Educational Organization and

Management I

EdPM-2022

CR.Hrs: 3
 Contents of the Course

 UNIT ONE : Communication

 UNIT TWO: Decision Making in Educational

Organization

 CHAPTER THREE: Motivation

 CHAPTER FOUR : Leadership

 CHAPTER FIVE: Work Assignment

 CHAPTER SIX: Teacher Assignment

 1.2. NATURE OF Communication
Communication Defined:-
–The origin of the word “communication” is
―communicare‖ or ―communis‖ which means:
―to impart‖,
―to participate‖,
―to share‖ or ―to make common.‖ The sense of
sharing is inherent in the very origin and meaning
of ―communication.‖
– The sharing of information between two or more
individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.
– It is Transmitting a message with the expectation of some
kind of response.
Cont…
• Keith Davis: Communication is a process of passing
information and understanding from one person to
another.
• John Adair: Communication is essentially the ability of
one person to make contact with another and make
himself or herself understood.
• William Newman and Charles Summer: Communication
is an exchange of ideas, facts, opinions or emotions of
two or more persons.
• Louis Allen: Communication is a bridge of meaning. It
involves a systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding.
1.3. Importance and Objectives of
Communication
Communication has many importance in the
organization settings and in every one‘s day today
life like:
–Supporting efficiency in new technologies and
skills
–Promoting quality of products and services.
–Demonstrating responsiveness to customers
–Fostering new ideas innovation, etc
 1.4. The Communication Process
• Phases of the Communication Process:
– Transmission phase in which
information is shared among two or
more people.
– Feedback phase in which a common
understanding is assured.
The Communication Process
The Communication Process
• Sender – person wishing to share information with
some other person
• Message – what information to communicate
• Encoding – sender translates the message into
symbols or language.
• Noise – refers to anything that hampers any stage
of the communication process
• Receiver – person or group for which the message
is intended
• Medium – pathway through which an encoded
message is transmitted to a receiver.
The Communication Process
• Decoding - critical point where the receiver
interprets and tries to make sense of the
message
• Feedback phase is initiated by the receiver
–Receiver decides what message to send to
the original sender
–Feedback eliminates misunderstandings,
ensures that messages are correctly
interpreted
 1.5. Communication in Organizational settings
• We define „organizational communication‟ as the
sending and receiving of messages among
interrelated individuals within a particular
environment or setting to achieve individual and
common goals.
• Organizational communication is highly contextual
and culturally dependent. Individuals in
organizations transmit messages through face-to
face, written, and mediated channels.
 Organizational communication helps us to:
1. Accomplish tasks relating to specific roles and
responsibilities of sales, services, and production;
2. Acclimate to changes through individual and
organizational creativity and adaptation;
3. Complete tasks through the maintenance of
policy, procedures, or regulations that support
daily and continuous operations;
4. Develop relationships where ―human messages
are directed at people within the organization-
their attitudes, morale, satisfaction, and
fulfillment‖ (Goldhaber 20); and
 Communication in Organizational settings
5. Coordinate, plan, and control the operations of the
organization through management (Katz & Kahn;
Redding; Thayer). Organizational communication is
how organizations represent, present, and constitute
their organizational climate and culture—the
attitudes, values and goals that characterize the
organization and its members.
• Organizational communication largely focuses on
building relationships and interacting with internal
organizational members and interested external
publics.
Types of Communication:
A. Verbal Communication
–The encoding of messages into words, either
written or spoken. E.g. oral, written, electronic,
video
B. Non-verbal
• The encoding of messages by means of facial
expressions, body languages, and styles of dresses
(E.g. eye movements, gestures, facial expressions).
Adds much of the feeling and emotion that a sender
wants to give to a message. Non-verbal
communication often has more effect than verbal on
the meaning receivers give a message.
Forms/Types of Communication:
Oral communication
• All forms of speech between a sender and receiver
which leaves no permanent, retrievable record of
the message and response unless recorded. It is
more effective than written when trying to affect
receiver's opinion on some matter.
Written communication
• Any form of handwriting, printed memo, or report
including messages sent over an electronic
medium. Receiver's response is more delayed in
written than in oral communication.
Communication System/Direction:
• The following are major communication
systems/directions:-
A. Downward Communication,
B. Upward Communication,
C. Lateral Communication,
D. Diagonal Communication,
1.6. Communication networks :

