LESSON 1: IT225

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications
network that allows computers to exchange data.
Why to Learn Data Communication & Computer Network?
 Network Basic Understanding
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as
printers is called computer network. This interconnection among computers
facilitates information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each
other by either wired or wireless media.
 Network Engineering
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware,
chip level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network
engineering, the whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each
layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other layers.
 Internet
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the
largest network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all
WANs and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses
TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol.
Applications of Communication & Computer Network
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide
numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
 LESSON 2: IT225
A computer network is a collection of computing devices that are connected with each
other for the purpose of information and resource sharing among a wide variety of
users. A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as
printers is called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates
information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired
or wireless media.
Features of Computer Network
 Sharing − Computer networks enable sharing of files, software, hardware
resources and computing capabilities.
 Speed: The communication speed among the components is fast enough to be
comparable with a centralized system.
 Scalability − Sizes of computer networks dynamically increase with time. The
networks have to be scalable so that they can evolve adequately for future
deployments.
 Integration − All the components of the network work in a coordinated manner
for a seamless user experience.
 Security − Networks allow security and access rights to the users for restricted
sharing of resources and information.
 Cost Effectiveness − Networking reduces the deployment cost of hardware and
software of a centralized system.
Classification of Computer Networks
 Geographical Span
 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,.
Ranging not more than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to
connect all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.

 Inter-connectivity
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making
the network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically
disconnected, created bus like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other,
resulting in a hybrid structure.
 Administration
 From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which
belongs a single autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its
physical or logical domain. A network can be public which is accessed by all.

 Network Architecture
 Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-
Server, peer-to-peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests
the Server to serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of
Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They
both reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the
above types.

 Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They
provide numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
 LESSON 3: IT225
Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that communicate
with each other such as standarized protocols using TCP/IP.
A network is a system of interconnected devices or nodes that can communicate and
share resources to each other.
FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server.
Direct File Transfer refers to the process files directly from one devices to another.
COMPUTER NETWORK TYPES
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can
be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and
as large as the internet itself, covering the whole geographical world.
 A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a
user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer
keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV
remotes.
 A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).
Usually, LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much
as 16 million.
 The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city
such as cable TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
 As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which
may span across provinces and even a whole country. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide
connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed
backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment. WAN may use
advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame
Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by
multiple administration.
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the
largest network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs
and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet is widely deployed
on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is accessible by client
software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using some web
browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server
responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay is very low.
LAN TECHNOLOGIES
 Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology. This technology was invented by
Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was standardized in IEEE
802.3 in 1980. Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has
high probability of data collision. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technology to detect collisions. On the
occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll back, wait for some random
amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.
 To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware technologies,
Ethernet extends itself as Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP, Optical Fiber, and
wirelessly too. It can provide speed up to 100 MBPS. This standard is named as
100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5 twisted pair cable.
 After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its high speed status
only for 3 years till Giga-Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet provides speed up
to 1000 mbits/seconds. IEEE802.3ab standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using
Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables. IEEE802.3ah defines Giga-Ethernet over Fiber.
 LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media in
Ethernet create one single Broadcast domain and one single Collision domain.
Introduction of switches to Ethernet has removed single collision domain issue
and each device connected to switch works in its separate collision domain.
Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into multiple
Broadcast domains. Host in one VLAN cannot speak to a host in another. By
default, all hosts are placed into the same VLAN.
 LESSON 4: IT225
Computer Network Topologies
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical
aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in
a same network.
 Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches
or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often,
the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-
versa.
 In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.
Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same
time.
 All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and hub.
 In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or
send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the
administrator may need only one more extra cable.
 In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. Mesh
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may
also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host
in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required.
It provides the most reliable network structure among all network
topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other
host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This
topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of
all.
 Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. Tree topology imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology.
 This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology,
all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means, if the end
hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.
 LESSON 5: IT225
COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip
level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the
whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and
they depend on each other only to take input and send output.
Layered Tasks: In a layered network architecture, the overall process is divided into
smaller tasks, with each task handled by a specific layer dedicated to that function. In a
layered communication system, a layer on one host communicates with its
corresponding layer on a remote host. Tasks may be initiated by either the top or bottom
layer. If initiated by the top layer, it is passed down to lower layers for further processing.
If initiated by the bottom layer, it follows a reverse path up through the layers.
OSI MODEL
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI
model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has
seven layers:
 Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the
application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with
the user.
 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote
host should be presented in the native format of host.
 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For
example, once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains
this session for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time
span.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between
hosts.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and
onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output,
pulse rate etc.
INTERNET MODEL
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet
Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication
model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.The internet
is independent of its underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the
following layers:
 Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact
with the network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.
 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major
protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures
data delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end
delivery.
 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates
host addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.
 Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual
data.Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying
network architecture and hardware.
 LESSON 6: IT 225
COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
Later when all networks merged together and formed internet, the data useds to travel
through public transit network. Common people may send the data that can be highly
sensitive such as their bank credentials, username and passwords, personal
documents, online shopping details, or confidential documents.
 Interruption
Interruption is a security threat in which availability of resources is attacked. For
example, a user is unable to access its web-server or the web-server is hijacked.
 Privacy-Breach
In this threat, the privacy of a user is compromised. Someone, who is not the
authorized person is accessing or intercepting data sent or received by the
original authenticated user.
 Integrity
This type of threat includes any alteration or modification in the original context of
communication. The attacker intercepts and receives the data sent by the sender
and the attacker then either modifies or generates false data and sends to the
receiver. The receiver receives the data assuming that it is being sent by the
original Sender.
 Authenticity
This threat occurs when an attacker or a security violator, poses as a genuine
person and accesses the resources or communicates with other genuine users.
No technique in the present world can provide 100% security. But steps can be taken to
secure data while it travels in unsecured network or internet. The most widely used
technique is Cryptography.
Cryptography is a technique to encrypt the plain-text data which makes it difficult to
understand and interpret. There are several cryptographic algorithms available present
day as described below:
 Secret Key
 Public Key
 Message Digest
Both sender and receiver have one secret key. This secret key is used to encrypt the
data at sender’s end. After the data is encrypted, it is sent on the public domain to the
receiver. Because the receiver knows and has the Secret Key, the encrypted data
packets can easily be decrypted.
In this encryption system, every user has its own Secret Key and it is not in the shared
domain. The secret key is never revealed on public domain. Along with secret key, every
user has its own but public key. Public key is always made public and is used by
Senders to encrypt the data. When the user receives the encrypted data, he can easily
decrypt it by using its own Secret Key.
Message Digest: In this method, actual data is not sent, instead a hash value is
calculated and sent. The other end user, computes its own hash value and compares
with the one just received. If both hash values are matched, then it is accepted
otherwise rejected.
 LESSON 7: IT 225
Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which
actually deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations. This layer defines
the hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary
signals etc.
Signals: When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such
as file on the disk. Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog
signals.
 Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
 Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT: When signals travel through the medium they tend to
deteriorate. This may have many reasons as given:
 Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently
strong.When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it
covers distance, it loses strength.
 Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount
of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal
speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches
destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits
reach earlier than the previously sent ones.
 Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise
in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be
characterized in one of the following class:
  Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce
noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
 Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause
noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different
frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive
strength or the component itself is not functioning properly, then the
resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.
 Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media.
This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second
medium.
 Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as
lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is
mostly affected by this sort of noise.
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called
TRANSMISSION MEDIA. Transmission media comes in two forms.
 Guided Media
All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP, coaxial cables,
and fiber Optics. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected
and the information is send (guided) through it.
 Unguided Media
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no
connectivity between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air,
and anyone including the actual recipient may collect the information.
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the CHANNEL CAPACITY. We
count it as data rate in digital world. It depends on numerous factors such as:
 Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
 Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
 Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single
medium. This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for
multiplexing the streams and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX)
which takes information from the medium and distributes to different destinations.
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards
destination which are not directly connected. Networks have interconnecting devices,
which receives data from directly connected sources, stores data, analyze it and then
forwards to the next interconnecting device closest to the destination. Switching can be
categorized as:
 Circuit Switching
 Message Switching
 Packet Switching

LESSON 8: IT 225
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION IN COMPUTER NETWORK
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to
use the data, it must be in discrete digital form. Similar to data, signals can also be in
analog and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital
form.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in
two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is
necessary whereas block coding is optional.
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be line coding.
Digital data is found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s
and 0s.
Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.there are
three types of line coding schemes available:
 Polar encoding
 Uni-polar encoding
 Bipolar encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to
represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is
transmitted. It is also called unipolar-non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest
condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four types:
 Polar non-return to zero (polar nrz)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive
voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also nrz because
there is no rest condition.
 Return to zero (rz)
Problem with nrz is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when
the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not
synchronized.
  Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of rz and nrz-l. Bit time is divided into two
halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit
is encountered.
 Differential manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of rz and nrz-i. It also transit at the
middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in
even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way
the original number of bits is increased. It is called block coding.
Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated
is analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to
digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is
discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use PULSE CODE
MODULATION (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form.
It involves three steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
The analog signal is sampled every t interval. Most important factor in sampling is the
rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to nyquist theorem, the sampling rate
must be at least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows
the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between
the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is
approximation of the instantaneous analog value.
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.
The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.the
binary data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes: parallel and
serial.
 Parallel transmission: the binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length.
Both sender and receiver are connected in parallel with the equal number of data
lines. Both computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines.
 In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial
transmission requires only one communication channel. Serial transmission can
be either asynchronous or synchronous.
 Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there is no importance of timing. Data-bits have
specific pattern and they help receiver recognize the start and end data
bits. For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s
are added at the end.
 Synchronous Serial Transmission
Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no
mechanism followed to recognize start and end data bits. There is no
pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode without
maintaining gap between bytes (8-bits).
 LESSON 9: IT225
ANALOG TRANSMISSION
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog
signal. There can be two cases according to data formatting.
 Bandpass: The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A
bandpass is a band of frequencies which can pass the filter.
 Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.
When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-
analog conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog
signal, it is called analog-to-analog conversion.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are
three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:
 Amplitude Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.
 Frequency Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data.
 Phase Shift Keying
In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to
reflect the binary data.
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in
two different phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally
into two sub-streams.
ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known as
Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is required when bandpass is used. Analog to
analog conversion can be done in three ways:
 Amplitude Modulation
In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the
analog data.

