PREFACE

1.1. Preamble

Welcome to this module on Research Methods, for the Bachelor of Education. To be able to perform
your duties effectively as a teacher you definitely require an understanding of research methods.
This course is designed to introduce to the basic concepts and problems encountered in scientific
investigation, including types of data and measurement, sampling and research design. It will
emphasize the importance and limitations of theory and research ethics. Such knowledge will help
you to effectively undertake any scientific investigation in the teaching-learning process.

It will also help in improving educational practices by applying the knowledge of Research
principles that you are going to learn in this module in the teaching-learning process. The learning
content, activities and revision questions provided in this module will give you an opportunity to
explore the broad area of research methodology and help you discover how it serves as a guide and
aid to improving the educational practices.

This module is part of a series of modules to be offered by the Department of Psychology and
Educational. The aim of this module is to ground you with the basic knowledge in the diverse areas
of Research Methodology. As the discussions progress, you will be informed about the areas that
will be covered in detail later in the programme.

1.2. Purpose of the Module

The purpose of this module is to familiarize you with the basic concepts
in research methods and their application in the teaching-learning
process.

1.3. General Learning Objectives

To guide you through this module some general learning objectives related to each chapter of study
have been developed. At the beginning of each chapter, you will find more specific objectives
generated from the general objectives. The specific objectives will guide you through the learning
material and keep your attention focused on the expected outcomes of each topic. They specify the
competences you will be expected to demonstrate in the evaluation process, that is, self-evaluation
assignments, continuous assessment tests, and the final examination.

The general objectives stated below will act as your navigational compass to guide you through this
module. After reading various chapters of this module you should be able to:

• Understand the concept of research methodology.

• Describe the various methods and designs used in research.

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 • Understand and apply various methods of study in the investigation of problems related to
the teaching-learning process.
• Demonstrate an understanding in writing a research proposal
• Understand the research process.
• Understand the concept of review of literature.
• Demonstrate an understanding of research planning.
• Understand the concept of population and sampling.
• Demonstrate an understanding of tools used in data collection.
• Understand the various ways of data analysis and interpretation.
• Understand how research results are reported and disseminated.
• Understand the concept of ethical and legal issues in educational research.
• Apply the knowledge acquired in carrying out investigations on various problems related to
the teaching-learning process.

1.4. Overview of the Module

1.4.1. Scope of the Module
This module will expose you to various concepts in Research Methodology as a beginning student in
teacher education. The topics of the module have been selected carefully to ensure that they equip
you with the basic knowledge in Research Methodology so as to:

• Undertake research projects in education related issues.

• Improve your skills as a researcher.
• Equip you with prerequisite knowledge for better understanding of any research oriented
articles.

The content to be covered includes:

• Introduction
o Meaning of research
o Scientific approach
o Types of research
o Various areas of research in education
o Contribution of research to the teaching-learning process
• Research Planning
o Identifying and defining a research problem
o Formulating research objectives, hypothesis and questions
o The meaning and significance of research proposal
o Planning and budgeting for research activities
• Review of Literature
o Meaning and significance of review of literature
o Steps in carrying out review of literature
o Sources (Preliminary, Primary and Secondary)
o Citation and reference procedures

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 • Research Design
o Qualitative research designs
o Quantitative research designs
• Population and Sampling
o Definition of a population
o Sampling and importance of sampling
o Sampling techniques
• Data Collection
o Sources of data
o Types of data
o Data collection instruments and methods (Interviewing schedule, Questionnaires,
Observation, Tests, Checklists and Ratings)
• Data Analysis Tools
o Why use Statistics
o Descriptive statistics
o Inferential statistics
o Computer as a tool
• Research Report and Dissemination
o Methods of research dissemination
o The research report
• Ethical and Legal Issues in Research

The module is detailed enough to be studied independently if you are unable to access textbooks in
research methods. However, if you find yourself developing special interest in any of the topics
discussed you are advised to make use of the references given in the module. Most of these
reference books are available in the Egerton University Library.

1.4.2. The Study Material

The study material for this module comprises of this module and tutorial letters that will be given to
you after registering for the course. In addition to this module you are encouraged to consult the
list of references given in the module and any other research methods texts available in Libraries
accessible to you.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE .......................................................................................................................................................................I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................... IV

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................................. 1

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH .............................................................................................................. 1

Topic 1: Definition and Importance of research ..................................................................................................................................1

Topic 2: Areas of Research in education ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Topic 4: General Kinds of Research ....................................................................................................................................................... 3

Topic 5: Sources of Knowledge ............................................................................................................................................................... 5

Topic 6: The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation ............................................................................................................ 5

Topic 7: Research procedure ................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

? Revision Questions ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................................ 11

QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, AND MIXED RESEARCH ....................................................................................... 11

