments.

NOTE:
In the later half of the nineteenth century different kind of rays were discovered , besides cathode rays , canal rays etc.

Wilhalm Roentgen (1845 – 1923) in 1985 showed that when electrons strike a material in the cathode ray tubes , produce
rays which can cause fluorescence in the fluorescent materials placed out ide the cathode ray tubes. Since Roentgen did
not know the nature of the radiation , he named them X – rays and the name is still carried on.

It was noticed that x – rays are produced effectively when electrons strike the dense metal anode , called targets. These
are nor deflected by the electric and magnetic fields and have a very high penetrating power through the matter and
that is the reason of these rays are used to study the interior of the objects.

X – rays are of very short wavelengths ( ~ 0.1 nm) and possess electro – magnetic character.
Henry Becqueral (1852 – 1908)observed that there are certain elements which emits radiation on their own and named
this phenomenon as radioactivity and the elements known as radioactive elements.
This field of radioactivity was developed by Marie Curie , Piere Curie, Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy. It was observed that
three kind of rays i.e. ∝ −𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝛽 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑.
Rutherford found that ∝ − rays consists of high energy particles carrying two units of positive charge and four units of
atomic mass. He concluded the α particles are helium nuclei as when α particles combine with two electrons yield
helium gas.

β – rays are negatively charged particles similar to electrons . The γ – rays are high energy radiations like X – rays , are
neutral in nature and do not consist of particles

As regards penetrating power , α – particles are least , followed by β – rays (100 times that of α – particle ) and γ – rays
(1000 times of that α – particles)

RUTHERFORDS ATOMIC MODEL

Rutherford in an attempt to verify models of atom proposed by Dalton and Thomson , carried out α particle scattering
experiment in 1909.

Radioactive source of α particle was placed in a cavity of lead block. The α particles emitted from this source were
passed through lead slit system to give a fine beam of α particles.

Thin beam of particles was bombarded on a thin gold foil of thickness 100nm. The gold foil was surrounded by
fluorescent screen of ZnS. Wherever α particles strike the screen , a tiny flash light was produced at that point.

Observation:

1) Most of the α particles passes through the gold foil without deflection.
2) Some of the α particles i.e. out of 8000 , one α particle was deflected through an angle , less than 900.
3) A very few number of α particles i.e. out of about 30,000 one α particle deflected by a large angle greater than 900.
4) A very very few i.e. one α particle out of ten million α particles , was deflected through an angle 1800.
Conclusion:

1) The atom consists of large empty space (extremely hollow)

2) The positively charged α particles get repelled and deflected by the positively charges in the atom. Rutherford called
this positively charged space of atom as nucleus.
 3) The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom. The radius of the
atom is about 10-10m (called as angstrom unit) and that of nucleus is 10-15m(called as fermi unit)

On the basis of these conclusions , Rutherford proposed this model of atom as follows:

1) An atom consists of the tiny positively charged nucleus at its centre. Nucleus contains positively charged particles .
Almost entire mass of an atom and positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus.

2) Number of negatively charged electrons , equal to the number of positive charges on the nucleus , revolve in
various orbits around nucleus. Thus Rutherford’s model of an atom resembles the solar system in which planets
revolve around the sun.
3) The number of positively charged particles is an atom is balanced by negative charge due to all revolving electrons.
An atom is electrically neutral.
4) The electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic force of attraction.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model:

1) According to Maxwell theory of electromagnetic radiation , when a charged particle revolves , it gives out radiation
and loses energy . An electron revolving around the nucleus should continuously emit radiation and lose energy. Due to
this the electron should come closer to the nucleus by following spiral path and ultimately fall in to the nucleus. The
time required for fall of electron into the nucleus is almost instantaneous , 10-10seconds. Hence atomic model proposed
by Rutherford must be unstable. But in practice this does not happen.
 2. According to Rutherford’s model of an atom , the electrons can
occupy all the positions from the wall of the nucleus (10-5m) to the size
of atom (10-10m). Atomic spectrum is related with the energy radiated by
the revolving electrons. Since all positions outside nucleus are available
for electrons , energies of electrons must be continuous. However
observed atomic spectrum contains discrete lines and is discontinuous.

To overcome the drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of an atom , it is necessary to understand some more developments in
the field related with structure of an atom.
 Development leading to the Bohr’s model of atom:
Historically , results observed from the studies of interactions of radiations with matter have provided immense
information regarding the structure of atoms and molecules.
Niels Bohr utilized these results to improve upon the model proposed by Rutherford . Two developments played a major
role in the formulation of Bohr’s model of atom . These were:
1) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both wave like and particle
like properties. Properties like diffraction and interference can be explained by the wave nature of the
electromagnetic radiation , however , phenomenon like black body radiation , photoelectric effect etc. shows particle
nature of radiation.
2) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by assuming quantized electronic energy
levels in atoms.
(A) Electromagnetic radiations: Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation:
Q. What is an electromagnetic radiation?
James Maxwell ( 1870) was first to give a comprehensive explanation about the interaction between the charged
bodies and the behaviour of electrical and magnetic fields on macroscopic level.

He suggested that when electrically charged particles moves under acceleration , alternating electrical and magnetic
fields are produced and transmitted.
These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiations.
 Light is the form of radiation known from early days and speculation about its nature dates back to remote ancient times.
In earlier days (Newton) light was supposed to be made of particles (corpuscules). It was only in the nineteenth century
when wave nature of light was established.
Maxwell was again the first to reveal that light waves are associated with oscillating electrical and magnetic character .
Although electromagnetic wave motion is complex in nature . Following are the few characteristics of electromagnetic
radiations:
(i) Radiant energies like microwave , radio waves , infra red, visible light , ultraviolet , x –rays , 𝛾 – rays etc. possess sine
wave nature.
(ii) They are composed of electrical and magnetic components in the form of waves oscillating at right angles to the
direction of journey of radiation.
(iii) All radiations travel at equal speed of 3 x 108 m/s. This is
also the speed of visible light.

(iv) Different radiations have different frequencies and

different wavelengths.
(v) Electromagnetic radiations do not need any medium to
travel , they can travel even in vacuum.

(vi) Frequency (ν): Frequency of a radiation wave is the

number of cycles of wave that pass a given point in a unit
time. It is measured in the units cycles per second. The SI
unit of frequency is Hertz , denoted by Hz and 1Hz = 1 cps.
(vii) Wavelength( λ) : The wavelength is denoted by λ . It is the distance between any two nearest identical points on the
wave. It is measured in meters , smaller unit is micrometer μm = 10-6m or nanometer nm = 10-9m.
(viii) Velocity(C): In vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations , regardless of wavelength , travel at the same speed ,
i.e. 3.0 x 108 ms-1.
(ix) Unlike sound waves or water waves , electromagnetic waves do not require medium and can move in vacuum.
(x) It is now well established that there are many types of electromagnetic radiations , which differ from one another in
wavelength ( or frequency).
These constitute what is called electromagnetic spectrum . Different regions of the spectrum are identified by
different names. Some examples are : radio frequency region around 106Hz, used for broadcasting, microwave region
around 1010Hz used for radar : infrared region around 1013 Hz used for heating ; ultraviolet region around 1016 Hz a
component of sun’s radiations. The small portion around 1015 Hz, is what is ordinarily called visible light. It is only this
part which our eyes can see ( or detect). Special instruments are required to detect non – visible radiation.
(xi) The frequency (ν) , wavelength (λ) , and velocity of light ( c ) are related by the equation C = ν λ
(xii) Wavenumber (𝜗 ): It is very commonly used quantity specially is spectroscopy , is the wave number. It is defined as
the number of wavelengths per unit length. Its units are reciprocal of wavelength unit , i.e. m-1. However commonly
used units is cm-1.
1 𝜗
𝜗= =
𝜆 𝐶

PROBLEMS SET - II

Formulae to be used:
i) C = 𝜈𝜆
1 𝜈
ii) 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝐶

Q.1. The Vividh Bharati station of all India Radio , Delhi , broadcasts on a frequency of 1368 kHz. Calculate the
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by transmitter. Which part of electromagnetic radiation does it
belong?
Answer: 219.3m
Radio wave.
Q.2. The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400nm) to red (750nm) . Express these
wavelengths in frequencies (Hz)
Answer: 7.50x1014Hz to 4.0 x 1014Hz
Q.3. Chlorophyll present in green leaves of plants absorbs light at 4.620 x 1014 Hz. Calculate the wavelength of radiation in
nanometer. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it belong to?
Answer: 649.4 nm , visible light.

Q.4. Calculate the wavelength , frequency and wave number of light wave whose time period is 2.0 x 10-10s

Answer: 6.0 x 10-2 m

5 x 109 s-1
16.67m-1

Q.5. Calculate the wave number of radiations having frequency of 4 x 1011 kHz.
Answer: 1.33 x 106 m-1.

Q.6. The wavelength of blue light is 480 nm . Calculate the frequency and wave number of this light.

Answer: 6.25 x 1014 s-1 , 2.08 x 106 m-1

Q.7. Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800A0.

Answer: 1.724 x 104cm-1

5.172 x 1014s-1
(B) Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation : Planck’s Quantum Theory:

Following are some of the observations which could not be explained with the help of even the electromagnetic
theory of 19th century physics ( known as classical physics)

1) The nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies ( black body radiation)

2) Ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it (photoelectric effect)

3) Variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature.

4) Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.

It is noteworthy that the first concrete explanation for the phenomenon of the black body radiation was given by max
Plank in 1900. This phenomenon is given below:

(i) When solids are heated they emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. For example , when an iron rod is
heated in a furnance , it first turns to dull red and then progressively becomes more and more red as temperature
increases , the radiation emitted becomes white and then becomes blue as the temperature becomes very high.