 Frequency Modulation
In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to
reflect the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).
 Phase Modulation
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to
reflect the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.
 LESSON 10: IT 225
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication
takes place in computer networks.
 Magnetic Media: One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one
computer to another, even before the birth of networking, was to save it on some
storage media and transfer physical from one station to another. Though it may
seem old-fashion way in today’s world of high speed internet, but when the size
of data is huge, the magnetic media comes into play.
 A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted
together to form a single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual
signal and another is used for ground reference. The twists between wires are
helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
 STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes
it more indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
 UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer
networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables
are connected by RJ45 connectors.
 Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is
made of solid conductor.The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.The second
wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn encased by insulator
sheath.This all is covered by plastic cover.
 Power Line communication (PLC) is Layer-1 (Physical Layer) technology
which uses power cables to transmit data signals.In PLC, modulated data is sent
over the cables. The receiver on the other end de-modulates and interprets the
data. Because power lines are widely deployed, PLC can make all powered
devices controlled and monitored. PLC works in half-duplex.

There are two types of PLC:

 Narrow band PLC
 Broad band PLC
  Narrow band PLC provides lower data rates up to 100s of kbps, as
they work at lower frequencies (3-5000 kHz).They can be spread over
several kilometers.
 Broadband PLC provides higher data rates up to 100s of Mbps and
works at higher frequencies (1.8 – 250 MHz).They cannot be as much
extended as Narrowband PLC.
 Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it
tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The
core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of
it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects
light stream and converts it to electric data.
Difference between Wired Media and Wireless Media
 LESSON 11: IT225
Network layer takes the responsibility for routing packets from source to destination
within or outside a subnet. Network layer has the responsibility to route the packets from
source to destination, mapping different addressing schemes and protocols.
Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may include
various tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:
 Addressing devices and networks.
 Populating routing tables or static routes.
 Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to
quality of service constraints set for those packets.
 Internetworking between two different subnets.
 Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
 Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
With its standard functionalities, Layer 3 can provide various features as:
 Quality of service management
 Load balancing and link management
 Security
 Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema.
 Different logical network design over the physical network design.
 L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.
Internet protocol is widely respected and deployed Network Layer protocol which
helps to communicate end to end devices over the internet.
A network address always points to host / node / server or it can represent a whole
network. Network address is always configured on network interface card and is
generally mapped by system with the MAC address (hardware address or layer-2
address) of the machine for Layer-2 communication.
There are different kinds of network addresses in existence:
 IP
 IPX
 AppleTalk
IP addressing provides mechanism to differentiate between hosts and network.
Because IP addresses are assigned in hierarchical manner, a host always resides
under a specific network. The host which needs to communicate outside its subnet,
needs to know destination network address, where the packet/data is to be sent.
Hosts in different subnet need a mechanism to locate each other. This task can be
done by DNS. DNS is a server which provides Layer-3 address of remote host mapped
with its domain name or FQDN.
Network address can be of one of the following:
 Unicast (destined to one host)
 Multicast (destined to group)
 Broadcast (destined to all)
 Anycast (destined to nearest one)
 LESSON 12: IT 225
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves
no physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by
appropriate antennas. When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or
wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over
within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and
converts them back to digital data.
Radio Transmission: Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large
wavelength it can penetrate through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have
wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely
Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-
divided into six bands.
Microwave Transmission: Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a
straight line and signals over them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one
particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and
receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight. Microwave transmission depends
highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.
Infrared Transmission: Infrared wave is used for very short range communication
purposes such as television and it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is
directional by nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like
obstacles.
Light Transmission: Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for
data transmission is light or optical signaling. This is achieved by means of
LASER.Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence
the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is
unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to
be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align
two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.