Topic 1: Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms ........................................................................................................... 11

Topic 2: Quantitative Research Methods ............................................................................................................................................. 11

Summary .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19

? Revision questions......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................................................................... 21

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION ......................................................................... 21

Topic 1: Sources of Research Ideas ..................................................................................................................................................... 21

Topic 2: Ideas that cannot be researched empirically ................................................................................................................... 22

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Topic 3: Selecting a Research Topic ................................................................................................................................................... 22

Topic 4: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................................................................................ 24

Topic 5: Statement of the Purpose, Research Questions and Hypotheses of the Study ........................................................26

Topic 6: The Research Proposal ........................................................................................................................................................... 28

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................29

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 30

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................................................... 31

RESEARCH ETHICS ................................................................................................................................................... 31

Topic 1: Ethical Concerns........................................................................................................................................................................ 31

Topic 2: Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans ................................................................................................................. 32

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 34

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 34

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................................................... 35

STANDARDISED MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT....................................................................................... 35

Topic 1: Scales of Measurement .......................................................................................................................................................... 35

Topic 2: Good Test or Assessment Procedure ..................................................................................................................................37

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................39

? Revision Questions .........................................................................................................................................................................................39

CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................................................ 40

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................................................... 40

Topic 1: Tests .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 41

Topic 2: Questionnaires ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41

Topic 3: Interviews................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Topic 4: Observation ................................................................................................................................................................................ 45

Topic 5: Secondary/Existing Data ........................................................................................................................................................ 46

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Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 47

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 48

CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................................................................................................... 49

SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................................ 49

Topic 1: Terminology Used in Sampling ............................................................................................................................................. 49

Topic 2: Objectives of sampling ............................................................................................................................................................ 50

Topic 3: Sampling strategies ................................................................................................................................................................ 50

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 53

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER EIGHT ....................................................................................................................................................... 55

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ...................................................................................................................................... 55

Topic 1: Importance of statistics in research ................................................................................................................................... 55

Topic 2: Statistical Symbols .................................................................................................................................................................. 56

Topic 3: Organisation of Data ................................................................................................................................................................ 56

Summary .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 67

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 68

CHAPTER NINE ......................................................................................................................................................... 69

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ...................................................................................................................................... 69

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 85

? Revision Questions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 85

CHAPTER TEN........................................................................................................................................................... 86

WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT ....................................................................................................................... 86

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................92

? Revision Questions .........................................................................................................................................................................................92

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GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH METHODS TERMS .................................................................................................... 93

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 CHAPTER ONE
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define the term research.
2. Describe four aspects which influence the successful management
of a research project.
3. Explain the four common purposes for conducting research.
4. Describe the four approaches employed in research
5. Explain the importance of research in education.
6. Give the characteristics of research
7. Define the term theory
8. Explain the objectives of research
9. List the basic assumptions of research

Introduction

The purpose of chapter is to provide an overview of research and introduce you to some important
terms and concepts. It offers the definition of the term research, the types of research and the
reasons for undertaking research. A discussion of the objectives of research is given. The reasons
why you need a research methodology course are given. The areas of interest for research in
education are identified. The place of science in research is also addressed

Topic 1: Definition and importance of research

Research can be defined as a process of systematic investigation of a subject for the purpose of
adding to the body of knowledge about that subject. Contained in that definition are three key points:
• Research is a process: it is carried out in stages.
• Investigation is carried out systematically: the investigation is planned.
• Research is intended to add to the body of knowledge: the purpose of research is to inform
(Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

Here are a few reasons why you need to take the course in research methodology:

• To become "research literate."

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 • Because we live in a society that's driven by research.

• To improve your critical thinking skills.

• To learn how to read and critically evaluate published research.

• To learn how to design and conduct research in case the need arises one day.

The following are the purposes of research:

Research aims at the:

• Acquisition of certified (empirical or verifiable) practical knowledge.
• Development of theories through the discovery of broad generalizations or principles. The
findings of research are expected to be applicable to actual problems in areas considered
to be of concern to people other than the investigator.
• Providing solutions to problems. Behavioural research uncovers problems encountered by
human beings.
• Developing generalizations about the improvements of life.
• Satisfying one’s curiosity about how and why things work the way they do. Scientists are
curious people who want to satisfy their curiosity.
• Describing natural or social phenomena – their form, structure, activity, relationship to
other phenomena and so on. Descriptive studies help us to increase our knowledge about
what happens in life.
• Prediction of the phenomena that will occur at time Y from information available at an
earlier time X. For example a student’s performance in the KCSE can be predicted
accurately by an aptitude test administered a year or two earlier. Test results can be used
to predict a student’s chance of success in a university, college and job market. Predictive
knowledge can be used to identify students who are at risk of dropping out of school.
Research has generated predictive knowledge about factors that predict various outcomes
that have social importance( e.g., career success, criminal behaviour, academic success)

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 • Explaining a phenomenon. Researchers ideally frame their explanations as theories about
the phenomenon being investigated. A theory is an explanation of a certain set of observed
phenomena in terms of constructs and laws that relate these constructs to each other.