1. Vertical Network:

2. Circuit Network:

3. Chain Network:

4. Wheel Network:

5. Star Network:
1. Vertical Network:
• The vertical network is usually between the
superior and subordinate and vice versa. It is
two-way communication. The immediate
feedback is possible in this type of
communication network. It is formal
network.
2. Circuit Network:
• Under this network two persons
communicate with each other. Say Mr. ‗A‘
sends message to Mr. ‗B‘. After receiving
message Mr. ‗B‘ communicates the feedback
message to Mr. ‗A‘. So communication takes
the form of a circuit.
3. Chain Network:
• This network of communication follows the
organizational hierarchy and chain of command.
All subordinates receive commands or instructions
from their superior. B, C, D and E, F, G are the
subordinates to A in the organizational hierarchy
and receive commands from ‗A‘ which follows the
way shown in the diagram.
4. Wheel Network:
• Here all subordinates receive commands from one
superior. This is highly centralized type of
communication network where each subordinate
receives commands or instructions from a single
authority or superior ‗A‘ and wants the immediate
feedback.
5. Star Network:
• Under star communication network all members
of the group communicate with each other and
exchange information. This network is a must for
group communication or where teamwork is
involved. This network channel of communication
is open to all members of the group. The members
communicate with each other without hesitation.
1.7. Principles of Effective Communication :
1. Create A Goal
2. Listen to Feedback
3. Adjust To Your Medium
4. Stay Organized
5. Be Persuasive/ Convincing/
6. Be Clear
7. Visuals Are Important
8. Use Stories
9. Less Is More
10. Be Curious / Inquisitive/
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION :
• It is two way.
• It involves active listening.
• It reflects the accountability of speaker
and listener.
• It utilizes feedback.
• It is free of stress.
• It is clear.
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION :
• The seven C's of communication are a list of
principles for written and spoken
communications to ensure that they are
effective.
1. Clarity
2. Completeness
3. Consideration
4. Correctness
5. Courtesy /politeness/
6. Consciousness
7. Concreteness
1.8.Barriers to Effective Communication :
1.8.1. Physiological Barrier:
Physical and Environmental Distractions
Psychological Barrier
Information Overload
Inattention
Emotions
Poor Retention
1.8.4. Social Barriers
1.8.5. Cultural Barriers
1.8.Barriers to Effective Communication :
1.8.6. Semantic Barrier
1.8.7. Linguistic Barriers
1.8.8. Past Experience
1.8.9. Organizational Barriers
Technological Failure
Time Pressures
Complexity in Organizational Structure
1.8.10. Barriers Related with the Message
1.8.10.1. Unclear Messages
1.8.10.2. Stereotypes
1.8.10.3. Inappropriate Channel
1.8.10.4. Lack of Feedback
1.8.Barriers to Effective Communication :
1.8.1. Physiological Barrier: are barriers to
communication are related with the limitations of the
human body and the human mind (memory,
attention, and perception). Physiological barriers may
result from individuals‘ personal discomfort, caused
by ill-health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties.
1.8.1.1. Poor Listening Skills (A typical speaker says about
125 words per minute. The typical listener can receive 400–600 words
per minute.)
1.8.1.2. Information Overload
1.8.1.3. Inattention
1.8.1.4. Emotions
1.8.1.5. Poor Retention
Cont:
1.8.2. Physical and Environmental Distractions
• Physical distractions are the physical things that get in the
way of communication.
1.8.3. Psychological Barrier
• Psychological factors such as misperception, filtering,
distrust, unhappy emotions, and people's state of mind can
jeopardize the process of communication..
1.8.4. Social Barriers
• Social barriers to communication include the social
psychological phenomenon of conformity, a process in
which the norms, values, and behaviors of an individual
begin to follow those of the wider group.
Cont…:
1.8.5. Cultural Barriers
• Cultural difference leads to difference in interest,
knowledge, value, and tradition. Therefore, people
of different cultures will experience these culture
factors as a barrier to communicate with each
other.
1.8.6. Semantic Barrier
• Language, jargon, slang, etc., are some of the
semantic barriers. Different languages across
different regions represent a national barrier.
Cont…:
1.8.7. Linguistic Barriers
• The use of difficulty or inappropriate words in
communication can prevent the people from
understanding the message. Poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can also result in
confusion.
1.8.8. Past Experience
• If someone has awful experiences in the past
related to some particular situation, then he/she
will try to avoid communication in that situation.
Cont…:
1.8.9. Organizational Barriers
• Unclear planning, structure, information
overload, timing, technology, and status
difference are the organizational factors that
may act as barriers to communication.
1.8.9.1. Technological Failure
1.8.9.2. Time Pressures
1.8.9.3. Complexity in Organizational Structure
Cont…:
1.8.10. Barriers Related with the Message
1.8.10.1. Unclear Messages
1.8.10.2. Stereotypes
1.8.10.3. Inappropriate Channel
1.8.10.4. Lack of Feedback
Other Barriers :
• Failure to listen:
• Inappropriate comments and questions:
• Failure to interpret with knowledge.
• Changing the subject
• Conflicting verbal and nonverbal messages
• Culture, background, and bias
• Noise
• Ourselves
• Message
• Perception
• Stress
 Chapter Two:
Decision making in educational organizations
2.1. Meaning of Decision-Making
1. Decision making is the process of making choices by:-
 Identifying a decision,
 Gathering information, and
 Assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you
make
 More deliberate, and
 Thoughtful decisions by organizing relevant information
and defining alternatives.
 Cont…
• Trewatha & Newport defines decision making
process as follows:, ―Decision-making involves the
selection of a course of action from among two or
more possible alternatives in order to arrive at a
solution for a given problem‖.
• Decision-making is an integral part of modern
management. Essentially, Rational or sound decision
making is taken as primary function of management.
• Every manager takes hundreds and hundreds of
decisions subconsciously or consciously making it as
the key component in the role of a manager.
Cont…
Following elements can be derived from the above
mentioned definitions:
1. Decision–making is a selection process and is
concerned with selecting the best type of alternative.
2. The decision taken is aimed at achieving the
organizational goals.
3. It is concerned with the detailed study of the
available alternatives for finding the best possible
alternative.
4. Decision making is a mental process. It is the outline
of constant thoughtful consideration.
5. It leads to commitment. The commitment depends
upon the nature of the decision whether short term or
long term.
Cont…
The problem or situation should clarify which
method is most appropriate. There is no one way
which is always suitable.
 Decision-making through a team or group
process is arguably more complex than other
means. Decisions do need to be made and it
should be clear who will implement them.
Characteristics of Decision Making
• It is a Process
• It is an Indicator of Commitment
• It is a Best Selected Alternative
• Mental and Intellectual Process
• Decision-Making Might be Positive or Negative
• It is the Last Process:
• Decision Making is a Pervasive Function
• Continuous and Dynamic Process
• It is a Measurement of Performance
• It is a Human and Social Process
• It is Both an Art and Science
Other Characteristics of DM
1. A new decision emerges from the decision
making process.
2. Decision making is synonymous with
Management.
3. Decision making is part of planning.
4. The forecast is part of decision making.
5. Decision making is different from the decision.
2.2. TYPES OF DECISION MAKING
• Programmed and non-programmed decisions: ...
• Routine and strategic decisions: ...
• Tactical (Policy) and operational decisions: ...
• Organisational and personal decisions: ...
• Major and minor decisions: ...
• Individual and group decisions
• Planned and Unplanned Decision
• Organizational, Departmental & Interdepartmental
Decisions Making
POWER, AUTHORITY AND INFLUENCE
• Power can be defined as a manager's ability to influence
others. Organizational power is the ability that you have
to influence the behavior of another stakeholder in
your organization. An authority is a power or right that a
person gets because of his designation, role, or job. An
authority is the outcome of a formal position in an
organization. A responsibility is the outcome of a
superior-subordinate relationship.
• In the process of policy formulation and decision-making
in schools, power is a resource, authority is legitimate
and recognized power, and influencing is a personal skill
and part of the leadership process. These may be mutually
supportive.
Sources /Forms/of Power
1. Legitimate power: Belief that a person has the formal
right to make demands, and to expect others to be compliant
and obedient. This is where you are hired, elected or
appointed to a position that comes with legitimate.
2. Reward power: Comes from leader‘s ability to
compensate people for compliance. The compensation might
include raises, money, promotions, training opportunities,
compliments or just a smile.
3. Coercive power: The flip side of reward power is
coercive power. Leader can punish others for
noncompliance. Threats and punishments are common
coercive tools. Wise leader will use coercive power as a last
resort because It creates distrust and conflict.
Sources /Forms/of Power
4. Informational power: It is not tied to you as a person,
it‘s the power of the information you have. Once you share
the information, the power is gone.
5. Expert power: If you have a high level of education and
knowledge let‘s say you are scientist, physician, lawyer or
engineer than you have the expertise.
6. Referent power: It is based on the resource of respect
and/or love. Leaders with values, integrity and honesty raise
respect and have great referent power. Influencers and/or
celebrities also use referent power. Great leaders prefer to
use referent power because it makes everyone feel good. It
improves relationships and social climate.
2.3. Models and Steps in Decision Making
Models in DM:
1. Rational decision-making mode
2. Bounded rationality decision-making model
3. Vroom-Yetton Decision-Making Model
4. Intuitive decision-making model
5. Recognition -primed decision making model
2.3. Models and Steps in Decision Making
1. Rational decision-making model
The SIX Steps in rational decision-making model:
1st. Define the Problem
2nd. Identify the criteria you will use to judge possible
solutions
3rd. Decide how important each criterion is
4th. Generate a list of possible alternatives
5th. Evaluate those alternatives
6th. Determine the best solution . (Some sources identify
additional steps, such as testing your solution before fully
implementing it.) However, it's not the best model to use
when you're under time constraints(fast-changing situation)
Cont…
2. Bounded rationality decision-making model
• And that sets us up to talk about the bounded
rationality model. Instead of rigorously seeking
the best possible decision, you're just looking for a
"good enough" decision.
• You can use bounded rationality when you don't
have enough time or information to follow the full
rational decision-making model.
Cont…
3. Vroom-Yetton Decision-Making Model
• There's no one ideal process for making decisions.
Instead, the best process to use will change based
on your situation.
• The flexibility of the Vroom-Yetton model is one
of its strengths. Anyone at any level can use it, and
it can work even if you're in an unfamiliar
situation. However, it doesn't consider personal
factors for the decision-maker, the questions may
not be precise enough for some situations and it
may not work as well for larger groups.
Cont…
4. Intuitive decision-making model
• Intuitive decisions can happen almost instantly. But that
doesn't mean they just pop into your head. Your brain is
actually doing lightning-fast pattern recognition. It's
quickly reviewing everything you've learned from similar
past situations to help you make a decision in your current
situation. An intuitive decision-making model yields good
results where you have a lot of expertise or experience.
5. Recognition -primed decision making model
• Like the intuitive model, the recognition-primed model
works best in situations where you can draw on deep
experience or expertise. In those cases, it's an especially
handy model to use when you're under time pressure
Common decision-making biases
A. Confirmation bias
• Confirmation bias means paying attention to evidence that confirms
your beliefs – and ignoring anything that doesn't. Confirmation
bias causes us to seek out information that supports our existing
views. But it also encourages us to interpret information in a way
that proves we're right.
B. Availability heuristic
• The availability heuristic leads us to make decisions based on how
easily something comes to mind.
C. Survivorship bias
• The survivorship bias causes us to make decisions based only on
examples of success – all while assuming that we have the full
story. A common example of the survivorship bias is using other
organizations' success stories to decide what your organization
should do.
Cont…
D. Anchoring bias
• Anchoring bias causes us to use an initial piece of
information to make subsequent judgments. For example,
the initial price offer sets the course in a negotiation. But
even being exposed to an arbitrary and random cognitive
anchor can affect your choice.