In terms of frequency , it means that the frequency of emitted radiation goes from a lower frequency to a higher
frequency as the temperature increases.
The red colour lies in the lower frequency region of the while blue colour belongs to the higher frequency region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The ideal body , which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies , is called a black body and the radiation emitted
by such a body is called black body radiation.

The exact frequency distribution of the emitted radiation (i.e. intensity versus frequency curve of the radiation) from
a black body depends only on its temperature. At a given temperature , intensity of radiation emitted increases with
decrease of wavelength , reaches a maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further
decrease of wavelength, as shown in the figure.

This experimental results cannot be

explained satisfactorily on the basis of the
wave theory of light.

Planck suggested that atoms and

molecules could emit (or absorb) energy
only in discrete quantities and not in a
continuous manner. Planck gave the name
quantum to the smallest quantity of
energy that can be emitted or absorbed in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
The energy ( E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (ν) and is expressed by equation
E = hν , the proportionality constant , h is known as Planck’s constant and has a the value 6.626 x 10-34 J s
With this theory , Planck was able to explain the distribution of intensity in the radiation from black body as a function of
frequency or wavelength at different temperatures.

Photoelectric effect:

In 1887 , H . Hertz performed a very interesting experiment in which electrons ( or electric current ) were ejected when
certain metals ( e.g. K , Rb , Cs etc.) where exposed to a beam of light as shown in fig. The phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect.
Light of a particular frequency strikes a clean metal surface
inside a vacuum chamber. Electrons are ejected from the
metal and are counted by a detector that measures their
kinetic energy.
Observations:
1) The electrons are ejected from metal surface as soon as the
beam of light strikes the surface ,i.e. there is no time leg
between the striking of light beam and the ejection of
electrons from the metal surface.
2) The number of electron ejected is proportional to the
intensity or brightness of light.

3) For each metal , there is a characteristic minimum frequency 𝜗0 also known as threshold frequency , below which
photoelectric effect is not observed. At a frequency 𝜗 > 𝜗0 , the ejected electrons increase with the increase of frequency
of the light used.
All the above results could not be explained on the basis of laws of classical physics. According to the classical physics the
energy content of the beam of light depends on the brightness of the light . In other words , number of electrons ejected
and kinetic energy associated with them should depend on the brightness of light.
It has been observed that though the number of electrons ejected does depend on the brightness of light , the kinetic
energy of the ejected electrons does not.
For example , red light [ ν = (4.3 to 4.6) x 1014 Hz] of any brightness (intensity) may shine on a piece of potassium
metal for hours but no photoelectrons ejected. But , as soon as even a weak yellow light [ ν = (5.1 to 5.2) x 1014Hz] shines
on potassium metal , the photoelectric effect is observed.
The threshold frequency (𝜗0 ) of potassium metal is 5.0 x 1014 Hz.

Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

Einstein (1905) was able to explain photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation as
starting point.

According to him when a photon of certain energy hν strike the surface of a metal , it gives its energy to an ejected
electron present on the surface of metal.
If the frequency corresponding to the photon is equal to the threshold frequency ν0 it gives its entire energy (hν0) to the
electron. This energy enables the electron to come out of the surface overcoming the attractive forces.

If the frequency of light is less than ν0 , then electron will not be able to come out of metal or no ejection of electron will
take place.
When the frequency of light is greater than the threshold frequency ν0 , a part of the energy of the photon is consumed to
separate the electron from the metal and the remaining energy is imparted to the ejected electron which acquires certain
velocity v and hence kinetic energy equal to 1/2mv2 .

1
Einstein showed that, ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 2 𝑚v2 (1)
1 2
Or , ℎ𝜈 = 𝑤 + 𝑚v
2

Where , w = h𝜈0 , energy required to overcome the attractive forces on the electron in the metal. It is called
threshold energy or work function.
1
𝑚v2 is the kinetic energy imparted to the ejected electron.
2

1
Equation (1) implies , 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 ) (2)

This equation is called Einstein’s photo electric equation. Einstein was awarded Nobel prize for physics in 1921 for
explaining photoelectric effect and significant contribution to mathematical physics.
 PROBLEMS SET - III

Formulae to be used:
𝑐
1) E = 𝑁ℎ𝜈 = 𝑁ℎ , where N is number of photons
𝜆
1
2) ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 2
𝑚 v 2

Q.1. Calculate the energy of one mole of photons of radiation , whose frequency is 5 x 1014Hz
Answer : 199.51 kJ mol-1

Q.2. A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400nm. Calculate the number of photons emitted per
second by the bulb.
Answer: 2.012 x 1020s-1
Q.3. When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300nm falls on the surface of sodium ,electrons are emitted with a
kinetic energy of 1.68 x 105 J mol-1. what is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from sodium? What is
the maximum wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to be emitted.
Answer: 2.31 x 105 Jmol-1
517 nm
Q.4. The threshold frequency (ν0) of a metal is 7.0 x 1014s-1. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron emitted when
radiation of frequency ν = 1.0 x 1015 s-1 hits the metal.
Answer : 1.988 x 10-19J
Q.5. What is the number of photons of light with a wavelength of 4000pm that provide 1J of energy?

Answer: 2.012 x 1016 photons

Q.6. A photon of wavelength 4 x 10-7m strikes on a metal surface , the work function of the metal being 2.13eV.
Calculate (i) the energy of the photon(eV) (ii) the kinetic energy of the emitted electron (iii) the velocity of the photo
electron. [ 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19J]
Answer: 3.10 eV ; 0.97 eV ; 5.85 x 105 m s-1

Q.7. Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 242 nm is just sufficient to ionize sodium atom . Calculate the ionization
energy of sodium in kJ mol-1.
Answer: 494 kJ mol-1

Q.8. A 25 watt bulb emits monochromatic yellow light of wavelength 0.57μm. Calculate the rate of emission of quanta
per second.
Answer: 7.19 x 1019s-1

Q.9. Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when it is exposed to radiation of wavelength
6800A0. Calculate the threshold frequency and work function of the metal.
Answer: 4.41 x1014s-1 ; 2.91 x 10-19J
Q.10. Calculate the wavelength , frequency and wave number of a light wave whose period is 2.0 x 10-10 s.

Answer: 6.0 x 10-2m ; 5.0 x 109 s-1 ; 16.66 m-1

Q.11. Calculate and compare the energies of two radiations one with a wavelength of 800 nm and other with
wavelength 400 nm.
E400 = 2E800

Q.12. Neon is generally used sign boards. If it emits strongly at 616 nm, calculate
(a) the frequency of emission.
(b) distance travelled by this radiation in 30s.
(c) energy of quantum. Answer: 4.87 x 1014 s-1
(d) number of quanta present if it produces 2 J of energy. 9.0 x 109 m
3.227 x 10-19J
6.2 x 1018 photons
Q.13. In astronomical observations , signals observed from the distant stars are generally weak. If the photon detector
receives a total of 3.15 x 10-18 J from the radiations of 600 nm , calculate the number of photons received by the
detector.
Answer: 10.
Q.14. The longest wavelength doublet absorption transition is observed at 589 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the frequency
of each transition and energy difference between two excited state.
Answer: 3.44 x 10-22J
Q.15. When a photon of frequency 1.0 x 1015 s-1 was allowed to hit a metal surface , an electron having 1.988 x 10-19 J
of kinetic energy was emitted . Calculate the threshold frequency of the metal. Show that an electron will not be
emitted if a photon of wavelength 600 nm hits the metal surface.
Answer: ν0 = 6.988 x 1014 s-1 . No , because the frequency of the
photon of striking radiation is less than ν0.
ATOMIC SPECTRA: (evidence for the quantized electronic energy levels):

Q. What is spectrum?

A: The speed of light depends on the nature of the medium through which it passes. As a result , the beam of light is
deviated or refracted from its original path as it passes from one medium to another.

It is observed that when a ray of white light is passed through a prism , the wave with shorter wavelength bends more
than the one with a longer wavelength.

Since ordinary white light consists of waves with all the wavelengths in the visible range , a ray of white light is spread
out into a series of coloured bands called SPECTRUM.
The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is deviated the
least while the violet light which has shortest wavelength is deviated
the most.
Q. What is continuous spectrum?
A: The spectrum of white light , that we can see , ranges from violet
at 7.50 x 1014 Hz to red at 4 x 1014 Hz.

In this spectrum , there is continuity of colours i.e. one colour

merges in to the other without any gap or discontinuity. For
example violet merges into blue , blue into green and so on. Such a
spectrum is known as continuous spectrum.
NOTE:
A similar spectrum is produced when a rainbow forms in the sky.
The visible light is just a small portion of the electromagnetic radiation . When electromagnetic radiation interacts with
matter , atoms and molecules may absorb energy and reach to a higher energy level . With higher energy , these are in
unstable state . For returning to their normal ( more stable, lower energy states) energy state , the atoms and molecules
emit radiations in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Q. What are atomic spectra?

A: Unlike the spectrum obtained by analysing the sunlight , the spectra of atoms are not continuous . The spectra of
atoms consists of sharp well defined lines or bands corresponding to definite frequencies. There are two types of atomic
spectra:
i) Emission spectra
ii) Adsorption spectra.
(i) Emission spectra:

Emission spectra are obtained when the radiations emitted from substances that have absorbed energy (either by
passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure or by heating the substance to high temperature) are analysed
with the help of spectroscope.
Atoms , molecules or ions that have absorbed radiations are said to be excited . For example when the gases or vapour
of chemical substances are heated by electric spark , light is emitted.
The colour of the light depends on the substance under investigation. For example, sodium or salt of sodium gives off
yellow light while potassium produces violet colour.