Topic 4: General Kinds of Research

In this section, five kinds of research are discussed. These include:

• Basic research
• Applied research
• Evaluation research
• Action research and
• Orientational research

Basic and Applied Research

Basic research is research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical

understanding about basic human and other natural processes. Applied research is focused on
answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions to problems. Basic and
applied research can be viewed as two endpoints on a research continuum. Here is the continuum:

Basic------------------------------Mixed------------------------------Applied

Research examining the factors causing students’ drinking behaviour is an example of relatively
basic research; a comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to teacher training is an
example of relatively applied research.

Evaluation Research

Evaluation involves determining the worth, merit, or qualities of an evaluation object.

Evaluation is traditionally classified according to its purpose:

• Formative evaluation is used for the purpose of programme improvement.

• Summative evaluation is used for the purpose of making summary judgments about a
programme and decisions to continue or discontinue the programme.

A newer and currently popular way to classify evaluation is to divide it into five types:

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 • Needs assessment, which asks the question, “Is there a need for this type of programme?”
For example, is there a need for incorporating continuous assessment into the National
Examination Programme?

• Theory assessment, which asks the question, “Is this programme conceptualized in a way
that it should work?”

• Implementation assessment, which asks the question: “Was this programme implemented
properly and according to the programme plan?”

• Impact assessment, which asks the question: “Did this programme have an impact on its
intended targets?”

• Efficiency assessment, which asks the question: “Is this programme cost effective?”

Evaluation is generally done by programme evaluators and is focused on specific programmes or

products.

Action Research

Action research focuses on solving practitioner’s local problems. It is generally conducted by the
practitioners after they have learned about the methods of research and research concepts that are
discussed in this module. It is important to understand that action research is also a state of mind;
for example, teachers who are action researchers are constantly observing their learners for
patterns and thinking about ways to improve instruction, classroom management, and so forth.

Orientational Research

Orientational research is done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position. It is traditionally
called critical theory. It is focused on some form of inequality, discrimination, or stratification in
society. Some areas in which inequality manifests itself are large differences in income, wealth,
access to high quality education, power, and occupation. Here are some major areas of interest to
orientational researchers:

• Class stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s economic class in society).

• Gender stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s gender) e.g. the gender inequality in
university admissions.

• Ethnic and racial stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s ethnic or racial grouping).

• Sexual orientation stratification (i.e., inequality and discrimination based on one’s sexual
preferences)

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Topic 5: Sources of Knowledge

In this topic you will be introduced to the discussion on how people learn about the world around
them and gain knowledge. The major ways people learn can be classified into:
• Experience
• Expert opinion and
• Reasoning

Experience

The idea here is that knowledge comes from experience. Historically, this view was called
empiricism (i.e., original knowledge comes from experience). The term empirical means "based on
observation, experiment, or experience."

Expert Opinion

You do not want to and do not have time to conduct research on everything; therefore you will
frequently rely on expert opinion as you learn about the world. Note, however, that if you rely on an
expert’s opinion it is important to make sure that the expert is skilful in the specific area under
discussion and you should check to see if the expert has a vested interest in the issue.

Reasoning
This idea is called rationalism (i.e., original knowledge comes from thought and reasoning). There
are two main forms of reasoning:

• Deductive reasoning (i.e., reasoning from general to particular). Note that, in formal logic
and mathematics, a conclusion from deductive reasoning will necessarily be true if the
argument form is valid and if the premises are true.

• Inductive reasoning (i.e., reasoning from the particular to the general). The conclusion from
inductive reasoning is probabilistic (i.e., you make a statement about what will probably
happen). The so called “problem of induction” is that the future might not resemble the
present.

Activity 1
What are the three major sources of knowledge

Topic 6: The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation

Science is an approach for the generation of knowledge. It relies on a mixture of empiricism (i.e.,
the collection of data) and rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning and theory construction and
testing).

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Dynamics of science

Science has many distinguishing characteristics:

• Science is progressive.
• Science is rational.
• Science is creative.
• Science is dynamic.
• Science is open.
• Science is "Critical."
• Science is never-ending.