E. Halo Effect
• We all know the power of first impressions, but we often
overlook just how powerful they can be. When the halo
effect in action. It works in reverse, too.
Cont…
So in order to take right decisions, it is important that we should know
all the steps of decision making process and follow them. The decision
making process involves the following steps:-
• Curious Observation
• Existence of Problem
• Goals & Planning
• Search, Explore & Gather the Evidence
• Generate Creative & Logical Alternative Solutions
• Evaluate the Evidence
• Make the Educated Guess (Hypothesis)
• Challenge the Hypothesis
• Reach a Conclusion
• Suspend Judgment
• Take Action
Cont…
A lot of time is consumed while decisions are
taken. In a management setting, decision cannot be
taken abruptly. It should follow the steps such as:
• Defining the problem/ situation
• Gathering information and collecting data
• Developing and weighing the options/ Generate
alternatives
• Choosing best possible option
• Evaluate, test and execute
• Select and take follow up action
 Cont…
• Decision and judgement may be made by in group through
meetings. During the meeting it is important to continue to
clarify this purpose and how effectively the process and
practice is achieving that purpose.
• The reasons for group deliberation and judgement include:
● A fear of too much authority in a single person;
● The representation of interested groups;
● The need for the co-ordination of departments, plans and
policies;
● The transmission and sharing of information;
● The consolidation of authority and motivation through
participation.
Cont…
The disadvantages of group decision-making are
• The high cost in time and money;
• The danger of compromise at the level of the least
common denominator;
• Indecision;
• A tendency to be self-destructive;
• The splitting of responsibility so nothing gets
decided;
• The tyranny of the minority.
2.4. Decision Making situation
• The word ‗decides‘ means to come to a conclusion
or resolution as to what one is expected to do at
some later time.
• According to Manely H. Jones, ―It is a solution
selected after examining several alternatives
chosen because the decider foresees that the
course of action he selects will do more than the
others to further his goals and will be accompanied
by the fewest possible objectionable
consequences‖.
Cont…
Let‘s understand the importance of decision-making
better by looking at some examples of decision-
making situation in management:
• DECISION-MAKING IN HUMAN RESOURCES
• DECISION-MAKING IN MARKETING
• DECISION-MAKING IN PRODUCTION
• DECISION-MAKING IN CLIENT SERVICING
2.5. Common Difficulties in Decision Making
• Level of Decision Making Not Clear. ...
• Lack of Time. ...
• Lack of reliable data. ...
• Risk-Taking Ability. ...
• Too Many Options. ...
• Inadequate Support. ...
• Lack of Resources. ...
• Inability to Change.
• Incomplete Information:
• Un-supporting Environment:
• Non-Acceptance by Subordinates:
• Incorrect Timing:
• Ineffective Communication
Cont…
Russo and Schoemaker (1989) present the ten
dangerous decision traps:
1. Plunging in – not thinking through scope and
nature of problem;
2. Frame blindness – solving the wrong problem;
3. Poor frame control – accepting others‘ limited or
wrong definitions of a problem;
4. Overconfidence – too sure of one‘s own
judgement and opinions;
5. Taking shortcuts – failing to research the issues
fully;
Cont…
6. Being unsystematic – failure to follow a systematic
procedure by thinking one ‗has‘ all the information;
7. Poor group process – failing to manage the group
decision-making process, or attending only to the view of
certain group members;
8. Ignoring negative feedback – underestimating evidence
that runs counter to prevailing wisdom; failing to
acknowledge past mistakes or learn from failures;
9. Not keeping records – which would track the success or
failure of decisions; this, too, impedes learning from past
mistakes;
10. Not auditing decision-making so that all flaws in
thinking are avoided. All these need to be incorporated.
Guidelines for Effective Decision Making
1. Define the Goals:
2. Ensure that the Decision Contributes to the Goal:
3. Adopt a Diagnostic Approach:
4. Involve Subordinates in Decision Making
Process:
5. Ensure Successful Implementation of the
Decision:
6. Evaluate the Results:
7. Be Flexible:
Chapter Three
Motivation
 3.1. The Nature of Motivation and Satisfaction
• Motivation is such an important element in
improving work productivity, every educational
administrator needs to have a firm
understanding of how it relates to job
satisfaction and reward systems.
• Based on numerous state and national studies
concerning the condition of schools, a great deal
of time, energy, and effort is expended by
educational administrators trying to improve the
effective-ness and efficiency of educational
delivery systems.
 Cont…
Motivation" can be defined as those forces within an
individual that push or propel him to satisfy basic needs
or wants (Yorks 1976, 21).The level of needs will
determine what rewards will satisfy an employee.

According to Dessler, most psychologists believe that all

motivation is ultimately derived from a tension that results
when one or more of our important needs are unsatisfied
(Dessler 1986, 332).