The emission spectrum obtained by analysing the radiation emitted by passing electric discharge through hydrogen gas
at low pressure is shown in the figure.

Such a spectrum consists of lines of definite frequencies is called line spectrum or discontinuous spectrum. The line
spectrum is also known as atomic spectrum because it is obtained by analysing the emitted radiations from atoms by the
application of heat or any other form of energy.

The pattern of lines in the spectrum of an element is characteristics of that element , and is different from those of all
other elements. For example , we always get two important lines at 589nm and 589.6 nm in the spectrum of sodium
whatever may be its source. It is for this reason that the line spectra are also regarded as the finger prints of atoms.
(ii) Absorption spectra:

When a continuous electromagnetic radiations (say white light) is allowed to pass through a gas or a solution of some
salt and the transmitted light is analysed , we obtain a spectrum in which dark lines are observed in and otherwise
continuous spectrum. These dark line indicates that the radiations of corresponding wavelengths have been absorbed
by the substance from the white light . Such a spectrum containing a few dark lines due to absorption of light is known
as absorption spectrum.
The dark lines of definite wavelengths are also
characteristics of the substance. It may be noted that these
dark lines appear exactly at the same place where the lines
in the emission spectrum appear.

For example , the emission spectrum of sodium consists of

two important yellow lines at 589 and 589.6 nm. On the
other hand , when white light is passed through vapour of
sodium , we get dark lines in the absorption spectrum at
589and 589.6 nm.

NOTE: The study of emission or absorption spectra is called spectroscopy. This has become very important and
essential field for all chemists. It helps to study the electronic structure. The characteristic lines in the atomic spectrum
can be used in chemical analysis to identify elements.
 NOTE : Elements like Rb , Cs , Tl , In , Ga and Sc were discovered when
their minerals were analysed by spectroscopic methods. The element
He was discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method.
Line spectrum of hydrogen atom:

Swiss mathematician J.J. Balmer in 1985 discovered a series of lines in

the emission spectrum of hydrogen in visible region. The series is known
as BALMER SERIES. He found that , the wave numbers of lines of Balmer
series are given by equation ,

1 1 1
𝜈 = =𝑅 2− 2 (1)
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2

The equation is known as Ritz combination principle . R is Rydberg

constant and has the value of 109677.58 cm-1. For Balmer series , n1 = 2
and n2 = 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ……
In infra red region Paschen discovered another series in the spectrum of hydrogen atom . He also discovered that the lines in
the PASCHEN SERIES also obey equation (1) with n1 = 3 and n2 = 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 ………..
After the discovery of Balmer and Paschen series another three series , Lyman , Brackett and Pfund series were discovered.
Lines of all these series were found to satisfy equation (1) and astonishingly in case of all the lines of different series the
value of R was found to be constant109677.58 cm-1.
The following table gives the list of different series observed in hydrogen spectrum along with the region and values
of n1 and n2.

Ritz combination principle was totally based on experimental

observations. No theoretical proof was given to the equation.
Bohr’s model of hydrogen explained successfully observations
of hydrogen spectrum.

BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM:

Niel’s Bohr modified Rutherford’s model of atom and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom . The model explained
the atomic spectrum of the hydrogen atom and the stability of the atom.

Bohr’s model is based on the following postulates:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a concentric circular paths called orbits situated at definite distance
from the nucleus.
2) There are stationary orbits of electrons. As long as electrons revolve in these stationary orbits , they do not radiate
energy. The energies of electrons remain constant in stationary orbits.

Different stationary levels are stationary orbits or shells are represented by capital letters K ,L, M, N with corresponding
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. as shown in figure:

3. An electron can revolve only in those stationary orbits without

radiating energy for which the angular momentum of an electron is an
integral multiple of h / 2π.
ℎ
mvr = n 2𝜋

Where, m = mass of electron

v = linear velocity of electron
h = Planck constant
n = the integral number called , Principal quantum number
n = 1 for K shell
n = 2 for L shell
n = 3 for M shell
n = 4 for N shell etc.

4. Energy goes on increasing as stationary level goes further from the nucleus.
 5. A definite amount of energy or quantum of energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a lower energy level to
higher energy level.
Similarly a definite amount of energy is given out when an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy
level .
Drawbacks of Bohr’s model:

1. Bohr’s model fails to explain the atomic spectra for elements containing more than one electron.

2. When the hydrogen spectrum is observed by using spectrometer of high resolving power , it is observed that
individual lines are not single but consist of several fine lines lying close together. Such a hyperfine spectrum could not
be explained by Bohr’s theory.
3. The model fails to explain the splitting of atomic spectral lines in the presence of external magnetic field ( Zeeman
effect) and external electric field ( Stark effect).
Important features of Bohr’s model:
Bohr’s model has successfully explained the atomic spectra of hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms and also provided a
reasonable explanation to the stability of an atom. Following are the important features of this model.
1) The stability of atom:
According to Bohr’s theory an electron neither gains nor loses energy while revolving in a particular stationary orbit. It
implies that if an atom is not disturbed , its electrons will go on revolving in the specified orbits forever and the atom
will remain stable.
2. Radius of Bohr’s orbit:

An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the influence of Coulombic force of
attractions between the electron and the nucleus. As the atom as a whole is stable the coulombic force of attraction is
balanced by centrifugal force.
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍(+𝑒)(−𝑒)
Centrifugal force = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

Where , Z = atomic number

+e = charge of a single proton
-e = charge of an electron
ϵ 0 = permittivity in vacuum

1
= 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘 = 1
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2
Therefore, in CGS unit , we can write =
𝑟 𝑟2

𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟= (1)
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑛ℎ
According to Bohr’s theory , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
⇒𝑣= (2)
2𝜋𝑚𝑟
Putting the value of equation (2) in equation (1) , we get,

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟= 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐺𝑆
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2

This is the radius of nth shell of hydrogen and hydrogen like species.

𝑛2 ℎ 2
The radii of the stationary states (Borh orbits) is expressed as 𝑟 = 4𝜋2𝑚𝑍𝑒 2 (3)

𝑛2 0
Substituting the values of h , m , π , e we get 𝑟 = 0.529 𝑍 𝐴

For hydrogen atom Z = 1 and thus, For n = 1, r = 0.529A0

For n = 2, r = 2.116 A0
For n = 3 , r = 4.761 A0
For n = 4 , r = 8.464 A0
For n = 5 , r = 13.225 A0
And so on……..
3. Velocity of electron :

𝑛ℎ
From Bohr’s theory , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋

𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ 𝑛2 ℎ2
⇒𝑣= = Putting the value of r = 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 𝑛2 ℎ2
2𝜋𝑚 2
4𝜋 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
2𝜋𝑍𝑒 2
Thus , velocity of electron , 𝑣 = (4)
𝑛ℎ

4. Kinetic energy of electron:

1
K.E. = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 We have , Coulombic attraction force = centrifugal force
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2
=
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
⇒ 𝑚𝑣 2
=
𝑟
1 𝑍𝑒 2
⇒ 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
Thus , K.E. = (5)
2𝑟
 5. Potential energy of electron:

According to coulomb’s law , Force between nucleus ( +Ze) and orbit electron (-e) can be written as ,
1 (+𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) (+𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) 𝑍𝑒 2
F= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐼 = 𝑟2
= − 𝑟2 in CGS

𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
Now , Potential energy = w = F x r = − 𝑟2 ×𝑟 = − 𝑟

𝑍𝑒 2
Thus , potential energy of electron , P.E. = − 𝑟 ( 6)

6. Energy of an electron ( Total energy of an electron):

Total energy of electron = K.E. + P.E.

𝑍𝑒 2 −𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2 From equation (5) and (6)

= + =−
2𝑟 𝑟 2𝑟

Now , putting the value of r from equation (3) , we get

𝑍𝑒 2 2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 4
=− 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒2
=− 𝑛2 ℎ 2
2
𝑛2 ℎ2
The energy expression for hydrogen and hydrogen like ions may be written as :

2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑒 4 𝑍 2
𝐸𝑛 = − (7)
𝑛2 ℎ2
Putting the values of π, m , e , and h we get
𝑍2
= −2.18 × 10−18 2
𝐽𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚−1
𝑛
𝑍2
= −1311.8 2 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑛
𝑍2
= −13.595 2
𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚−1
𝑛

Where , m = mass of electron

e = charge of electron
Z = atomic number of the atom
n = number of shell
h = Planck’s constant
En = Energy of n’th shell
Q. What does the negative electronic energy (En ) for hydrogen atom mean?

A: The negative sign means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free electron at
rest. A free electron at rest is an electron that is infinitely far away from the nucleus and is assigned the energy value of
ZERO. Mathematically , this corresponds to setting n equal to infinity in the equation (7) so that 𝐸∞ = 0
As the electron gets closer to the nucleus ( as n decreases ) , En becomes larger in absolute value and more and more
negative. The most negative energy value is given by n = 1 which corresponds to the most stable orbit. We called this
is ground state.

7. Explanation of line spectrum of hydrogen atom:

The line spectrum observed in case of hydrogen atom can be explained quantitatively using Bohr’s model.

According to Bohr’s theory radiation (energy) is absorbed if the electron is moved from the orbit of smaller number
to higher number. Whereas , the radiation (energy) is emitted if the electron moves from higher orbit to lower orbit.