Basic Assumptions of Science

In order to do science, we usually make several assumptions. These are the assumptions:
• There is a world out there that can be studied. This can include studying the inner worlds of
individuals
• Some of the world is unique: some of it is regular or patterned or predictable; and much of it
is dynamic and complex.
• The unique, the regular, and complex in the world all can be examined and studied by
researchers.
• Researchers should try to follow certain agreed norms and practices.
• It is possible to distinguish between more and less plausible claims and between good and
poor research
• Science cannot provide answers to all questions.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Several properties characterize research process in its ideal form. Research:

• Is systematic, because it is a structured process which employs certain rules in carrying it

out. The rules include procedural specifications for identifying and defining variables, for
designing studies in which these variables will be examined and their effect on other
variables determined, for relating the data collected to the originally stated problem or
hypothesis. Other processes for arriving at conclusions like intuition lack the systematic
quality that characterizes research.
• Is logical, because it follows a system that employs logic at many points. By logical
examination of the procedures employed, the researcher is able to check the validity of the
conclusions drawn. The logic of valid research makes it a valid tool for decision making.
• Is empirical, because it is based on practical reasoning or experience. Research has a
reality-referent. The collection of data identifies research as an empirical process. It uses
scientific methods to come up with accurate conclusions. (Kasomo, 2007).
• Is replicable and transmittable, which means that, individuals other than the researcher
may use the results of a study, and one research may build upon the research results of

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 another. Moreover, the process and the procedures are transmittable, enabling others to
replicate them and to assess their validity.
• Is reductive, which means that when a researcher applies analytic procedures to the data
collected, he/she reduces the confusion of individual events and objects to more
understandable categories of concepts. In other words, research reduces ambiguity.
• Is directed toward the solution of a problem, where the ultimate goal is to discover cause-
and-effect relationships between variables.
• Lays emphasis on the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
• Infers characteristics of a target population from the sample observed. That is, it goes
beyond the objects, events, or groups being investigated
• Requires accurate observations and descriptions. Researchers use quantitative devices,
which are the most precise form of description. When this is not possible, or appropriate,
they use qualitative or non-qualitative descriptions of their observations.
• Involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing
(secondary) data for a new purpose. Reorganizing or restating what is already known and
has already been written is not research. It adds nothing to what is known.
• Requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem and
how others have investigated it. He/she has searched the related literature carefully and is
also thoroughly grounded in the terminology, concepts, and technical skills necessary to
understand and explain the data gathered.
• Involves originality. Originality is one of the qualities of a good research. However, previous
important studies are deliberately repeated using identical or similar procedures with
different settings and at a different time. This process of replication is sometimes desirable
to confirm or to raise questions about the conclusions of a previous study.
• Is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term is defined, limited factors are
recognized, procedures are described in detail, references are carefully documented,
results are objectively recorded and conclusions are presented with scholarly caution and
restraint.
• Employs carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
• Is not a blind venture.
• Strives to be objective. It tries to eliminate personal bias.

Scientific Methods

There are many scientific methods. The two major methods are the inductive method and the
deductive method.

• The deductive method involves the following three steps:

i. State the hypothesis (based on theory or research literature).

ii. Collect data to test the hypothesis.

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 iii. Make decision to accept or reject the hypothesis.

• The inductive method. This approach also involves three steps:

i. Observe the world.

ii. Search for a pattern in what is observed.

iii. Make a generalization about what is occurring.

Virtually any application of science includes the use of both the deductive and the inductive
approaches to the scientific method either in a single study or over time. The inductive method is a
“bottom up” method that is especially useful for generating theories and hypotheses; the deductive
method is a “top down” method that is especially useful for testing theories and hypotheses.

The Principle of Evidence

According to the principle of evidence, what is gained in empirical research is evidence, NOT proof.
This means that knowledge based on educational research is ultimately tentative. Therefore, please
eliminate the word "proof" from your vocabulary when you talk about research results. Empirical
research provides evidence; it does not provide proof. Also note that, evidence increases when a
finding has been replicated. Hence, you should NOT draw firm conclusions from a single research
study.

Theory

The word theory most simply means "explanation." Theories explain "How" and "Why" something
operates as it does. Some theories are highly developed and other theories are "smaller" theories
or briefer explanations.

Objectives of Research

There are five major objectives of research:

• Exploration. This is done when you are trying to generate ideas about something.

• Description. This is done when you want to describe the characteristics of something or
some phenomenon.

• Explanation. This is done when you want to show how and why a phenomenon operates as it
does. If you are interested in causality, you are usually interested in explanation.

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 • Prediction. This is your objective when your primary interest is in making accurate
predictions.

• Influence. This objective is a little different. It involves the application of research results to
impact the world.

Topic 7: Research procedure

Generally, research involves the following strategies or steps:

• Step 1: Discovering or identifying the problem to be investigated

• Step 2: Formulating or stating a hypothesis
• Step 3: Labelling variables
• Step 4: Reviewing of related literature
• Step 5: Establishing a study design
• Step 6: Data collection
• Step 7: Analysing and processing data
• Step 8: Making inferences and recommendations
• Step 9: Report writing (Kathuri & Pals, 1993 & Kasomo, 2007).