Maslow also states that "Only unsatisfied needs provide the

sources of motivation; a satisfied need creates no tension and
therefore no motivation".(Burke 1987, 32).
 Cont…
It is common that three qualities are included in
most definitions of motivation:-
(1) It is a presumed internal force,
(2) That energizes for action, and
(3) Determines the direction of action (Russell
1971,5).
-Vroom defines motivation as a process governing
choices made by persons among alternative forms
of voluntary activity (Hamner and Organ 1978).
-Motivators are then factors that arouse, direct and
sustain increased performance (Duttweiler 1986, ).
 3.2. Theories of Motivation
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow
believed that man is inherently good and argued
that individuals possess a constantly drive that has
great potential.
• The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow
(1954), is a commonly used scheme for
classifying human motives.
• It involves five categories of motives arranged
with lower-level needs on the bottom which must
be satisfied first, before the higher level needs
come into play (Wallace, Goldstein and Nathan
1987, 277).
 Satisfaction
• Satisfaction is defined ―as the extent to which
the rewards actually received meet or exceed the
perceived equitable level of rewards‖ (Porter and
Lawler, 1968:30).
• If the level of satisfaction falls short of
expectations, the level of motivation decreases
accordingly.
• This happens because the motivation process is a
cycle of events and the employee understands that
he or she has made an error in the original effort
to performance probability estimation or has
underestimated the abilities required.
 Cont…
• However, if the value of the reward remains high
then the employee might not give up but redouble
his or her efforts.
• It is essential that satisfaction is presented very
differently in process theories of motivation as
contrasted with content theories.
• In content theories, such as the need hierarchies,
job satisfaction is assumed to lead a quality
performance. If one is satisfied on the job, then he
or she will perform better.
 Cont…
• Expectancy theories, on the other hand, argue that
a quality performance leads to job satisfaction. If
one performs well on the job then he or she will
find satisfaction.
• Job tasks must be clearly defined and performance
expectations realistic Ambiguous or ―Mission
impossible‖ tasks will not arouse motivation.
• This theory contends that it is more productive to
adjust the reward structure than to try and change
the individual. The link between desired
performance and the specified rewards must be
clear.
 Cont…
• The role of the manager is to remove as many barriers as
possible that hinder the employee from attaining his or
her goals.
• Joe Kelly (1980:31) points out that in order to facilitate
the efforts of the employee extensive task performance
feedback is necessary, workers must feel they have large
control over their work environments, the rewards must
be the desired ones, and training must be appropriate to
the assigned tasks.
• However, a number of theoretical problems with the
model expectancy theory. If the means of achieving the
goals and the performance rewards are specified by the
institution, then the predictive power of the theory
decreases.
 3.3. Content Theories of Motivation
• Content theories of motivation focus on the question of
what arouses energizes or starts behavior for people to
put forth effort. The answer to this question involves the
concept that needs drive people to behave in a particular
manner.
• A need is considered to be an internal quality of the
person (Szilagyi, 1981:407). Hunger (the need for food) a
steady job (the need for security) or career advancement
(the need for promotion) are seen as needs that arouse
people to choose specific acts or patterns of behavior.
Three of the most popular content theories are Abraham
H. Maslow‘s need hierarchy theory, Clayton Alderfer‘s
ERG theory and Frederick Herzberg‘s two-factor theory.
 3.3.1. Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow‘s need hierarchy suggests that people in
organizations are motivated to perform by a
desire to satisfy a set of internal needs. Maslow‘s
framework is based on three fundamental
assumptions (Szilagyi, 1981:408):
• People are beings who want and whose wants
(needs) influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied
needs can influence behavior. Satisfied needs are
not motivators.
• A person‘s needs are arranged in an order of
importance(hierarchy), from the most basic (food
and shelter) to the complex (ego and
 3.3.1. Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
• From these assumptions, Maslow proposed five
classifications of needs that represent the order of
importance to the individual. These needs are: (1)
physiological (2) Safety (3) Social (4) Esteem
and (5) Self-actualization.
 3.3.2. ERG Theory
• A more recent account of a needs hierarchy is Clayton
Alderfer‘s (1969:142-175) ERG theory. Alderfer
forwarded three core hierarchical needs: Existence,
Relatedness, And Growth (together called ERG), thus
reducing Maslow‘s five levels in to three.
The three levels in Alderfer‘s hierarchy are defined
as follows:
• Existence Needs: - These needs contain both
physiological and safety needs, which are
necessary in maintaining physical well-being.
• Relatedness Needs: these needs deal with a
desire for meaningful and satisfying social
 3.3.2. ERG Theory
• According to Hnason (2985:232), ERG theory is more
flexible than Maslow‘s hierarchy in at least two
significant aspects. ERG needs are less fixed to a
hierarchical arrangement, as all three levels can operate at
the same time to certain extent. For instance, a low-paid
teacher who is highly worried about making the monthly
house rent or even getting enough money to cover the
food expense for himself and his family, can still hold
high interest in social relationship with other teachers as
well as attending programs that promote intellectual
growth.
 3.3.2. ERG Theory
• Alderfer also identifies a frustration regression process,
that is, if a person acts to satisfy a higher level need and
is not able to do so, he will try to get satisfaction in the
achievement of a lower level need. For instance, if a
teacher is denied intellectual growth opportunities such as
scholarships or in-service training programs, he might try
to drive satisfaction from activities like social
relationship, participation in community affairs etc. in
other words; individuals might cope-up with their
frustrations by substituting attainable goals.
 3.3.3. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Frederic Herzberg is an American psychologist who
penned this theory in 1959. By conducting a survey
research in a group of people at workplace, he asked their
good and bad experiences at work. He concluded people
job satisfaction depends on two kinds of factors.
• Factors of satisfaction that is motivators and satisfiers
and
• Factors of dissatisfaction that is hygiene and
dissatisfiers‘.
• Recognition, performance, responsibility, job status and
opportunities are the motivators or satisfiers. Salary,
relationship with co-workers, secondary working
conditions, relationship between supervision and
 3.3.3. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• The core idea of the motivation-hygiene theory is that the
different aspects of job can be categorized on the basis of
the nature of needs to which they relate.
• Job components that can gratify employee‘s
psychological-growth needs bring about feelings factors.
Job aspects that can gratify employee‘s pain-avoidance
needs bring about known as motivation factors.
• Frederick Herzberg theorized that employee satisfaction
has two dimensions: ―hygiene‖ and motivation. Hygiene
issues, such as salary and supervision, decrease
employees' dissatisfaction with the work environment.
Motivators, such as recognition and achievement, make
workers more productive, creative and committed.
 3.3.3. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Job aspects that can gratify employees‘ pain-avoidance
needs bring about feelings of dissatisfaction when
nonexistent or insufficient. These job elements are known
as hygiene factors (Silver, 1983:299). The two types of
factors are explained here under the specific job features
making up each type are spelled out.
• Motivation factors are the aspects of a job situation that
can, when present fulfill employees‘ needs for
psychological growth. They tend to be intrinsic to the
work associated with the job. They relate to the content
of the job. Their positive presence leads to feelings of
satisfaction of the employees. On the other hand, when
they are absent, inadequate, or negative, they do not
generally bring about feelings of dissatisfaction.
 3.3.3. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Job aspects that can gratify employees‘ pain-avoidance
needs bring about feelings of dissatisfaction when
nonexistent or insufficient. These job elements are known
as hygiene factors (Silver, 1983:299). The two types of
factors are explained here under the specific job features
making up each type are spelled out.
• Motivation factors are the aspects of a job situation that
can, when present fulfill employees‘ needs for
psychological growth. They tend to be intrinsic to the
work associated with the job. They relate to the content
of the job. Their positive presence leads to feelings of
satisfaction of the employees. On the other hand, when
they are absent, inadequate, or negative, they do not
generally bring about feelings of dissatisfaction.
 3.3.3.1 MTIVATION FACTORS
• Silver (1983:299) defines the six motivation
factors as follows:
1.Achievement:
2.Recognition:
3.Work itself:
4.Responsibility:
5.Advancement
6.Possibility of Growth:.
3.3.3.1 MTIVATION FACTORS
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
• Hygiene factors are the feature of a work condition when
that found sufficiently attain employees‘ pain avoidance
needs. When non-existent insufficient or negative in a
work condition, these elements bring about feelings of
dissatisfaction; but when present, ample and positive they
do not usually bring about feelings of satisfaction.
• Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and are
related to the environment in which the work is carried
out. Existence and nonexistence of Hygiene factors show
existence and nonexistence of dissatisfaction. When non-
existent insufficient or negative in a work condition,
these elements bring about feelings of dissatisfaction; but
when present, ample and positive they do NOT usually
bring about feelings of satisfaction (Silver, 1983:300).
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
The ten hygiene factors are (Silver, 1983:300):
• Organizational policy and Administration:
competence of organization‘s management,
including such elements as clarity of
communication and sufficiency of resources for
task fulfillment; general advantageous or
disadvantageos umanpower policies, such as
salary increment policies, promotion polices, and
fringe benefits.
• Supervision (technical): capability or
incapability, rightfulness or wrongness, and
proficiency or non- proficiency of superiors.
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
• Interpersonal relations (subordinate):
enjoyable or comfortless relations with
individuals at a lower level in the organization.
• Interpersonal Relations (Peer): enjoyable or
comfortless relations with colleagues (persons at
the same level in the organization).
• Working Conditions: the physical conditions of
work. Such as the volume of work or the facilities
provided; heat, light, space and ventilation: tools
equipment, and supplies.
• Status: signs, symbols, or all that goes with
holding a position within the organization, such as
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
• The motivation factors and the hygiene factors
focus on two distinct categories of experience.
Feelings of satisfaction are generally allied with
motivation factors, whereas feelings of
dissatisfaction are most often connected with
hygiene factors. In other words when individuals
state incidents in which they felt particularly
good, happy, or pleased with their jobs, they most
of the time cite the positive features of
achievement recognition, work itself,
responsibility, advancement and/ or possibility of
growth, but not the positive features of hygiene
factors.
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
The major propositions of the Motivation-Hygiene
Theory then, can be grouped into five (Bush et al.
1980::145, silver, 1983:301) as:
• The positive presence of motivation factors leads
to the satisfaction of the employees.
• When motivation factors are non-existent or in a
negative direction employees will not experience
feelings of satisfaction.
• The absence of or the negative presence of the
hygiene factors tends to make employees
dissatisfied. The positive presence of these factors
avoids dissatisfaction in employees and the
3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
The major propositions of the Motivation-Hygiene
Theory then, can be grouped into five (Bush et al.
1980::145, silver, 1983:301) as:
• The positive presence of motivation factors leads
to the satisfaction of the employees.
• When motivation factors are non-existent or in a
negative direction employees will not experience
feelings of satisfaction.
• The absence of or the negative presence of the
hygiene factors tends to make employees
dissatisfied. The positive presence of these factors
avoids dissatisfaction in employees and the
The conclusion3.3.3.2 HYGIENE
he drew is that FACTORS
job satisfaction and
job dissatisfaction are not opposites.
• The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction.
• The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No
Dissatisfaction.

MOTIVATOR CONTINUM
0-------------------------------------------------------------------
----1+
No satisfaction
Satisfaction
The conclusion3.3.3.2 HYGIENE
he drew is that FACTORS
job satisfaction and
job dissatisfaction are not opposites.
• The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction.
• The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No
Dissatisfaction.