The energy gap between the two orbits is given by the equation : ∆E = E2 - E1
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
From equation (7) we get , ∆E = − 𝑛22 ℎ2
− − 𝑛12 ℎ2

2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 2 1 1
∆𝐸 = −
ℎ2 𝑛12 𝑛22
According to Planck’s equation : ∆𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)

2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
Therefore, ℎ𝜈 = − 𝑛2
ℎ2 𝑛12 2

𝑐
Again we have 𝜈 = 𝜆

𝑐 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
⇒ℎ = −
𝜆 ℎ2 𝑛12 𝑛22

1 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
⇒ = −
𝜆 𝑐ℎ3 𝑛12 𝑛22

1 2𝜋2 𝑚𝑒 4
Again , = 𝜈 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑅 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑦𝑑𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝜆 𝐶ℎ3

1 1 1
Therefore, 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅𝑍 2 − 𝑛2
𝑛12 2

The value of Rydberg constant has been calculated to be 109677 cm-1

 1 1
Thus , 𝜈 = 109766(𝑍 2 ) − 𝑛2 𝑐𝑚−1
𝑛12 2

This equation is applicable for hydrogen and hydrogen like species. For hydrogen atom Z = 1

1 1
Thus , 𝜈 = 109766 − 𝑛2 𝑐𝑚−1 [ for hydrogen atom]
𝑛12 2

Case -1: If n1 = 1 then n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5 ,6 ……… This series of lines is called LYMAN series.

(i) First line of Lyman series:

In this case n1 = 1, n2 = 2

1 1 3
𝜈 =𝑅 − = 𝑅
12 22 4

1 3
= 𝑅
𝜆 4
4
⇒ 𝜆=
3𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 1216 × 10−10 𝑚 = 1216 A0
(ii) Second line of Lyman series:

In this case n1 = 1 and n2 = 3

1 1 8 1 8
𝜈 =𝑅 2− 2 = 𝑅 ⇒ = 𝑅
1 3 9 𝜆 9
9
⇒ 𝜆=
8𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 1026𝐴0

(iii) Limiting line of Lyman series:

In this case n1 = 1 and n2 = ∞
1 1 1
𝜈 =𝑅 2− =𝑅 ⇒ = 𝑅
1 ∞ 𝜆
1
⇒ 𝜆=
𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 912𝐴0

This series of wavelength lies in UV region.

Case -2: If n1 = 2 then n2 = 3, 4, 5 ,6 ……… This series of lines is called BALMER series.

(i) First line of Balmer series:

In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

1 1 5 1 5
𝜈 =𝑅 2− 2 = 𝑅 ⇒ =
2 3 36 𝜆 36𝑅
36
⇒ 𝜆=
5𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 6563𝐴0
(ii) Second line of Balmer series:
In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = 4

1 1 3 1 3
𝜈 =𝑅 2− 2 = 𝑅 ⇒ = 𝑅
2 4 16 𝜆 16
16
⇒ 𝜆=
3𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 4861𝐴0
 (iii) Limiting line of Balmer series:
In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = ∞
1 1 1 1 1
𝜈 =𝑅 2− =𝑅 ⇒ = 𝑅
2 ∞ 4 𝜆 4
4
⇒ 𝜆=
𝑅
⇒ 𝜆 = 3646𝐴0
This series lies in visible and near UV region.

Case -3: If n1 = 3 then n2 = 4, 5 ,6 , 7 ……… This series of lines is called PASCHEN series.

Case -4: If n1 = 4 then n2 = 5 ,6 , 7 ……… This series of lines is called BRACKETT series.

Case -5: If n1 = 5 then n2 = 6 , 7 ……… This series of lines is called PFUND series.
Ionisation potential of hydrogen :

The energy required to remove an electron from the normal ground state of the atom is called the ionization potential. It
is expressed in electron volt (ev).

For hydrogen n1 = 1 and if n2 = ∞ i.e. the electron is removed from the atom then the ionization takes place. Hence
𝜈 corresponding to removal of electron can be calculated . The energy corresponding to 𝜈 is calculated.
Ionization potential thus calculated using Bohr’s theory is in agreement with the observed ionization potential of
hydrogen 13.60 eV. This is also success of Bohr’s theory.

Orbital Frequency :
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣
It is the number of revolutions / sec by an electron in its shell = =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟

Number of spectral lines:

If an electron jumps from higher energy level (n2) to lower energy level (n1) then the number of spectral lines can be
obtained by the formula.
(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 + 1)
𝑁=
2
Limitations of Bohr’s model:
1) Bohr’s model fails to explain the atomic spectra for the elements containing more than one electron.
2) When the hydrogen spectrum is observed by using spectrometer of high resolving power , it is observed that
individual lines are not single but consist of several fine lines lying close together. Such a hyperfine spectrum could
not be explained by Bohr’s theory.
3) The model fails to explain the splitting of atomic spectral lines in the presence of external magnetic field ( Zeeman
effect ) and external electric field (stark effect)
 PROBLEMS SET - IV

Formulae to be used:
𝑛2 ℎ2
1. Radius of nth shell = 𝑟=
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑒 4 𝑍 2 𝑍 2 𝑍2
2. Energy of nth shell = 𝐸𝑛 = − = −2.18 × 10 −18 𝐽𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 −1 = −1311.8 2 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛2 𝑛
2𝜋𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍 2
3. Velocity of an orbit electron = 𝑣 = = −13.595 𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚−1
𝑛ℎ 𝑛 2
𝑍𝑒 2
4. Kinetic energy of electron = K.E. =
2𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
5. Potential energy of electron = P.E. = − 𝑟
1 1 1
6. Wave number = 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅𝑍 2 − 𝑛2
𝑛12 2

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣
7. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟

(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 + 1)
8. Number of spectral lines = 𝑁 =
2
Q.1. If the energy difference between the electronic states of hydrogen atom is 214.68 kJ mol-1 , what will be the frequency
of light emitted when the electron drops from the higher to the lower energy state?

[Take Planck’s constant = 39.79 x 10-14 kJ c mol-1]

Answer: 5.39 x 1014 s-1
Q.2. According to Bohr’s theory , the electronic energy of hydrogen atom in the nth Bohr orbit is given by
21.76×10−19
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝐽
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑛2
Calculate the longest wavelength of light that will be needed to remove an electron from the third orbit of He+ ion.

Answer = 205.5 nm

Q.3. (i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is -2.17 x 10-18J atom-1.What is the energy
associated with the fifth orbit?
(ii) Calculate the radius of Bohr’s fifth orbit for hydrogen atom.
Answer: -8.68 x 10-20J
1.3225 nm

Q.4. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+ . What is the radius of this orbit?

Answer: -8.72 x 10-18J

0.02645nm
Q.5. Radius of fourth orbit in hydrogen atom is 0.85nm. Calculate the velocity of the electron in this orbit ( mass of
electron = 9.1 x 10-31kg)
Answer : 5.45 x 105 m s-1

Q.6. The wavelength of first spectral line in the Balmer series is 6561A0 . Calculate the wavelength of the second
spectral line in Balmer series.
Answer: 4860A0

Q.7. The radius of first Bohr orbit of hydrogen is 0.529A0. Calculate the radii of (i) the third orbit of He+ ion and (ii) the
second orbit of Li2+ ion.
Answer: 2.384A0
0.7053A0

Q.8. Calculate the ratio of the radius of 2nd orbit of H atom and that of 3rd orbit.
Answer: 4/9

Q.9. The electronic energy of H atom is

1.312 ×106 −1
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 calculate:
𝑛
(i) First excitation energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom.
(ii) Ionization energy of the hydrogen atom.
Answer: 9.84 x 105 J mol-1
1.312 x 106 j mol-1
Q.10. The ionization energy of He+ is 8.72 x 10-18 J atom-1. Calculate the energy of first stationary state of Li2+
Answer: -19.62 x 10-18J atom-1

Q.11. The angular momentum of electron in a Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom is 4.218 x 10-34 kg m2 s-1. Calculate the
wavelength of the spectral line emitted when electron falls from this level to the next lower level.
Answer: 1.876 x 10-4 cm

Q.12. The energy difference between two electronic states is 399.1kJ mol-1. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of
light emitted when an electron drops from a higher to a lower state.
Answer: 300 nm , 1 x 1015 s-1

Q.13. How much energy is required to ionize a H- atom if the electron occupies n = 5 orbit? Compare your answer with
the ionization energy of hydrogen atom.
Answer: 8.72 x 10-20 J , 2.18 x 10-18J

Q.14. Light of wavelength 1281.8 nm is emitted when an electron of H – atom drops from 5th to 3rd energy level .
Calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted when electron falls from third to ground level.
Answer: 102.5nm
Q.15. Calculate the wave number for the longest wavelength transition in the Balmer series of atomic hydrogen.
Answer: 1.523 x 106 m-1
Q.16. The electronic energy in hydrogen atom is given as
2.18×10−18 𝐽
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑛2
Calculate the energy required to remove an electron completely from n = 2orbit. What is the longest wavelength of light in
cm that can be used to cause this transition?
Answer: 3647A0
Q.18. What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same wavelength on the Balmer transition , n = 4 to n =
2 of He+ spectrum.
Answer: n =2 to n=1

Q.19. Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV . What will be the ionization energy of He+ and Li2+ ions?
Answer: 54.4eV
122.4eV

Q.20. Energy of an in hydrogen atom is given as :

1.312 ×106 −1
𝐸𝑛 =− 2 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛
(i) Calculate the ionization energy of hydrogen atom
(ii) Compare the shortest wavelength emitted by hydrogen atom and He+ ion.

Answer: 1.312 x 106J

𝜆𝐻 = 𝜆𝐻𝑒+
 Towards quantum mechanical model of an atom:

In view of the shortcoming of Bohr’s model , attempts were made to develop a more suitable and general model for atoms.