Summary
• Research can be defined as a process of systematic investigation of a subject for the
purpose of adding to the body of knowledge about that subject.
• Research is a process by which researchers endeavour to extend their knowledge and also
that of the communities in which they live. Research at high levels also helps in solving
practical problems experienced in society.
• Evaluation Research involves determining the worth, merit, or qualities of an evaluation
object.
• Action research focuses on solving practitioner’s local problems.
• Orientational research is done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position.
• Research is classified according to fields, purpose for which it is undertaken, the approach
used in conducting it and by nature. The commonly used types of research are: pure/basic,
applied, action and evaluation research.
• The word theory simply means "explanation." Theories explain "How" and "Why" something
operates as it does. Some theories are highly developed and other theories are "smaller"
theories or briefer explanations.
• Research is useful in reviewing the state of knowledge, describing a situation or problem,
constructing a new idea, and in offering an explanation.

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? Revision Questions
1. Define the term research.
2. Describe four aspects, which influence the successful management of a research project.
3. Explain the four common purposes for conducting research.
4. Describe the four approaches employed in research. Which of these would you be inclined to use
in your area of specialisation? Give reasons.
5. Using appropriate examples and illustrations, explain the importance of research.
6. Discuss the characteristics of research
7. Define the term theory
8. Explain the objectives of research
9. Identify the basic assumptions of research

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 CHAPTER TWO
QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, AND MIXED RESEARCH

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Differentiate between Quantitative research, qualitative and mixed
research
2. Explain what is involved in the experimental method of research
3. Explain the different types of variables
4. Explain various types of research
5. Give the advantages of mixed research

Introduction

This chapter will introduce to you three research methodology paradigms. A paradigm is a
perspective based on a set of assumptions, concepts, and values that are held by a community or
researchers.

Topic 1: Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms

There are currently three major research paradigms. They are quantitative research, qualitative
research, and mixed research. Here are the definitions of each:

• Quantitative research – research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data
based on precise measurement using structured and validated data collection instruments
• Qualitative research – research that relies on the collection of qualitative data e.g. in-depth
interview, participant observation, field notes and open-ended questions.
• Mixed research – research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods
or paradigm characteristics.

Topic 2: Quantitative Research Methods

Experimental and Nonexperimental Research

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The basic building blocks of quantitative research are variables. A variable is something that takes
on different values or categories. Variables are the opposite of constants. A constant is something
that cannot vary, such as a single value or category of a variable.

• Classification of Variables and their examples

a) By Level of measurement

➢ Categorical variable: is a variable that is made up of different types or

categories of a phenomenon e.g., the variable gender is made up of male and
female

➢ Quantitative variable: is a variable that varies in degree or amount of a

phenomenon e.g., the variable annual income varies from zero to a very high
income level.

b) By Role taken by the variable - The other set of variables are the kinds of variables we
talk about when explaining how the world operates and when we design a quantitative
research study.

➢ Independent variable (Symbolised as IV): is a variable that is presumed to cause

changes to occur in another variable, also known as causal variable e.g., the
amount of studying by students in this course (IV) affects the test results they
would obtain (DV). Another example would be smoking (IV) causes lung cancer
(DV).

➢ Dependent variable (Symbolised as DV): is a variable that changes because of

another variable, also known as the effect or outcome variable e.g., amount of
studying by pupils in this course (IV) affects the test results they would obtain
(DV) and smoking (IV) causes lung cancer (DV).

➢ Mediating variable (also known as intervening variable): is a variable that comes

in between other variables and helps to delineate the process through which
variables affect one another e.g., amount of studying by students this course (IV)
leads to input and organisation in the long term memory (mediating variable),
which affects the test results they would obtain (DV). Another example, tissue
damage is an intervening variable in the smoking and lung cancer relationship.
We can use arrows (which mean causes or affects) and draw the relationship
that includes an intervening variable like this: Smoking---->Tissue Damage---
>Lung Cancer.

➢ Moderator variable: is a variable that delineates how a relationship of interest

changes under different conditions or circumstances e.g., perhaps behavioural
therapy works better for males and cognitive therapy works better for females.
In this case, gender is the moderator variable. The relationship between type of

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 therapy (behavioural versus cognitive) and psychological relief is moderated by
gender.

➢ Control variables: These are factors that are controlled by the experimenter to
cancel out or neutralize any effect they might have on the observed
phenomenon. Effects of control variables can be neutralized by elimination,
equating across groups or randomization. Examples of such variables are: sex,
age, IQ, economic status, past experience etc. In an experiment the researcher
must decide which variables will be studied and which will be controlled.

Activity 2
In a study to find out the effect of class size on academic performance, which is the independent
variable, dependent variable, moderator variables?