MOTIVATOR CONTINUM
0-------------------------------------------------------------------
----1+
No satisfaction
Satisfaction
 3.3.3.2 HYGIENE FACTORS
• In other words, hygiene factors, if absent in the
job, lead to high levels of dissatisfaction; if
present, they create ―zero dissatisfaction‖ or
neutrality. By themselves, hygiene factors do not
motivate individuals to better performance.
• As Aklilu Habte (1967:34) pointed out the
reasons of the high turnover of teachers in order
of frequency of responses as follows:
– Economic and financial factors
– Administrative problems from within and outside the school
– Unfavorable work conditions in the school
– The absence of further educational opportunities
– Difficulties of rural life: Adjustment-problems
• The Evaluation3.3.3.2 HYGIENE
Research FACTORS
for the General Education
System of Ethiopia /ERGESE/ conducted by the
Ministry of Education has also concluded that the work
motivation of teachers and educational administrator are
not satisfactory because of:
• Lack of safe guards and proper handling of teachers and
other administrative staff.
• Lack of adequate remuneration/ low salary/
• Lack adequate housing
• Lack of training opportunities
• Lack of medical services
• Heavy work load
• Lack of acceptance in the community
 The Two Factors
Douglas McGregor, one of Theory ( X and
the leaders Y) Human
of the
Relations Movement, has organized assumptions towards
work into two sets : he called Theory X and Theory Y.),
Theory X is based on the following assumptions
• The average person has an inherent dislike for work and
will avoid it if he can
• The average person lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility
and prefers to be directed.
• Most people are unwilling and unable to help solve
organizational problems
• Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and
threatened with punishment to get them to put forth
adequate effort towards the achievement of
organizational objectives.
Assumptions of Theory
The Two FactorsYTheory
(McGregor,
( X and1960)
Y)
• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in
work is as natural as play or rest.
• People will not only accept responsibility, but will
also seek it under the proper circumstances.
• People will exercise self-control and self-direction
when working toward objectives to which they are
committed- and this is a function of the rewards
associated with achievement.
Compare the two Theories
A. Difference
3.4. PROCESS OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• The content theories,OFwhile
3.4. PROCESS identifying
THEORIES the key factors
OF MOTIVATION
that kindle or strengthen motivated behavior, offer little
explanation of why individuals choose a given behavior
to satisfy specific need. This choice factor in motivation
is the focus of two process theories: expectancy theory
and reinforcement theory.
3.4.1. Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory concerns choice behavior that can
lead to desired rewards. Specially, the theory states that
individuals will evaluate various strategies of behavior
and then choose that behavior that they believe will lead
to those work-related outcomes or rewards that they
value (Szilagy, 1981:414).
Expectancy3.4. PROCESS
theoryOFargues
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
that an employee asks
himself a series of questions before he expends
effort towards the achievement of a given goal.
(A teacher for instance may wish to be selected the
―best teacher of the year‖ from his school and win
the award a Gold Medal. The teacher knows that
nobody is going to come and give him the medal
unless he works hard and comes up with
distinguished performance.)
The theory is usually approached in two
models. The Vroom and the Lawler Porter
model.
 3.4.Vroom
3.4.1.1. The PROCESS Model
OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

According to Hanson (1985:244) Victor Vroom‘s

model of expectancy theory is based on the
following assumptions:-
• Behavior is determined by a combination of
forces in the individual and forces in the
environment.
• People make decisions about their own behavior
in the organizations.
• People make decisions among alternative plans of
behavior based on their perceptions (expectancies)
of the degree to which a given behavior will lead
Expectancy3.4. PROCESS
theory OFcontends
THEORIES OFthat
MOTIVATION
there is no
commonly held set (or hierarchy) of personal goals
that drive people into motion. However, there is a
common cognitive process we all go through that
results in common Promotion, transfer, published
book, high grades etc.) Some of them motivate
behavior and others do not.
The force of motivation equals the product of: -
1. Valence,
2. Expectancy and
3. Instrumentality.
1. Valence (Goal attractiveness, / importance of
 2. Expectancy(effort-performance linkage)
3.4. PROCESS OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• Expectancy is a momentary belief concerning the
probability that a particular action will result in a
particular outcome or set of outcomes (Silver, 1983:324).
Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to the
intended performance goals.