Two important developments which contributed significantly in the formulation of such a model were:

1. Dual behaviour of matter.

2. Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

1. Dual behavoiur of matter:

An electron behaves as both , as a particle and as a wave. Electron has mass (very small) and possesses kinetic
energy. Hence it should be a particle.
At the same time , electrons can be diffracted in the same way as light waves get diffracted in the same as
light wave get diffracted. This is possible only when electron has wave nature.

This dual behaviour of electron posed a big problem in deciding its exact nature. This problem was solved by a French
scientist Louis de Broglie in 1924.

L. de Broglie suggested that all material objects show a dual nature. Every object which possesses a mass and velocity
behaves both as a particle and as a wave.

According to de Borglie , the wave length λ of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is given by
ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 where h = Planck’s constant.
 ℎ
The above equation also can be written as 𝜆 = where p is the symbol of momentum.
𝑝

From equation it is clear that the wavelength of a moving particle is inversely proportion to its mass. Therefore the
behaviour particles will posses much smaller wave – length as compared to lighter particles like electron.
Wave length of electron :

ℎ 6.626 × 10−27 𝑒𝑟𝑔. 𝑠

𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 9.108 × 10−28 𝑔 × 2.99 × 1010 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1

= 2.43 x 10-10cm = 0.0243A0

Thus wavelength is measurable and comparable to the wavelength of x – rays. Thus electron is associated with
wavelength whose value is meaningful. Hence electron can be treated as wave.

Since electron possesses mass and measurable wavelength it should be regarded both as particle and as wave i.e.
electron has a dual nature.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

The dual nature of electron posed some restrictions on the simultaneous and accurate determination of its
conjugate properties such as position and velocity or position and momentum.
 Warner Heisenberg , a German physicist pondered over this problem and proposed a principle in 1927 , known as
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. This principle can be stated as follows:

It is not possible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of a moving microscopic particle (like
electron) with absolute accuracy.

If ∆x is the uncertainty in the determination of the position and ∆p is the uncertainty in the determination of
momentum of a very small moving particle , then according to Heisenberg ,
ℎ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥ Where h is the Planck’s constant.
4𝜋
ℎ
The above equation can also be expressed as ,∆𝑥 ∆𝑚𝑣 ≥ 4𝜋

ℎ
⇒ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑣 ≥
4𝜋𝑚
Where , p = mv , m = mass of the particle and v = velocity of the particle.
Significance of Uncertainty principle:

(1) One of the important implications of the Heisenberg’s Principle is that it rules out existence of definite paths
or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.
The trajectory of an object is determined by its location and velocity at various moments. If we know where a body is at a
particular instant and if we also know its velocity and the forces acting on it at that instant, we can tell where the body
would be sometime later. We , therefore , conclude that the position of an object and its velocity fix its trajectory.

Since for a sub atomic object such as an electron , it is not possible simultaneously to determine the position and velocity at
any given instant to an arbitrary degree of precision , it is not possible to talk of the trajectory of an electron.

(2) The effect of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is significant only for motion of microscopic objects and is negligible
for that of macroscopic objects.

For example, if uncertainty principle is applied to an object of mass , say about a milligram (10-6kg) , then

ℎ 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
∆𝑣 × ∆𝑥 = = −6
= 10−28 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
4𝜋𝑚 4 × 3.14 × 10 𝑘𝑔
Thus , the value ∆𝑣 × ∆𝑥 obtained is extremely small and is insignificant. Therefore , it can be said that in dealing with
milligram sized or heavier objects , the associated uncertainties are hardly of any real consequence.

(3) In the case of microscopic object like an electron on the other hand ∆𝑣 × ∆𝑥 obtained is much larger and such
uncertainties are of real consequence.

For example , for an electron whose mass is 9.11 x 10-31kg , according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
ℎ 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
∆𝑣 × ∆𝑥 = = −31
= 10−4 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
4𝜋𝑚 4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔
It , therefore , means that if one tries to find the exact location of the electron , say to an uncertainty of only 10-8m,
then the uncertainty ∆v , in velocity would be 104 ms-1. which is so large that the classical picture of electrons moving in
Bohr’s orbit cannot hold good.
It, therefore, means that the precise statements of the position and momentum of electrons have to be replaced by
the statements of probability , that the electron has at a given position and momentum. This is what happens in the
quantum mechanical model of atom.

Problem set - V
Formulae to be used: ℎ ℎ
1. 𝜆 = =𝑝
𝑚𝑣
ℎ
2. Δ𝑥 × ∆𝑝 ≥
ℎ 5. 𝜆 =
2𝑚(𝐾.𝐸)
4𝜋
ℎ
3. ∆𝑥 × ∆𝑣 ≥ 4𝜋𝑚
1
4. 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
Q.1. A tennis ball of mass 6.0 x 10-2 kg is moving with a speed of 62 m s-1. Calculate the wavelength associated with this
moving tennis ball. Will the movement of this ball exhibit a wave character? Explain.
Answer: 1.8 x 10-34 m
This wavelength is too small to be measured and therefore , the wave nature of such a ball cannot be detected. Thus,
the ball will not have wave character and will describe a fixed path.
Q.2. Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at 1% speed of light.
Answer: 2.43 x 10-10m

Q.3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron moving with a velocity of 2.05 x 107 ms-1.
Answer: 3.55 x 10-11m
Q.4. Calculate the mass of a photon of sodium light having wavelength 5894A0 and velocity 3 x 108 ms-1.
Answer: 3.74 x 10-36kg.
Q.5. A beam of helium atoms moves with a velocity of 2.0 x 103 ms-1. Find the wavelength of the particle constituting
the beam.
Answer: 49.9 pm
Q.6. Two particles A and B are in motion. If the wavelength associated with the particle A is 5 x 10-8 m, calculate the
wavelength of particle B if its momentum is half of A.
Answer: 10-7m
Q.7. An electron is moving with kinetic energy of 2.275 x 10-25 J. Calculate its de-Broglie wavelength. Answer: 1026 nm

Q.8. Calculate the kinetic energy moving electron which has a wavelength of 4.8pm.
Answer: 1.05 x 10-14 J
Q.9. Calculate the wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated in a particle accelerator through a potential
difference of 100 million volts . [ 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19C]
1 2 ℎ Answer: 1.22 x 10-13m
Hint: 2 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
Q.10. An electron has a speed of 500 m s-1 with uncertainty of 0.02%. What is the uncertainty in locating its position?

Answer: 5.77 x 10-4 m

Q.11. On the basis of Heisenberg uncertainty principle , show that electron cannot be exist within the atomic nucleus
of radius 10-15m.
Hint: taking ∆x = 10-15m , calculate ∆v , then check whether that velocity is more than the velocity of
light. If it is , which will not be possible , and hence electron cannot be found within the atomic
nucleus.
Q.12. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of 1kV
Answer: 3.88 x 10-11m

Q.13. The kinetic energy of a sub atomic particle is 5.85 x 10-25J . Calculate the frequency of the particle wave.

Answer: 1.76 x 109s-1

Q.14. Calculate the wavelength associated with a moving electron having kinetic energy of 1.375 x 10-25 J.
Answer: 1.32 x 10-6m
 Reason for the failure of the Bohr Model:

In Bohr’s model , an electron is regarded as a charged particle moving in well defined circular orbits about the nucleus .
The wave nature of electron is not considered in Bohr model. Further an orbit is a clearly defined path and this path can
completely be defined only if the position and the velocity of the electron are known exactly at the same time.

This is not possible according to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Bohr model of hydrogen atom , therefore , not only ignores dual behaviour of matter but also contradicts Heisenberg
uncertainty principle.

In view of these inherent weaknesses in the Bohr model , there was no point in extending Bohr model to other atoms.
In fact an insight into to structure of the atom was needed which could account for wave particle duality of matter and
be consistent with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
This came with the advent of quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanical model of atom:
Q. Why we need the quantum mechanics?
Classical mechanics , based on Newton’s laws of motion , successfully describes the motion of all macroscopic objects
such as a falling stone , orbiting planets etc. , which have essentially a particle – like behaviour. However it fails when
applied to microscopic objects like electrons , atoms , molecules etc.
This is mainly because of the fact that classical mechanics ignores the concept of dual behaviour of matter specially for
sub-atomic particles and the uncertainty principle.
The branch of science that that takes into account this dual behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.

Q. What is quantum mechanics?

Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the motions of the microscopic objects that
have both observable wave like and particle like properties.
It specifies the laws of motion that these objects obey. When quantum mechanics is applied to macroscopic objects
the results are the same as those from classical mechanics.
Q. Who are the founder members of quantum mechanics?

Quantum mechanics was developed independently in 1926 by Warner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrodinger.

The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by Schrodinger and it won him the Nobel prize in
physics in 1933. His equation incorporates wave particle duality of matter as proposed by de Broglie is quite complex
knowledge of higher mathematics is needed to solve it.

Schrodinger wave equation:

The essence of the quantum mechanical model of atoms is very important equation known as Schrodinger wave
equation.

The equation is written as :

 8𝜋 2𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 𝐸−𝑉 Ψ=0
ℎ2

Where, E = total energy of the system

V = potential energy of the system
m = mass of electron
h = Planck’s constant
2 2 𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
∇ = is an operator ( read as del square) which is given by ∇ = + +
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2

Here, Ψ is a mathematical function known as wave function. In the Schrodinger equation 𝜓 represents
the amplitude of the electron wave , square of the wave function (Ψ 2 ) , gives the probability of finding
an electron at various places in a given region around the nucleus.