Operational definitions of variables

An operational definition is based on the observable characteristics of that which is being defined.
The word observable is significant in describing an operational definition. Operational definitions are
statements of observable properties – traits, appearances, behaviours etc. i.e., properties that are
measurable. Given an operational definition of a variable, different researchers should be able to
come up with similar observations of the phenomenon being observed.

Conceptual definitions on the other hand, identify something in terms of conceptual or hypothetical
criteria rather than observable ones. For example, defining effective teaching as teaching that
promotes learning.

For purposes of investigation, concepts must be operationally defined. Another form of definition is
definition by synonym. For example, being intelligence is defined as being smart, being aggressive is
defined as being push, forceful or demanding.

Dictionary definitions include many kinds of definitions in an attempt to clarify every word in a way
that would be of some use to everyone. All these are not substitutes for operational definitions.
When an operational definition is used there is no doubt about what the researcher means. An
operational definition can be constructed in terms of the operations that must be performed to
cause the phenomenon or state being defined to occur. For example, hunger is being deprived of
food for 24 hours; table salt is the chemical combination of sodium and chlorine; a poor person may
be defined as one who earns less than Kshs 1000 per month.

We now turn to the major types of quantitative research: experimental and nonexperimental
research.

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Experimental Research

The purpose of experimental research is to study cause and affect relationships. Its defining
characteristic is active manipulation of an independent variable (i.e., it is only in experimental
research that “manipulation” is present). Also, random assignment (which creates "equivalent"
groups) is used in the strongest experimental research designs.

Research normally begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an educated or informed guess or a

possible explanation for a behaviour being studied. It is usually expressed as a prediction or a
statement of cause and effect. A scientific hypothesis is based on facts and theories that have been
gathered and investigated by previous researchers. A theory is an interrelated set of concepts that
is developed in an attempt to explain a body of data and generate testable hypotheses (Huffman,
Vernoy and Vernoy, 1995). A hypothesis is posed in a way that indicates how the results can be
measured. It may or may not be correct because it is just a possible explanation of behaviour.
Thus, it is subject to proof/verification through scientific study. The following are examples of
hypotheses:
• There is a relationship between a teacher’s motivation and performance at the work place.
• There is a relationship between a teacher’s level of professional training and performance at
the place of work.
• There is a relationship between intelligence and academic achievement.
• Teachers given higher pay will have more positive attitudes toward teaching than those given
lower pay.
• There is a relationship between teachers’ pay and efficiency at work.

Experimental Controls

In an experiment, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to experimental and control groups.
The experimental group receives treatment with the aim of discovering whether the treatment has
a predictable effect on some outcome or behaviour (dependent variable). The control group (non-
treatment group) does not receive such treatment so as to ensure that any changes in the
dependent variable are due to the treatment administered. The two groups are expected to have
similar attributes or characteristics. The effect of the treatment is assessed by comparing the two
groups after treatment is given to the experimental group.

Advantages

1. Researcher is able to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

2. Other conditions/factors can be controlled or kept constant.
3. Experiments can be easily replicated and thus the reliability of the findings can be confirmed.

Disadvantages

1. Some experiments can pose risk or danger to human subjects. For example, you cannot
administer drugs to pupils to study their effect on behaviour.

14
2. The observed change in behaviour may be due to the artificial experimental situation.
Therefore, application to the real-world may be limited. For example, the awareness that one is
participating in an experiment may make him/her change his/her behaviour.

An Example of an experiment

A teacher intends to use experimental research to study how a new method of teaching is different
from an old method in producing results among learners.

Because the best way to make the two groups similar in the above research design is to randomly
assign the participants to the experimental and control groups, let us assume that he has a
convenience sample of 50 trainees and that he randomly assign them to the two groups in his
experiment.

Here is the logic of this experiment. First, he made his groups approximately the same at the start
of the study by using random assignment (i.e., the groups are “equated”).

He pre-tests the participants to see how much they know. Next, he manipulates the independent
variable by using the new teaching approach with the experimental group and using the old
teaching approach for the control group. Now (after the manipulation) he measures the participants’
knowledge to see how much they know after having participated in his experiment. Let’s say that
the learners in the experimental group show more knowledge improvement than those in the
control group. What would he conclude? In this case, he can conclude that there is a causal
relationship between the IV, new teaching method, and the DV, knowledge, and specifically he can
conclude that the new teaching approach is better than the old teaching approach. Make sense?

Now, let’s say that in the above experiment he could not use random assignment to equate our
groups. Let’s say that, instead, he had his best teacher use the new teaching approach with his
trainees in the experimental group and he had a newer and less experienced teacher use the old
teaching approach with the control group. Let’s again say that the experimental group did better
than the control group. Do you see any problems with claiming that the reason for the difference
between the two groups is because of the teaching method?