3. Instrumentality (performance reward linkage)

• Instrumentality is the perceived probability that a
particular personal reward will be forthcoming as a
consequence of first-level outcome of task performance.
• It is the belief that a person will receive a desired
outcome if the performance expectation is met.
The Lawler-Porter model expands Vroom‘s
3.4.1.2 THE LAWLER-PORTER MODEL
theory of
motivation saying expectations are cyclical and consists of
explicit intervening variables. These are
• Reward value/Reward Probability:
• Effort to Performance
• Abilities and traits to perform
• Role Perceptions
• Rewards
The Lawler-Porter account of expectancy theory is cyclical
and consists of explicit intervening variables. Hanson
(1985:247-250) enumerates the component parts as follows
and are numbered according to their place in the model:
• Techniques of improving instrumentality of Reward
1. Plan and3.4.2.Reinforcement
Inform Employees Theory (B.F.Skinner,1969)
what they can do to get
reward
2. Administer rewards immediately occurrence of the
behavior as possible
3. Offer different rewards for different achievements
4. Remove reward to punish and reduce negative behaviors
1. Reward value/Reward Probability:
3.4.1.2 THE LAWLER-PORTER MODEL
• This relates to the importance an employee ties up
to a given personal reward and the perceived
probability that the reward will result in a
specified effort will determine the rigor of the
effort to be made.
2. Effort to Performance
• Effort refers to how hard one tries or the amount
of energy put into a specific work situation.
Performance is the level of work accomplishment
or productivity resulting from a given degree of
effort.
 3. Abilities and traits
3.4.1.2 THE LAWLER-PORTER MODEL
• According to porter and Lawler (1965), abilities and
traits refer to relatively stable, long term individual
characteristics e.g. personality ‗traits, intelligence,
manual skills, etc, that represent the individual‘s currently
developed power to perform‖.
4. Role Perceptions
• The effort to performance outcome is constrained or
enhanced by the role perception of the employee. (If a
student on a wheel chair wants to play in the school‘s
football team, then sth is wrong with his role perception.
In order for an individual to apply effort where it will
bring about successful performance, his role perception
should correspond to that of his superiors individuals.)
 5. Rewards 3.4.1.2 THE LAWLER-PORTER MODEL
• The basic premise here is that people will behave in a
given way if they can obtain something they want or need
by doing so; that is, if they are rewarded (Atchison and
Hill 1978:190). Whereas what is regarded as a ―reward‖
varies from person to person, generally reward items can
be categorized into two as extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
(Broedling, 1977:267-276).
• Extrinsic rewards are those rewards that surround the
work and are provided by the organization. Pay, working
conditions, supervision, and status are examples of
extrinsic rewards. They are built into the structure and
practices of the organization, and individual employees
do not have much control over them.
• Intrinsic rewards are an integral part of
3.4.1.2 THE LAWLER-PORTER MODEL
the work and are
derived from actually performing a task. Examples of
intrinsic rewards are a sense of accomplishment,
involvement and recognition. These are not rewards that
the organization can offer to a person. Rather, the
individual experiences them internally through a personal
set of criteria about what makes work attractive.
• Rewards, regardless of the type, are not ends in
themselves.
• As such, perceived Equitable Rewards refer to ―…the
level or amount of rewards that an individual feels he
should receive as a result of a given level of
performance‖ (Hanson, 1985:249)
• It states that behavior is a function of its
3.4.2.Reinforcement Theory (B.F.Skinner,1969)
consequences (or rewards). ,an individual will
repeat behavior that led to positive consequences
and avoid behavior that has had negative effects.
• The Reinforcement Theory ignores an individual‘s
internal motivations and focuses on environmental
factors instead. This theory also called operant
conditioning reinforcement theory
• Stimulus (a stimulus is something that provokes
or causes an action or response).
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
3.4.2.Reinforcement Theory (B.F.Skinner,1969)
1. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
You positively react to someone‘s behavior because
it benefits your team and the organization. This also
assures the individual to repeat their behavior and
continue producing desirable outcomes.
2. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Negative reinforcement refers to removing obstacles
so that others can respond positively and perform
the way that they‘re expected to.
3.PUNISHMENT REINFORCEMENT
3.4.2.Reinforcement Theory (B.F.Skinner,1969)
Punishment doesn‘t mean that you reprimand
someone or criticize them harshly. For example,
suspending an employee for violating work rules.
Punishment should not be confused with negative
reinforcement, where you withhold negative
consequences to encourage good behavior. The
ultimate goal of punishment is to discourage bad
behavior.
4. EXTINCTION REINFORCEMENT
It refers to the absence of reinforcements often used
by managers to stop learned behavior. You withhold
3.6.1. Job redesign
3.6 Managerial Approaches to Motivation
The realization of what role the job plays in the
motivation process has led to three approaches i.e.
job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment
(Szilagyi, 1981:422). Each of these is examined
below
• Job Rotation
• Job Enlargement - increment of the number of
tasks
• Job Enrichment ; Increase quality and quantity of
work and its output;
3.6.1.1. Job Rotation
3.6 Managerial Approaches to Motivation
• Job rotation is a technique in which an employee
works on a series of jobs in an organization or
with a particular unit.
3.6.1.2 Job Enlargement
Job enlargement refers to the increment of the
number of tasks that the employee is to carry out
(Atchison and Hill, 1978:128). As such it is
horizontal in nature since it be taught or the number
of student to be supervised by a teacher, for
instance, is an enlargement of teacher‘s job.
 3.6.1.3 Job Enrichment
3.6 Managerial Approaches to Motivation
Job enrichment as a managerial instrument is based
on Herzber‘s two-factor theory of motivations
(Szilagyi, 1981:423). As indicated earlier, the theory
emphases the concepts, or motivators of challenge,
achievement autonomy, and responsibility, applying
job enrichment to organizations consists of two
significant factors: offering employees more
variety in their work, and also providing them
more authority and responsibility for their work.
According to Littlefield et.al, (1978:61) the goals of
3.6 Managerial Approaches to Motivation
job enrichment and other work design programmes
include the following:
• Increase overall performance- quality and quantity
of work output;
• Increase employee motivation, commitment, and
job satisfaction,
• Reduce employee turnover, absenteeism, and
complaints; and
• Facilitate the introduction of new equipment or
method
Herzberg (1968:53-62) cites several principles of
• Providing feedback: making timely period reports on
performance3.6 Managerial Approaches
to employees (to thetoworker
Motivation
himself rather
than to the supervisor).
• Providing new learning experience: work situations
should encourage opportunities for new experience and
personal growth of the individual.
Herzberg (1968:53-62) cites several principles of job
enrichment:
• Increasing job demands-
• Increasing a worker‘s accountability-
• Providing work scheduling freedom-
• Providing feedback:
• Providing new chance of learning/ experience:
• The success and problems managers have
3.6 Managerial Approaches to Motivation
experienced with job rotation, enlargement, and
enrichment significant issues that must be taken
into account in any job design program.
• First, there needs to be the recognition that not
every individual will respond favorably to a job
that has been altered.
• There are many employees‘ at all organizational
levels who feel at ease and satisfied when
handling routine and repetitive tasks.
Steps of modifying behavior (Szilagyi,1981:430)
• Job analysis ;determining
3.6.2. Behavior Modification
the contents and requirements
of the job,
• Define performance Measures-
• Set goals-.
• Set Measure of actual behavior-
• Set what and when to reward
• Inform and give plan
• Monitor, control and evaluate performances based on the
plan
• Measure the work
• Reward best performances
CHAPTER-FOUR:
LEADERSHIP
• Most scholars complain that defining leadership
is very 4.1. MEANING
difficult OF LEADERSHIP
because the concept itself is
elusive. In effect, there is no uniform
conceptualization that won acceptance by all.
• Harris and Hartman (2002):-
There is no a universal concept of the role of the
leader in an organization.
Leadership is providing followers with the
knowledge, tools, equipment, and incentive to
allow them to attain mutually beneficial goals.
• Others say that, ―Leadership can be described as a
process through which CONT…the supervisor structures
reinforcement contingencies that modify the behavior of
employees. Stimuli preceding behavior and rewards
following behavior serve to motivate employees to work
according to standards of performance.‖ (in Harris and
Hartman 2002).
• Goddard (2003: 13) argues that leadership is not so
simply learned. In schools, leadership is a concept both
multidimensional and multifaceted, where the values,
goals, beliefs and decision-making skills of the principal
give purpose and meaning to the policies and
procedures which she or he is duty-bound to implement.
• Leadership is a ―particular type of power
CONT…
relationship characterized by a group member‘s
perception that another group member has the
right to prescribe behaviour patterns for the
former regarding his activity as a group member‖
(Janda, 1960, p. 358).
• Leadership is ―interpersonal influence, exercised
in a situation, and directed, through the
communication process, toward the attainment of
a specified goal or goals‖ (Tannenbaum,
Weschler, & Massarik, 1961, p. 24).
• Leadership is ―an interaction between persons in which
one presents information CONT…
of a sort and in such a manner
that the other becomes convinced that his outcomes …
will be improved if he behaves in the manner suggested
or desired‖ (Jacobs, 1970, p. 232).
• Leadership is ―the initiation and maintenance of structure
in expectation and interaction‖ (Stogdill, 1974, p. 411).
• Leadership is ―the relationship in which one person, the
leader, influences others to work together willingly on
related tasks to attain that which the leader desires‖
(Terry. 1977, 410).
• Leadership is ―the influential increment over and
CONT…
above mechanical compliance with the routine
directives of the organization‖ (Katz & Kahn,
1978, p. 528).
• According to Bray, Campbell and Grant,
leadership is the ―effectiveness in getting ideas
accepted and in guiding a group or an individual
to accomplish a task‖ (Morris, 1979, p. 5).
• Koontz and O‘Donnell define leadership as ―the
art or process of influencing people
• so that they will strive willingly towards the
achievement of group goals‖ (Koontz et. al.,
• ―Leadership is an interaction between members of
a group. Leaders are CONT…
agents of change, persons
whose acts affect other people more than other
.
people‘s acts affect them‖ (Bass, 1985, p. 16).
• ―… interpersonal influence exercised in a
situation and directed, through the communication
process, toward the attainment of a specialised
goal or goals‖ (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982, p.
83).
‗