Ψ 2 varies from one region of space to another. Thus the probability of finding electron is different
region is different. This is in accordance with uncertainty principle.

The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differential equation. It has several solutions. In order to have
quantum mechanical picture of the atom , the Schrodinger equation is solved for a given atom.

An acceptable value of wave function should be finite, single valued , continuous and should be zero at infinite
distance. In order to get the acceptable values of wave functions called Eigen – functions , characteristic values of E
called eigen – values are used to solve the equation.
The acceptable values of wave functions provide the regions around the nucleus in which probability of finding an
electron is maximum. This regions are called ORBITAL.

The shapes of these orbitals can be obtained with the help of Schrodinger equation. The equation also gives certain
specific numbers called QUANTUM NUMBERS , which specify the location of an electron in an atom.

When Schrodinger wave equation is solved for hydrogen atom , the wave function Ψ is associated with electron
having energy equal to -2.18 x 10-18J ( as same as energy of electron in Bohr orbit) at the distance r from the nucleus ,
is given by , Ψ = c1e – c2r , where c1 and c2 are constants.

Distribution of electron in space is generally described in terms of function D , known as distribution function and is
given by,
𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ 2

The distribution function D can be regarded as a measure of probability of finding an electron in spherical shell of
thickness dr at various distances r from the nucleus.

Substituting the value of Ψ = 𝑐1 𝑒 − 𝑐2 𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ2 and plotting the value of D against r , we get probability
distribution graph for hydrogen atom.
 2 2
0.529A0
4𝜋𝑟 Ψ

0.529A0
A cross sectional view of the electron cloud
Probability distribution curve showing the around the nucleus in H atom.
distribution of electron density as a function of
distance r from the nucleus in H atom.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above diagrams:

1. The probability of finding an electron at the nucleus is zero.

2. The probability of finding an electron increases as one moves away from the nucleus. At a distance of 0.529A 0 , the
probability finding electron is maximum. It is called as Bohr’s first radius.
3. On moving away from the nucleus the probability of finding an electron goes on decreasing and becomes almost
zero at about 2A0.
 Establishing the concept of orbital:

It is evident that a precise description of the position of an electron in an atom is not possible. Hence we adopt
probabilistic description . We talk in terms of probability of finding an electron at different points in the space around
the nucleus. This is the concept of orbitals.

When Schrodinger wave equation is solved for a particular electron having a particular energy , a three dimensional
arrangement of points is obtained. The given electron can be found at these points. These are the points of negative
charge.
If these points are seen as a whole , a cloud of negative charges appear to exist around the nucleus. This cloud of
negative charge is termed as electron cloud.

The density of electron cloud is not uniform every where around the nucleus. There is a particular region in which
electron cloud is more dense.
For example, in hydrogen atom the electron cloud is most dense at a distance of 0.53A0 from the nucleus. In this
region the probability of finding an electron is maximum , such region is referred as an orbital.

The three dimensional region in the space around the nucleus in which the probability of finding electron is
maximum is called orbital.
 QUANTUM NUMBERS:
The numbers which identify the state of an electron , specify the energy associated with it and its location around the
nucleus are called quantum numbers.
These numbers are used to designate and distinguish electrons in atomic orbitals.
 There are four quantum numbers:

1. Principal quantum number (n)

2. Azimuthal quantum number (l )
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)
4. Spin quantum number (s)

An atomic orbital can be completely described in terms of a set of three quantum numbers n , l , m. These quantum
numbers partly describe an electron in a particular orbital. In order to specify an electron in an atom completely a fourth
quantum number called spin quantum number ( s) has been introduce.

Thus , an electron in an atom can be fully described in terms of a set of four quantum numbers n, l , m , s. These
numbers designate and distinguish various atomic orbitals and electrons present in an atom and are called quantum
numbers.

1. Principal quantum number (n) : [Gives the size of orbitals]

This number represents the main shell to which the electron belongs. It defines the distance of electron from the
nucleus and its energy level. It is designated by ‘n’
It has the values n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . These levels are also represented by the letters K , L , M , N etc.
 Principal quantum number thus provides the following information:

(i) The principal shell to which the electron belongs.

(ii) The energy of the principal shell. For example in case of

hydrogen atom it is ,
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑒 4 𝑍 2 1312𝑍2
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑛2 ℎ2 = − 𝑛2 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

2. Azimuthal quantum number: (l ) [ Represents the shape of orbitals]

Azimuthal quantum number is also called secondary , subsidiary , orbital or angular momentum quantum number.
It is represented by letter l .
This quantum number represents the sub-shell to which the electron belongs. It defines the shape of orbitals occupied
by electron and angular momentum of the electron.

Its value depend on the value of principal quantum number . It can have only positive values between 0 and n-1 , where
n is the principal quantum number.
The permissible values of l are 0 , 1 , 2 , ………(n -1).
 This quantum number provides the following information:

(i) The sub-shell in which electron is present:

A principal shell in an atom is supposed to be composed of several sub – levels known as subshells. These sub-shells are
represented by letters s , p , d ,f.
The letters s , p , d , f are derived from the terms , sharp , principal , diffused and fundamental. These terms used in
spectroscopy to describe the natural spectral line present in the emission spectrum of atom.
The designation of subshells in terms of the values of l is given in table.

Value of l The subshell to which electron belongs

0 S
1 P
2 d
3 f

(ii) The number of subshells present in a principal shell:

The values of l depend upon the value of n. The azimuthal quantum number signifies the number of subshells which
a principal shell can possess.
 Principal shell Value of n Permissible value Possible subshell Number of
of l subshell in shell
K 1 0 s 1
L 2 0,1 s,p 2
M 3 0,1,2 s,p,d 3
N 4 0,1,2,3 s,p,d,f 4

It may be noted that the total number of subshells represent in a principal shell is numerically equal to value of
principal quantum number n of the shell under consideration.
The subshells of a particular shell are specified by putting the value of n before the symbol of subshell.
For example s subshell of K shell is represented as 1s while s shell of L shell (n =2) is represented as 2s.
Thus,
n = 3 and l = 0 , we have 3s subshell.
n = 3 and l = 1 , we have 3p subshell.
n = 4 and l = 2 , we have 4d subshell.
(iii) The shape of subshell:
The azimuthal quantum number is responsible for particular shape of particular shell because it defines the spatial
distribution of the electron cloud around the nucleus.
 (iv) The angular momentum of the electron:

The quantum number is used to calculate the angular momentum of an electron in a particular subshell. The orbital
angular momentum L of an electron in a subshell with azimuthal quantum number l is given by,
ℎ
𝐿= l(l + 1)
2𝜋
Each subshell contains a maximum of 2(2 l + 1) electrons. Thus s orbital contains a maximum of 2 electrons , p orbital
contains 6 electrons , d orbital will contain maximum 10 and f orbital will have maximum 14 electrons.

3.Magnetic quantum number (m) : [ Gives space orientation of orbital]

This quantum number is used to explain zeeman effect. It is represented by letter m. The values of m are governed by
values of l . It can have any integral value between - l and + l through zero.

m = - l , ……-2 , -1 , 0 , +1 , +2 , …..+ l

For a given value l , m will have (2 l + 1) values. This number is also referred to as orientation quantum number
because it gives the distribution of electron cloud in space around the nucleus.

A subshell in an atom is supposed to be composed of several orbitals or subshells. The magnetic quantum number m
tells to which orbital , an electron belongs. It also tells the number of orbitals which corresponds to a particular shell.
 Subshell Value of l Number of m values m values Number of orbitals
( 2l + 1)
s 0 1 0 s
p 1 3 +1 , 0 , -1 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧
d 2 5 +2 , +1 , 0 , -1 , -2 𝑑𝑥𝑦 , 𝑑𝑦𝑧 , 𝑑𝑧𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦2, 𝑑𝑧 2
f 3 7 +3 ,+2, +1 , 0 ,-1 ,-2, -3 Complicated

4. Spin quantum number (s) :

This quantum number is represented by s , and it accounts for the spin of electron since an electron can spin clockwise
or anticlockwise , in two opposite directions. There are two possible values of s that are equal and opposite.

The probability of rotation in one direction is only 1/2. Therefore the spin quantum number can have only two values :
+1/2 and -1/2 . For clockwise spin value +1/2 and for anticlockwise spin value -1/2.

The spin of electron is also represented by arrow , a vertical arrow points upward (↑) represents clockwise spin while a
vertical arrow pointing downward (↓) represents anticlockwise spin.

Two electrons with the same sign of the spin quantum number are said to have parallel spins while those having
opposite signs of the spin quantum number are said to have opposite spins or antiparallel spin or paired up spins.
Principal shell Value of n Value of l Value of m Value of s Number of Number of
electrons in an electrons in a
orbital shell
1 1
K 1 0 (s) 0 + 2 ;−2 2 2

1 1
L 2 0 (s) 0 + 2 ;−2 2
1 1
1 (p) -1 + 2 ;−2
8
1 1
0 + 2 ;−2 6
1 1
+1 + 2 ;−2

1 1
M 3 0 (s) 0 + 2 ;−2 2

-1 1 1
+ ;−
1 (p) 2 2

0 1 1 6
+ ;−
2 2
1 1
+1 +2 ;−2
Principal shell Value of n Value of l Value of m Value of s Number of Number of
electrons in an electrons in a
orbital shell

1 1
+2 + 2 ;−2 18
2(d) 1 1
+1 + 2 ;−2
1 1 10
0 + 2 ;−2
1 1
-1 + 2 ;−2
1 1
-2 + 2 ;−2

1 1
0 (s) 0 + ;− 2
2 2

1 1
1 (p) -1 + 2 ;−2
N 4 1 1
0 + 2 ;−2
6
1 1
+1 + 2 ;−2
 1 1
+2 + 2 ;−2
1 1
+1 + 2 ;−2
2(d) 1 1
0 + 2 ;−2 10
1 1
-1 + ;−
2 2
1 1
-2 + 2 ;−2

+3 1 1
+ 2 ;−2
1 1
32
+2 +2 ;−2
1 1
+1 +2 ;−2
14
3(f) 1 1
+2 ;−2
0
1 1
-1 + 2 ;−2

1 1
+2 + 2 ;−2
1 1
+ ;−
+3 2 2
 Shapes of atomic orbitals: (Or Boundary surface diagram)

The orbital wave function or Ψ for an electron in an atom has no physical meaning. It is simply a mathematical
function of the coordinates of the electron. However , for different orbitals the plots of corresponding wave function as
a function of r are different.

