Explain the terms in brief

(a) Management Functions

(b) Leadership

(c) OCB

(d) Glass Ceiling

(e) Social Loafing

(f) Span of control

(g) Attitude

(a) Management Functions

These are the core activities performed by managers to achieve organizational goals. The primary

functions include:

1. Planning: Setting goals and determining the best way to achieve them.

2. Organizing: Allocating resources and assigning tasks.

3. Leading: Motivating and guiding employees to achieve objectives.

4. Controlling: Monitoring performance and making corrections as needed.

(b) Leadership

Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and guide individuals or groups toward achieving a

common goal. A good leader inspires trust, provides direction, and encourages innovation and

collaboration.

(c) OCB (Organizational Citizenship Behavior)

OCB refers to voluntary, extra-role behaviors that employees perform to contribute to organizational

effectiveness. Examples include helping coworkers, being punctual, or showing initiative. These
behaviors are not part of formal job requirements but enhance the workplace environment.

(d) Glass Ceiling

The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that prevents certain groups, such as women or minorities,

from advancing to higher positions in organizations, despite having the qualifications or capabilities.

(e) Social Loafing

Social loafing occurs when individuals in a group put in less effort than they would when working

alone. This typically happens because they rely on others to carry the workload.

(f) Span of Control

Span of control refers to the number of subordinates directly managed by a supervisor. A narrow

span has fewer subordinates per manager, leading to closer supervision, while a wide span involves

managing more employees, promoting autonomy.

(g) Attitude

Attitude refers to a person's feelings, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, or

situation. It has three components:

1. Cognitive: What one believes.

2. Affective: How one feels.

3. Behavioral: How one acts based on beliefs and feelings.

Explain the following terms:

(a) Dependent Variable

(b) Social Learning

(c) Escalation of commitment

(e) Job Characteristic Model

(f) Socialization process

(g) Learning Organization

(a) Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is the outcome or effect in a study or experiment that researchers aim to

measure. It is influenced or changed by variations in the independent variable. For example, in a

study on the effect of training on productivity, productivity is the dependent variable.

(b) Social Learning

Social learning is a theory that suggests individuals learn behaviors, attitudes, and skills by

observing and imitating others, especially role models. It emphasizes the importance of observing

rewards or punishments for specific behaviors in shaping one's own actions.

(c) Escalation of Commitment

Escalation of commitment occurs when individuals or organizations continue to invest resources in a

failing course of action, despite evidence that it is unlikely to succeed. This behavior often stems

from the desire to justify past investments or avoid admitting failure.

(d) Cognitive Evaluation Theory

This theory explains how external rewards or pressures can influence intrinsic motivation. According

to this theory, when people perceive external rewards as controlling their behavior, their intrinsic

motivation decreases. Conversely, recognition or positive feedback that supports competence can

enhance intrinsic motivation.

This model identifies key characteristics of a job that influence employee satisfaction and motivation.

These characteristics are:

1. Skill variety: Using a range of skills.

2. Task identity: Completing a whole, identifiable task.

3. Task significance: The job's impact on others.

4. Autonomy: Freedom in decision-making.

5. Feedback: Information on performance effectiveness.

(f) Socialization Process

The socialization process involves teaching new employees the values, norms, and behaviors

expected in an organization. It helps individuals adapt to their roles and integrate into the

organizational culture through orientation programs, mentorship, and peer interaction.

(g) Learning Organization

A learning organization is one that continuously evolves by encouraging employees to acquire,

share, and apply knowledge. Such organizations foster innovation, adaptability, and collaboration,

often emphasizing open communication, continuous training, and a culture of experimentation.

(a) Administration

(b) OCB

(c) Locus of Control

(d) Values

(e) Organization Culture

(f) Negotiation

(g) Team
(a) Administration

Administration refers to the process of organizing, directing, and overseeing the implementation of

policies, rules, and procedures within an organization. It focuses on routine operations, resource

management, and ensuring tasks are completed efficiently to meet organizational goals.

(b) OCB (Organizational Citizenship Behavior)

OCB involves voluntary, discretionary actions by employees that go beyond their formal job

requirements. These actions, such as helping colleagues or promoting a positive work environment,

contribute to the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the organization.

(c) Locus of Control

Locus of control is a psychological concept that describes whether individuals believe they have

control over events in their lives.

- Internal locus of control: Belief that one's actions determine outcomes.

- External locus of control: Belief that external factors, like luck or fate, control outcomes.

(d) Values

Values are deep-seated beliefs or principles that guide an individual?s behavior and decisions. They

represent what people consider important, such as honesty, respect, or teamwork, and are often

shaped by culture, upbringing, and personal experiences.

(e) Organizational Culture

Organizational culture refers to the shared values, norms, beliefs, and practices that shape the

behavior and mindset of employees within an organization. It influences decision-making,

communication, and how employees interact with one another and the external environment.
(f) Negotiation

Negotiation is the process of two or more parties communicating and bargaining to reach a mutually

beneficial agreement. Effective negotiation requires understanding interests, building trust, and

finding common ground while minimizing conflicts.

(g) Team

A team is a group of individuals with complementary skills who work together to achieve a shared

goal or objective. Effective teams foster collaboration, communication, trust, and accountability

among members.

1. Motivation

2. Stereotyping

3. Referent Power

4. Negotiation

5. Stress Management

6. Transaction Analysis

7. Perception

1. Motivation

Motivation refers to the internal or external factors that stimulate individuals to take action, sustain

effort, and achieve goals. It can be driven by intrinsic factors (personal satisfaction) or extrinsic

factors (rewards or recognition).

2. Stereotyping

Stereotyping involves forming generalized and oversimplified beliefs or assumptions about a group
of people based on characteristics like gender, age, ethnicity, or profession. Stereotypes can lead to

biases and unfair treatment in decision-making and interactions.

3. Referent Power

Referent power is a type of influence derived from the respect, admiration, or loyalty others have for

a person. It is based on charisma, personal relationships, and the ability to inspire others to follow or

emulate the individual.

4. Negotiation

Negotiation is a process where two or more parties discuss and resolve differences to reach a

mutually acceptable agreement. It involves communication, compromise, and finding a win-win

solution while minimizing conflict.

5. Stress Management

Stress management refers to techniques and strategies used to control and reduce stress levels for

better mental and physical well-being. Common methods include exercise, relaxation techniques,

time management, and seeking social support.

6. Transaction Analysis

Transaction analysis is a psychological and communication theory that examines interactions

between individuals. It identifies three ego states?Parent, Adult, and Child?to understand and

improve communication patterns and relationships.

7. Perception

Perception is the process by which individuals interpret and organize sensory information to make

sense of their environment. It is influenced by personal experiences, attitudes, and biases, leading
to unique interpretations of the same situation.