• ―Leadership is the process of defining current

situations and articulating goals for the future;
making the decisions necessary to resolve the
• As can be seen from the definitions reflected
CONT…
above, most definitions of leadership reflect the
assumption that leadership involves a process
whereby one person exerts intentional influence
over other people to guide, structure, and facilitate
activities and relationships in a group or
organization. Most conceptions of leadership
imply that at various times one or more group
members can be identified as a leader according
to some observable difference between the
person(s) and other members, who are referred to
as ―followers‖ or ―subordinates‖.
From the majority of these definitions.,
Leadership:- CONT…
• Is a process
• Involves influence
• Occurs in a group context (you need to have at
least one constituent)
• Involves goal attainment
• However, no matter how leadership has been
operationalized leadership, these components
play
 Unit Five: Work Assignment
• Definition Assignment of work
• It is the translation of goal statements into group or
individual activities.
• It is setting and giving detail tasks to workers to enable
them to know what and how to do
Here,
• Goals focus on the planned output: but
• Tasks focus on activities carried out to accomplish goals
 Work assignment has two aspects: - these are;
1. Determining what is to be done
• . This is identifying statement what is to be done;
 It has four features (as stated by Atchison and Hill, 1978:86-88)
A. End states (output):name of goods (material output) or a service
to be produced
B. Quality standards: minimum, optimal and maximal level of quality
expected
C. Time of execution: short-term, medium and long term activities/goals (this
depends up on the competence, motivation and healthiness of the doer;
availability of faculties and other resources needed, easiness of the procedure ,
etc.
D. Resources needed (their types and sources
2 Determining How It Is To Be Done : this includes
a. Interactions/communication: independently, interdependently,
dependently (waiting for others decisions/actions)
b. Level of decisions/approval required to do the work :
depends up on the level of management
• Level of Freedom to make decisions is directly related to
managerial levels
3.2 Factors Determine Scope and Speed of Work
Assignment
a. Level of Clarity/ understanding the work contents :
Clarity. Moderate, Vagueness /
b. Level of Feasibility/possibility to apply the work :
Simplicity “easy” ; Medium, Impossible
• Factors Affecting Level of Difficulty of work
assignment
a. Focus of the work : Quantity or quality
b. Goal of the work : easily achievable , challenging and
unachievable
c. Activities of the work : Simple or complex
d. Experience/ Competence of both the work designer and
executers
e. Time of designing and execution
 Effective Work assignment needs
A, Cascading and Integrating Works
Cascade :Visions, Goals, Targets vertically and horizontally
*Vision; into goals ; Goals in to Targets
B. Attach and Provide Resources
C. Setting performance levels (thresholds) and
D. Planning rewards system for high thresholds
 Legal Requirements Work Assigning
a. Policies: general guideline or direction showing statements
b, Procedures ; Clear steps of doing works
c. Rules : Dos and Donots of the work
 Management of Work Execution
 Traditional Versus Management by Objectives
• MBO was first popularized by Drucker in 1954 and later, by
• McGregor in 1967(Atchison and Hill, 1978).
• MBO is defined as: a process whereby superiors and
subordinates jointly:
 identify common goals;
 define each major areas of responsibilities
 guide the operation and
 assess the contribution of each of the members (Odiorne,
1965:8).
• The initial purpose of MBO is to eliminate or minimize
negative effects of performance appraisal. The rate and cat
type of feeling between the appraisers and appraises
But
• Traditionally, setting plans and a performance
appraisal system is carried out by managers with out
participating workers and directly applied by the workers
This is because
Traditionally it was believed that ―Goals of the workers and
that of organizations contradict each other‖
And ―Employees are not part of the organization‖
 The Focus of Performance appraisal
During Traditional Time ,PA focuses on
 personal characteristics of the employee like
punctuality, obedience
 inputs, but not on outputs and
 manager’s perception/goodwill but not that of the
doers
But
During the time of MBO, PA focuses on
• Goals
• Participation
• Provision of Frequent and Balanced Feedbacks.
• Provision Strategic of feedbacks: to encourage strong
sides and minimize weak sides of both the managers
and employees
 CHAPTER SIX:TEACHER ASSIGNEMENT
4.1 The Concept and Development of Teacher Assignment
• Quality of education strongly depends upon Quality
Teacher
• Teachers Assignment means determination of the
right type and amount of teachers in every grade
and section of educational organizations
• Two major stages of teacher assignment
a. Traditional Assignment:
b\ Emerging Assignment:
 Teachers assignment
Assumptions of Traditional Teachers assignment
a. Education is static and comprehensive process by which
pupils master a defined content and grasp the values of the
society through the help of an instructor.
b. Teacher relies mainly on text-books
c. Basic skills required for all forms of teaching are the same
d. Teachers have similar motivations, goals and values
e.Teacher’s have similar conceptions of their roles
and they have similar expectations.
f. Passive learning (students are empty vessel)
 Assumptions Emerging Assignment:
• Sources knowledge for students are too many

• Students have some background knowledge

• Teachers are subject maters, Coaches, Counselor, and

facilitators of learning

• Students have many learning styles

•
• Perquisites to Teachers assignment

a. Training in subject matter (Specialization)

b. Training in relevant methodology,

c. Relevant experience

and

e. Physical and Psychological health

 Four types of teachers
1. Beginning Teachers
2. New Teachers : Are those who transferred from other
schools
3. Old-Fashioned Teachers
4. Weak or Failing Teacher

• Beginners need
a. Attachment with experienced teachers
b. Decreased teaching load and
c. Organization of visitation, conferences and work-shops.
• New Teachers : require sufficient information about the
school and its environment
• Weak teachers have defect in voice, conduct and
motivation, communication .

Factors Affecting Teaching Load

a. Number of sections taught daily or weekly
b. Number of pupils taught
c. Number of lesson plan preparations required
d. Length of the class
e. Type of subject taught and time required for preparation
f. Age and maturity of the pupils taught
 Factors of assigning teachers by Different writers

Hamington
Abraham

Douglass
Almack
Factors

Hadson

Woddy
Brown

sand
frost
Class period………….. X X X X X X X X X
Variety of courses.......... X X ... X … …. … X X
...
Class size ........... .... …
X X X X .. X X
Co-operation.................. .. X X X .. …. … .,,,, …
Length of period…....... .. ,,,, X X …. … X ,,,,
…
Subject Weight………. X
X X X X X …. X
Standard Teaching Load … …. X …. ….. …. X X
• Average teaching load in most countries is 5 to 6 /day or 25 to
30/ week
• As to Douglass (1963) formula, teaching load can be determined
as:
TL= SC (CP - 2DUP + NP-30c1) + (PL+50) + 2PC (PL+50)
10 10 100 3 100
TL = Teaching load per week
SC = Subject coefficient for differences in load between subjects
CP = Class period spent in classroom per week
DUP = Number of periods spent weekly teaching similar subjects
NP = Number of pupils in class per week
PC = Number of periods spent per week in supervision of
student activities,
PL = Periods Length in minutes.
 Methods of Reducing Work Load
• Reduction of the Number of sections
• Elimination of Small Sections
• Assignment of teachers in a subject have adequate training and
to a grade level in which they have taught
• Directly lightening teacher’s load
• Assigning teaching assistants
• Avoiding long, tedious, uninteresting teachers’
meetings
• Providing facilities needed for instructional purposes
• Providing simplified forms of reports such as
attendance sheets, grade report, rosters etc.
• Reduce unwanted other loads
 Job Enrichment Model
• It is provision of chance of working other assignments that
improve experience, knowledge and skill of teachers. Example
delegating teachers on the position of directors or supervisors
• It is a strategy of increasing teachers’ interest, intrinsic
satisfaction and dedication to their work
 Job Enrichment Characteristics.
It is changing the job of teaching to improve opportunities for
experiencing intrinsic satisfaction. These include:
a. Task Variety- providing diverse works
b. Tasks Uncertainty ; provide unexpected jobs that improve
skills of facing and solving sudden challenges
c. Social interaction- give chance for creating more
communications with other persons or work units of
organization; This develops skill of: working with
others, securing recognition, acceptance and
building commitment and loyalty
 Strategies of Job Enrichment

d. Task significance : give chance to do works that

have observable advantages. This
is possible by providing jobs with detail objectives
and making teachers understand and appreciate
end results of doing the jobs
e. Task identity – give jobs that might improve the
view of teachers that they are key contributors of
the wider purpose or vision of their school.
f. Responsibility for Results: Job enrichment (provide
jobs that) increases accountability to the end
results of a job
g. Knowledge of Results: job enrichment improves
 According to Staw (1974
• Task variety, Task uncertainty, and Social interaction are
characteristics of JE associated with task behaviors ; They
lead teachers to greater intrinsic satisfaction, voluntary
participation, and greater intrinsic satisfaction,

• Satisfaction, persistence and participation are

quantity of task performance.
• There 4 job characteristics :skill variety, task
identity, task significance and autonomy
 Job Characteristics model suggests that, teaching Requires:

a. using variety teacher’s talents and skills (skill

variety).
b. Holistic or complete tasks (task identity).
c. Focusing on significance/ impact of teaching on lives of
learners (task significance)
d. Providing teachers with direct and clear information about
their performance (feedback)
(They all evoke the psychological states on teachers)
 CHAPTER THREE
PEOPLE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
Personal Determinants of Work

a. Skill- capability of how to do; physical and mental skill.

b. Knowledge- understand what to do

c. Effort : readiness to do/commitment to do

Douglas McGregor, one of the leaders of the Human

Relations Movement, has organized assumptions towards

work into two sets : he called Theory X and Theory Y.

 According to McGregor (1960:33-34), Theory X is based on
the following assumptions
1. The average person has an inherent dislike for work and will
avoid it if he can
2. The average person lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and
prefers to be directed.
3. Most people are unwilling and unable to help solve
organizational problems
4. Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened
with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort towards
the achievement of organizational objectives.
.
Assumptions of Theory Y (McGregor, 1960; 47-48)
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is
as natural as play or rest.
2. People will not only accept responsibility, but will also
seek it under the proper circumstances.
3. People will exercise self-control and self-direction when
working toward objectives to which they are committed-
and this is a function of the rewards associated with
achievement.
 Compare the two Theories
A. Difference

Theory X is very traditional and pessimist but Theory Y is more modern

and optimistic

B. Similarity

Both propose that managers should analyze people‘s behavior and

determine what makes or motivates people to do work

The two theories responding the questions what motivates people to

their work?