A. Radial wave function:

The shape of orbitals are obtained from the variation of wave function Ψ as a function of r (distance from the
nucleus) . This is also called radial dependance or radial wave function. This can be shown in a simple method by
plotting a graph.

Ψ(𝑟) Ψ(𝑟) Ψ(𝑟)

It is clear from the graph that the wave for 1s orbital continuously decreases with increase in r. However for 2s orbital ,
the wave function decreases in the beginning with increase in r , becomes zero at a particular distance and then
becomes negative. The wave function for 2p – orbital rises to maximum and then decreases.
It is very interesting to note that the 2s – wave function can be positive or negative depending upon the distance. It
may be noted that the positive and negative signs refer to the sign of the wave function and have no connection to the
positive and negative charges.
NODE:

As we have seen for 2s orbital , at a point , the wave function also becomes zero . This point at which radial wave function
becomes zero is called radial nodal surface or simply node.

At the node , the value of wave function changes from positive to negative. In general, it has been found that ns orbitals
have (n -1 ) nodes. Similarly np orbitals have (n-2) nodes and so on.
In more general number of radial node = n – l - 1
Number of angular node = l
Thus , total number of node = n – 1
NOTE:

In all cases , Ψ approaches zero as r approaches infinity.

It may also be noted that like Ψ , the plots of Ψ also do not have physical meaning. However , the importance of these
plots lies in the fact that they give information about how the radial wave function changes with distance r and about
the presence of nodes where the sign of Ψ changes. These have particular importance in chemical bonding.

B. Probability density Ψ 2 graphs:

According to German physicist , Max Born , the square of the wave function , Ψ 2 at a point gives the probability
density of finding the electron at that point.
These variations of Ψ 2 as a function of r are obtained by plotting Ψ 2 against r.
Ψ2 1s orbital Ψ2 2s orbital Ψ2 2p orbital
Node

r r r

These graphs are called probability density graphs.

It may be noted that for s – orbitals ( 1s and 2s) the maximum electron density is at the nucleus and for p – orbitals (2p)
it has zero electron density at the nucleus. It is important to note that all orbitals except s – orbitals have zero electron
density at the nucleus.

C. Radial probability functions ( 4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ 2 ) :

The Ψ 2 versus r plots give the probability density for the electron around the nucleus. However , in order to determine
the total probability in an infinitesimally small region , we have to multiply probability density (Ψ2 ) by the volume of
region, i.e. Probability = Ψ 2 x dV
Where, dV is the volume of the region.
Since the atoms have spherical symmetry , it is more useful to discuss the probability of finding the electron in a spherical
shell between the spheres of radius ( r + dr ) and r.

To understand this , consider the space around the nucleus to be divided into infinite number of concentric shells. The
volume of such a shell of extremely small thickness , dr , is 4πr2dr.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Volume of shell = −
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
r + dr
r 4 4
dr = 𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)3 − 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
4 4
= 3 𝜋 𝑟 3 + 3𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + 3𝑟(𝑑𝑟)2 +(𝑑𝑟)3 − 3 𝜋𝑟 3

4 4
= 𝜋 𝑟 3 + 3𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3

As dr represents as extremely small thickness, the higher powers of dr such as dr2 and dr2 may be neglected.
4
Volume of shell = 3 𝜋 × 3𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟

So the probability = Ψ 2 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟, this gives the probability of finding the electron at a particular distance (r) . This is
called radial probability.
The plots of probability (4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ 2 ) as a function of distance from the nucleus (r) are called radial probability distribution
graphs.
The radial probability distribution graphs depend not only upon the probability density but also on the volume of the shell.

The probability density (Ψ 2 ) for 1s orbital is maximum near the nucleus and it goes on decreasing with distance. However
, the volume of the shell goes on increasing with increase in distance as shown in figure. The product of probability density
and volume of the shell gives the radial probability (4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ 2 ) and is plotted against the distance from the nucleus.

Volume of shell
Ψ 2 and volume of shell

Ψ2

Probability ( 4𝜋𝑟 2 Ψ2 )
r r
Probability graph for 1s orbital Radial probability graph for 1s orbital

The graph for 1s – orbital shows that the probability of finding the electron is zero at nucleus , it keeps on increasing
and becomes maximum at a particular distance from the nucleus and then gradually decreases. The peak of the curve
gives the distance from the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is maximum.
For hydrogen atom , this distance has been found to 0.529A0 . This value agrees well with the value calculated by Bohr
for the radius of first orbit.

It is important to note that Bohr predicted that the electron will always be at r = 0.529A0 for H atom. However ,
according to wave mechanics , the electron is most likely to found at this distance but there is probability of finding
the electron at distances shorter and longer than 0.529A0.

The radial probability functions versus distance r from the nucleus for 1s , 2s , 2p and 3s orbitals are shown below.
 The radial probability distribution function of 2s orbital is shown. The curve shows that there are two regions of high
probability (maxima) . In between the regions the maximum probabilities , there is a region where the probability of
finding the electron is zero is called NODE.

The radial probability function for 2p orbital is also shown. The distance of maximum probability for a 2p orbital is
slightly less than that for 2s electron. However in contrast to a 2p curve , there is a small additional maxima in the 2s
curve . This indicates that the electron in 2s orbital spends some of its time near the nucleus. In other words , the 2s
electron penetrates a little closer to the nucleus than the 2p electrons.
As a result 2s electron is attracted more strongly by the nucleus than a 2p – electron. That is why , 2s electron is
more stable and has lower energy than a 2p – electron.
Boundary surface diagram:

The shapes of orbitals may be represented in terms of boundary

surfaces diagrams. In this representation , a boundary surface or
countaur surface is drawn for an orbital on which the value of
probability density Ψ 2 is constant.

1. Shape of s – orbital:
S – orbitals are non-directional and spherically symmetrical.

This means that the probability of finding the electron is same

in all directions at a particular distance from the nucleus.
2. Shape of P – orbitals:

For P – orbitals (l = 1) , there are three possible orientations corresponding to m = +1 , 0 , -1 values. This means that there
are three p orbitals in each p – subshell. These are designated as Px , Py and Pz. These three orbitals are equal in energy
but different in their orientations.

Each orbital consists of two lobes symmetrical about a particular axis. For example 2Px orbital has two lobes symmetrical
around x axis , 2p orbitals has two lobes symmetrical around y axis while the lobes of 2Pz orbitals are symmetrical around
z axis. The shape of the orbitals are called dumbbell shape.

3. Shape of d – orbitals:
For l = 2 , the orbital is known as d – orbital and the minimum value of principal quantum number (n ) has to be 3. For
l = 2 there are 5 m values , which are +2 , +1 , 0 , - 1 , - 2 ,thus, there are five d – orbitals.
The five d – orbitals are designated as 𝑑𝑥𝑦, 𝑑𝑦𝑧 , 𝑑𝑧𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦2, 𝑑𝑧 2
The shapes of the first four d – orbitals are similar to each other, whereas that of the fifth one , 𝑑𝑧 2 , is different from
others , but all five 3d orbitals for which n is greater than 3 ( 4d ,5d…) also have shapes similar to 3d orbital , but differ in
energy and size.
Beside the radial nodes (i.e. probability density
function is zero) , the probability density functions for
the np and nd orbitals are zero at the plane (s) ,
passing through the nucleus ( origin).
For example , in case of pz orbital , xy – pane is a
nodal plane , in case of dxy orbital , there are two
nodal planes passing through the origin and bisecting
the xy plane containing z axis.

These are called the angular nodes and number of angular

nodes are given by l
Energies of orbitals:

For single electron system : like H atom:

The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined solely by principal quantum number. Thus the energy of the
orbitals increases as follows:
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f < etc.

Although the shapes of 2s and 2p orbitals are different , an electron has the same energy when it is in the 2s orbital as
when it is present in 2p orbital. The orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate.
The 1s orbital in a hydrogen atom corresponds to the most stable condition and is called ground state and an electron
residing in this orbital is most strongly held by the nucleus. An electron in the 2s ,2p or higher orbitals in hydrogen atom is
in excited state.
For multi electron atom:

Energy of an electron in a multi electron atom , unlike that of hydrogen atom , depend not only on its principal quantum
number , but also on its azimuthal quantum number. That is , for a given principal quantum number , s p ,d ,f …. All have
different energies. The main reason for having different energies of the subshells is the mutual repulsion among the
electrons in a multi electron atom.
The only electrical interaction present in hydrogen is the attraction between the negatively charged electron and the
positively charged nucleus , but , in multi electron atoms , beside the presence of attraction between the electron and
nucleus , there are repulsion terms between every electron and other electrons present in the atom.
Thus the stability of an electron in multi electron atoms is because the total attractive interactions are more than
repulsive interactions.
Shielding effect an effective nuclear charge:

The repulsive interaction of the electrons in the outer shell with the electrons in the inner shell are very important
repulsive entity.
The attractive interactions of an electron increases with increase of positive charge (Ze) on the nucleus.