The problem is that there are alternative explanations. First, perhaps the difference is because the
experienced teacher is the better instructor. Second, perhaps experienced teacher had smarter
learners (remember the learners were not randomly assigned to the two groups; instead, he used
two intact groups).

We have a name for the problems just mentioned. It is the problem of alternative explanations. In
particular, it is very possible that the difference he saw between the two groups was due to other
variables other than the IV. In particular, the difference might have been due to the experienced
teacher or to the IQ levels of the groups. There is a special name for these kinds of variables. They
are called extraneous variables.

15
It is important to remember the definition of extraneous variables because they can destroy the
integrity of a research study that claims to show a cause-and-effect relationship. An extraneous
variable is a variable that may compete with the independent variable in explaining the outcome.
Remember this, if you are ever interested in identifying cause and effect relationships you must
always determine whether there are any extraneous variables you need to worry about. If an
extraneous variable really is the reason for an outcome (rather than the IV) then we sometimes call
it a confounding variable because it has confused or confounded the relationship we are interested
in.

Nonexperimental Research

Remember that the defining characteristic of experimental research was manipulation of the IV.
Well, in nonexperimental research there is no manipulation of the independent variable. There is
also no random assignment of participants to groups.

What this means is that if you ever see a relationship between two variables in nonexperimental
research you cannot jump to a conclusion of cause and effect because there will be too many other
alternative explanations for the relationship.

In the chapter, we make a distinction between two examples of nonexperimental research: causal-
comparative research and Correlational research.

In the "basic case" of causal-comparative research, there is one categorical IV and one quantitative
DV.

• Example: Gender (IV) and academic performance (DV).

• You would look for the relationship by comparing the male and female average student
performance levels.

In the simple case of correlational research, there is one quantitative IV and one quantitative DV.

• Example: Self-esteem (IV) and academic performance (DV).

• You would look for the relationship by calculating the correlation coefficient.

• The correlation coefficient is a number that varies between –1 and +1, and 0 stands for no
relationship. The farther the number is from 0, the stronger the relationship.

• If the sign of the correlation coefficient is positive (e.g., +.65) then you have a positive
correlation, which means the two variables move in the same direction (as one variable
increases, so does the other variable). Learners’ level of motivation and academic
performance are positively correlated (i.e., the higher the learners’ level of motivation the
higher their academic performance).

16
 • If the sign of the correlation coefficient is negative (e.g., -.71) then you have a negative
correlation, which means the two variables move in opposite directions (as one variable
increases, the other decreases). Smoking and life expectancy are negatively correlated (i.e.,
the higher the smoking, the lower the life expectancy).

It is important to note that:

• You can obtain much stronger evidence for causality from experimental research than from
nonexperimental research (e.g., a strong experiment is better than causal-comparative and
correlation research).
• You cannot conclude that a relationship is causal when you only have one IV and one DV in
nonexperimental research (without controls). Therefore, the basic cases of both causal-
comparative and correlation research are severely flawed!
• In later chapters we explain three necessary conditions for causality (relationship, temporal
order, and lack of alternative explanations)

Qualitative Research Methods

There are five major types of qualitative research: phenomenology, ethnography, case study
research, grounded theory, and historical research. All of the approaches are similar in that they
are qualitative approaches. Each approach, however, has some distinct characteristics and tends to
have its own roots and following.
Here are the definitions and an example of the different types of qualitative research:

• Phenomenology – a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to

understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example, you might
interview 20 female teachers and ask them to describe their experiences in teaching.

• Ethnography – is the form of qualitative research that focuses on describing the culture of a
group of people. Note that a culture is the shared attitudes, values, norms, practices,
language, and material things of a group of people. For example, you might decide to go and
live among the Sudanese community in Kenya and study the culture.

• Case study research – is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a

detailed account of one or more cases. For example, you might study a class of learners that
was taught using a new teaching methodology. Another example is the study of how a
learner who is and IDP (internally displaced person) may cope with stress.

• Grounded theory – is a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory form

data that the researcher collects. For example, you might collect data from parents who
have pulled their children out of public schools and develop a theory to explain how and
why this phenomenon occurs, ultimately developing a theory of school pull-out.

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 • Historical research – research about events that occurred in the past. An example, you
might study the genesis of post elections violence from independence to present day or
government spending on education from the year 1963 to 2007.

Activity 3
Classify the following studies as either correlational, experimental or quasi-
experimental
i. Relationship between caffeine intake and incidence of headaches
ii. Differences between males and females in academic performance
iii. Effect on exam performance of participants randomly assigned to high-noise
and no-noise exam conditions
iv. Difference in self-esteem of tall and short people
v. Relationship between stress and hours spent working

Mixed Research Methods

Mixed research is a general type of research (it’s one of the three paradigms) in which quantitative
and qualitative methods, techniques, or other paradigm characteristics are mixed in one overall
study. There are two major types of mixed research which are distinguished as mixed method
versus mixed model research.