A. Content Theory

B. Process Theory
A. Content Theories of Motivation
1. Need Hierarchy (Abraham Maslow)
Five needs (Physiological, Safety, Social, esteem and self
actualization).

SA
Esteem
Social
Security
Physiological Needs
1. Physiological Needs: survival needs as food, air, water, sex,
shelter, and sleep.
2. Safety Needs: - need for protection/ security from danger,
illness, disaster etc.
3. Social Needs: need for association ,belonging, friendship, and
approval
4. Esteem Needs. Two types of esteem needs:
a. self-esteem ( need for self-confidence, achievement, knowledge,
and independence)
b. Esteem by others : high reputability /name/status or
respect/appreciation/acceptance by others .
5. Self-Actualization Needs: need for self-fulfillment/ maximize
the use of one‘s potential,
• Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs model which
is useful for determining which organization model is
more useful for educational organizations (Morphet
et. al. 1982:87).
• His need hierarchy suggests that people are motivated
to perform to satisfy internal needs.
• His theory is based on three fundamental assumptions
(Szilagyi, 1981:408):
1.Only unsatisfied needs can motivate people to do
work/Satisfied needs are not motivators.
2.Needs are arranged in order (hierarchy), from
most basic (food and shelter) to complex (ego
and achievement)
3. Only after lower need is satisfied that upper
start to motivate the person
 2. ERG Theory
• 2nd content theory of motivation
• Alderfer summarized and forwarded three core hierarchical
needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (together called
ERG),
He reduced Maslow‘s five levels to three,
1. Existence Needs: physiological and safety needs,
2.Relatedness Needs: a desire for social relationships.
3 Growth Needs: highest level of needs and consists of self
esteem and self-actualization. They represent an intrinsic
desire for personal development.
• As to Hnason (2985:232),
ERG theory is more flexible than Maslow‘s hierarchy : ERG needs are
less fixed to a hierarchical arrangement, as all three levels can operate
at the same time to certain extent.

C. Hertzberg‟s Two Theory

• The 3rd content theory of motivation is developed by Frederick
Herzberg .while is called the two-factor theory or the motivator-
hygienic theory, it has been widely received and applied by managers
(Szilagyi, 1981:411)
• Job components that can motivate employees do works are known
as motivation factors.
• But those reduces their pains related their job are known as hygiene
factors (Silver, 1983:299).
 Motivation Factors
• Motivation factors are job situations that can satisfy intrinsic/
psychological growth.
Silver (1983:299) defines the six motivation factors as follows:
1. Achievement/ attainment: ability or inability to see outcomes
of work.
2. Recognition:
3. The nature Work itself: of the tasks to be carried out on the
job. The tasks themselves might be routine or varied; creative or
futile; interesting or boring hard or light.
4. Responsibility: existence or non-existence of autonomy \.
5. Possibility of Growth/ Advancement;
 Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and are related to the environment in which the
work is carried out.
Existence and nonexistence of Hygiene factors show existence and nonexistence of
dissatisfaction.
The ten hygiene factors are (Silver, 1983:300):
1. Clarify of organizational policy
2. Existence of good administration:
3. Capability or rightfulness Supervision
4. Sufficiency /timeliness of salary‟
5. Good interpersonal relation/ agreement
6. Interpersonal Relations (Peer): enjoyable or comfortless relations with colleagues (persons
at the same level in the organization).
7. Confortable physical working conditions: volume of work , facilities provided; heat, light,
space and ventilation: tools equipment, office space, and supplies.
8. Presence of Status:
9. Existence or nonexistence of Job Security:
10. Positive Effect of work on personal Life:
 MOTIVATOR CONTINUM
0-----------------------------------------------------------------------1+
No satisfaction Satisfaction

HYGIENE CONTINUUM
0-------------------------------------------------------------------------l+
Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction
• As to Aklilu Habte (1967:34) pointed out the reasons for
the high turnover of teachers in order of frequency of
responses as follows:
a. Economic and financial factors
b. Administrative problems from within and outside the school
c. Unfavorable work conditions in the school
d. The absence of further educational opportunities
e. Difficulties of rural life: Adjustment-problems
f. Isolation factors: Feeling of being forgotten
g. Lack of careful selection of teachers and administrators
h. Low social prestige accorded to teachers by government officials,
parents and the community
• The Evaluation Research /ERGESE/ conducted by MoE, it was
concluded that the work motivation of teachers and educational
administrator are not satisfactory because of:
a. Lack of safe guards and proper handling of teachers and other
administrative staff.
b. Lack of adequate remuneration/ low salary/
c. Lack adequate housing
d. Lack of training opportunities
e. Lack of medical services
f. Heavy work load
g. Lack of acceptance in the community
 Process Theories of Motivation
• Process Theories of motivation explains why individuals choose a given behavior
to satisfy specific need.
• There are two process theories: Expectancy theory and Reinforcement theory.
A. Expectancy Theory
• People behave to get some expected rewards or meet expected outcomes. There
two models under Expectancy Theory: Vroom model and Lawler-Porter model
a. Vroom Model
• According to Hanson (1985:244) victor Vroom‘s model of expectancy theory has
the following four assumptions:
1. Behavior is determined by both forces ( in the individual and in the environment).
2. People make decisions about their own behavior.
3. People make decisions among alternative plans of behavior based on their
expectancies to which a given behavior will lead to desired outcomes.
• Expectancy theory contends that there is no common hierarchy of
personal goals that drive people into motion. However, there is a common
cognitive process that results common ends (
• Promotion, transfer, published book, high grades etc.)
• People manifest some but reject other behaviors because of product of
expectancy, instrumentality and valence.
1. Valence (perceived attractiveness/ importance of goal of the work)
• Valence is the degree of attractiveness or repulsive of outcomes,
• Outcomes range in attractiveness from positive, neutral, to negative
2. Expectancy (linkage between effort-performance)
• Expectancy is a momentary belief concerning the probability that a
particular action will result in a particular outcome
• The belief ranges from 0 to 100 percent.
 3. Instrumentality (linkage between performance and reward)
• Instrumentality is the perceived probability (from 0 to 100 percent)
that a particular personal reward will be forthcoming as a consequence
of first-level task performance.
a. The Lawler-Porter Model
• The Lawler-Porter model expands Vroom‘s theory of motivation
saying expectations are cyclical and consists of explicit intervening
variables. These are
1. Reward value/Reward Probability:
2. Effort to Performance
3. Abilities and traits to perform
4. Role Perceptions
5. Rewards
B. Reinforcement Theory (B.F.Skinner,1969)
• 2nd process theory of motivation is reinforcement
theory, It is also called operant conditioning reinforcement
theory
• It states: behavior (or motivation) is a function of its
consequences (or rewards).
• If people are rewarded for their high performances, they
should repeat the high level performance
• Stimulus
Types of Reinforcement :There are 2 basic types of
reinforcements
 Positive reinforcement: is that employed to make desired
behavior be repeated by the individual.
 Negative reinforcement (Punishment) : is applied to
minimize occurrence of undesired behavior
• Techniques of improving instrumentality of Reward
1. Plan and Inform Employees what they can do to get reward
2. Administer rewards immediately occurrence of the behavior as
possible
3. Offer different rewards for different achievements
4. Remove reward to punish and reduce negative behaviors
 Managerial Strategies orApproaches to Motivation
• a. Job redesign
• b. Job Rotation
• c. Job Enlargement - increment of the number of tasks
d. Job Enrichment ; Increase quality and quantity of work and
its output;
• Herzberg (1968:53-62) cites several principles of job
enrichment:
1. Increasing job demands-
2. Increasing a worker‘s accountability-
3. Providing work scheduling freedom-
4. Providing feedback:
5. Providing new chance of learning/ experience:
 · Behavior Modification
• Steps of modifying behavior (Szilagyi,1981:430)
1. Job analysis ;determining the contents and requirements of the
job,
2. Define performance Measures-
3. Set goals-.
4. Set Measure of actual behavior-
5. Set what and when to reward
6. Inform and give plan
7. Monitor, control and evaluate performances based on the plan
8. Measure the work
9. Reward best performances
 The End
of
the Course