Due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells , the electron in the outer shell will not experience the full positive
charge of the nucleus (Ze). The effect will be lowered due to the partial screening of positive charge on the nucleus by
inner shell of electrons. This is known as screening or shielding of the outer shell electrons from the nucleus by the inner
shell electrons, and the net positive charge experienced by the outer electrons is known as effective nuclear charge ( Zeff).

Despite the shielding of the outer electrons from the nucleus by the inner shell electrons , the attractive force
experienced by the outer shell electrons increases with increase of nuclear charge. In other words , the energy of
interaction between the nucleus and electron (i.e. orbital energy) decreases (i.e. more negative) with the increase of
atomic number (Z).
Both the attractive and repulsive interactions depend upon the shell and shape of the orbital in which the electron is
present. For example electron present in spherical shaped , s – orbital shields the outer electrons from the nucleus more
effectively as compared to electrons present on p – orbital.
Similarly electrons present in p – orbitals shield the outer electrons from the nucleus more than the electrons present
in d – orbitals , even though all these orbitals are present in the same shell.
Further within a shell, due to spherical shape of s – orbital electron spends more time close to the nucleus in comparison
to p – orbital electron which spends more time in the vicinity of nucleus in comparison to d – orbital electron.

In other words, for a given shell ( principal quantum number) , the Zeff experienced by the electron decreases with
increase of azimuthal quantum number , that is , s – orbital electron will be more tightly bound to the nucleus than p –
orbital electron which in turn will be better tightly bound than d – orbital electrons.

Thus, the energy of electrons in s – orbital will be lower ( more negative) than that of p – orbital electron which will have
less energy than that of d – orbital electron and so on.

Since the extent of shielding from the nucleus is different for electrons in different orbitals , it leads to the splitting of
energy levels within the same shell , that is , energy of electrons in an orbital , depends upon the value of n and l .
n + l rule:

The lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital , the lower is its energy. If two orbital have the same value of n + l , the
orbital with lower value of n will have the lower energy.
Example: 3d and 4s orbitals:

For 3d , n = 3 and l = 2 , hence ( n + l ) = 3 + 2 = 5

For 4s , n = 4 and l = 0 , hence ( n + l ) = 4 + 0 = 4

As value of n + l for 4s orbital is less than that of 3d orbital , 4s orbital is filled before 3d orbitals.
 3d and 4p orbitals:

For 3d , n = 3 and l = 2 . Hence n + l = 3 + 2 = 5

For 4p , n = 4 and l = 2 . Hence n + l = 4 + 1 = 5
Therefore , 3d orbital is filled up before 4p orbital.

NOTE: It may be noted that different subshells of a particular shell have different energies in case of multi electron
atoms, however, in hydrogen atom , these have the same energy.
The energies of the orbitals in the same subshell decrease with increase in the atomic number ( Zeff). For example ,
energy of 2s orbital of hydrogen atom is greater (less negative) than that of 2s orbital of lithium atom and that of lithium
is greater than that of sodium and so on , that is , E 2s (H) > E2s(Li) > E 2s (Na) > E2s (K).

Filling of Orbitals in an atom: Aufbau Principle:

The word Aufbau in German means building up. The building up of orbitals means the filling up of orbitals with electrons.
The principle states that : In the ground state of the atoms , the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies.

In other words , electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter into higher energy orbitals
only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d …………..
The order may be remembered by using the method given below.

Pauli’s exclusion principle:

The number of electrons to be filled in various orbitals is restricted

by the exclusion principle , given by the Austrian scientist Wolfgang
Pauli ( 1926) .

According to this principle , No two electrons in an atom can have

the same set of four quantum numbers .

Pauli’s exclusion principle can also be stated as : Only two electrons

may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have
opposite spin.

The restriction imposed by Puli’s exclusion principle on the

number of electrons in an orbital helps in calculating the capacity
Aufbau principle
of electrons to be present in any sub – shell. For example ,
subshell 1s comprises of one orbital and thus the maximum
number of electrons present in 1s subshell can be two.
 Name of sub shell Maximum capacity of electrons Box presentation
0
s 2 ↑↓
+1 0 -1
p 6 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
+2 +1 0 -1 -2
d 10 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3
f 14 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓

Pauli’s exclusion principle also helps to calculate the maximum number of electrons in the shell with principle
quantum number n is equal to 2n2.
Let us consider helium atom has two electrons in 1s orbital. The four quantum numbers for two electrons in 1s orbital
are as follows:
Electron number Quantum number Set of various quantum
n I m s number

1st electron 1 0 0 +1/2 (1 , 0 ,0 , +1/2)

2nd electron 1 0 0 -1/2 (1 , 0 ,0 , -1/2)

Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity:

This rule deals with the filling of electrons into the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (i.e. orbitals of equal energy ,
called degenerate orbitals)
It states that , pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same shell ( p , d or f) does not take place until each
orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e. it is singly occupied.
The configuration of four electrons occupying p – orbitals is
↑↓ ↑ ↑ and not as ↑↓ ↑↓

Anomalous behaviour of Cu and Cr:

24Cr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 (expected) 29Cu = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9 (expected)
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
4s 3d 4s 3d

(observes) 29Cu = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10 (observes)
24Cr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
4s 3d 4s 3d
Stability of completely filled and half filled orbitals:

The stability of completely filled and half filled subshells can be explained on the basis of the following two factors:
1) Symmetrical distribution of electrons:

The extra stability of half filled and completely filled subshells can be explained in terms of symmetry . These subshells
posses symmetrical distribution of electrons.
Electron in the same subshell have equal energy but different spatial distribution . Consequently their shielding of one
another is relatively small and electrons are more strongly attracted by the nucleus.
2) Exchange energy:
The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with the same spin are present in the degenerate orbitals
of sub shell. These electrons having tendency to exchange their positions and the energy released due to this exchange
is called exchange energy.

The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the subshell is either half filles or completely filled.
As a result the exchange energy is minimum and so is the stability.
Possible exchange for d5 configuration is shown below:
 Electronic configuration of elements:

At. No Electronic configuration bases on energy Electronic configuration bases on shell Condensed
/element electronic
configuration

1H 1s1 1s1 1s1

2He 1s2 1s2 1s2
3Li 1s22s1 1s22s1 [He]2s1
4Be 1s22s2 1s22s2 [He]2s2
1s22s22p1 [He]2s22P1
5B 1s22s22p1
6C 1s22s22p2 1s22s22p2 [He]2s22p2
7N 1s22s22p3 1s22s22p3 [He]2s22p3
8O 1s22s22p4 1s22s22p4 [He]2s22p4
9F 1s22s22p5 1s22s22p5 [He]2s22p5
10Ne 1s22s22p6 1s22s22p6 [He]2s22p6
11Na 1s22s22p63s1 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1
12Mg 1s22s22p63s2 1s22s22p63s2 [Ne]3s2
13Al 1s22s22p63s13p1 1s22s22p63s13P1 [Ne]3s23p1
14Si 1s22s22p63s13p2 1s22s22p63s13P2 [Ne]3s23p2
 Condensed
At. No Electronic configuration bases on energy Electronic configuration bases on shell electronic
/element
configuration

15P 1s22s22p63s13p3 1s22s22p63s13p3 [Ne]3s23p3

16S 1s22s22p63s13p4 1s22s22p63s13p4 [Ne]3s23p4

17Cl 1s22s22p63s13p5 1s22s22p63s13p5 [Ne]3s23p5

18Ar 1s22s22p63s13p6 1s22s22p63s13p6 [Ne]3s23p6
19K 1s22s22p63s13p64s1 1s22s22p63s13p64s1 [Ar]3s1
20Ca 1s22s22p63s13p64s2 1s22s22p63s13p64s2 [Ar]4s2
21Sc 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d1 1s22s22p63s13p63d14s2 [Ar]3d14s2
22Ti 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d2 1s22s22p63s13p63d24s2 [Ar]3d24s2
23V 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d3 1s22s22p63s13p63d34s2 [Ar]3d34s2

24Cr 1s22s22p63s13p64s13d5 1s22s22p63s13p63d54s1 [Ar]3d54s1

25Mn 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d5 1s22s22p63s13p63d54s2 [Ar]3d54s2
26Fe 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d6 1s22s22p63s13p63d64s2 [Ar]3d64s2
27Co 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d7 1s22s22p63s13p63d74s2 [Ar]3d74s2
28Ni 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d8 1s22s22p63s13p63d84s2 [Ar]3d84s2
29Cu 1s22s22p63s13p64s13d10 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s1 [Ar]3d104s1
 Condensed
At. No Electronic configuration bases on energy Electronic configuration bases on shell electronic
/element
configuration
30Zn 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d10 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s2 [Ar]3d104s2
1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p1 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p1 [Ar]3d104s24p1
31Ga

32Ge 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p2 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p2 [Ar]3d104s24p2

33As 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p3 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p3 [Ar]3d104s24p3
34Se
1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p4 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p4 [Ar]3d104s24p4
35Br 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p5 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p5 [Ar]3d104s24p5
36Kr 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p6 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p6 [Ar]3d104s24p6

37Rb 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p65s1 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p65s1 [Kr]5s1

38Sr 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p65s2 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p65s2 [Kr]5s2
39Y 1s22s22p63s13p64s23d104p65s24d1 1s22s22p63s13p63d104s24p64d15s2 [Kr]4d15s2