• Mixed method research – is research in which the researcher uses the qualitative research
paradigm for one phase of a research study and the quantitative research paradigm for
another phase of the study. For example, a researcher might conduct an experiment
(quantitative) and after the experiment conduct an interview study with the participants
(qualitative) to see how they viewed the experiment and to see if they agreed with the
results. Mixed method research is like conducting two mini-studies within one overall
research study.

• Mixed model research – is research in which the researcher mixes both qualitative and
quantitative research approaches within a stage of the study or across two of the stages of
the research process. For example, a researcher might conduct a survey and use a
questionnaire that is composed of multiple closed-ended or quantitative type items as well
as several open-ended or qualitative type items. For another example, a researcher might
collect qualitative data but then try to quantify the data.

The Advantages of Mixed Research

First of all, we advocate the use of mixed research when it is feasible. We are excited about this
new movement in research and believe it will help qualitative and quantitative researchers to get
along better and, more importantly; it will promote the conduct of excellent research.

18
 • Perhaps the major goal for a researcher who design and conduct mixed research is to
follow the fundamental principle of mixed research. According to this principle, the
researcher should mix quantitative and qualitative research methods, procedures, and
paradigm characteristics in a way that the resulting mixture or combination has
complementary strengths and nonoverlapping weaknesses. The examples just listed for
mixed method and mixed model research can be viewed as following this principle.

• Here is a metaphor for thinking about mixed research: Construct one fish net out of several
fish nets that have holes in them by laying them on top of one another. The "new" net will
not have any holes in it. The use of multiple methods or approaches to research works the
same way.

• When different approaches are used to focus on the same phenomenon and they provide the
same result, you have "corroboration" which means you have superior evidence for the
result. Other important reasons for doing mixed research are to complement one set of
results with another, to expand a set of results, or to discover something that would have
been missed if only a quantitative or a qualitative approach had been used.

• Some researchers like to conduct mixed research in a single study, and this is what is truly
called mixed research. However, it is interesting to note that virtually all research
literatures would be mixed at the aggregate level, even if no single researcher uses mixed
research. That's because there will usually be some quantitative and some qualitative
research studies in a research literature.

Summary
• Quantitative research relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data based on precise
measurement using structured and validated data collection instruments
• Qualitative research relies on the collection of qualitative data e.g. in-depth interview,
participant observation, field notes and open-ended questions.
• Mixed research involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm
characteristics
• Variables (something that takes on different values or categories) are the opposite of
constants (something that cannot vary, such as a single value or category of a variable).
• Independent variable is a variable that is presumed to cause changes to occur in another
variable, also known as causal variable.
• Dependent variable is a variable that changes because of another variable, also known as the
effect or outcome variable.
• Mediating variable is a variable that comes in-between other variables and helps to delineate
the process through which variables affect one another.
• Moderator variable is a variable that delineates how a relationship of interest changes under
different conditions or circumstances

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 • The defining characteristic of experimental research is active manipulation of an independent
variable.
• Phenomenology is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to
understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon.
• Ethnography is a form of qualitative research that focuses on describing the culture of a
group of people
• Case study research is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed
account of one or more cases.
• Grounded theory is a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory from data
that the researcher collects.
• Historical research is research about events that occurred in the past.
• Mixed method research is research in which the researcher uses the qualitative research
paradigm for one phase of a research study and the quantitative research paradigm for
another phase of the study
Mixed model research is research in which the researcher mixes both qualitative and quantitative
research approaches within a stage of the study or across two of the stages of the research
process.

? Revision questions
1. Differentiate between Quantitative research, qualitative and mixed research
2. Explain what is involved in the experimental method of research
3. What is a case study?
4. Explain the different types of variables
5. Explain the following types of research:
a. Phenomenology
b. Ethnology
c. Historical research
d. Naturalistic
6. What are the advantages of mixed research?

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 CHAPTER THREE
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Identify three sources of research ideas
2. Explain the considerations that must be made when choosing a
research problem
3. Explain the purpose of literature review
4. Explain three sources of literature
5. Define the term hypothesis
6. Give the characteristics of a good research hypothesis

Introduction

The purpose of Chapter Three is to help you to learn how to come up with a research topic, refine it,
and develop a research proposal. This is one of the most difficult phases of research process
because the success of a research project depends on how the problem is formulated.

Topic 1: Sources of Research Ideas

Research ideas and research problems originate from many sources:

• Everyday life experience is one common source of research ideas. Based on a questioning
and inquisitive approach, you can draw from your experiences and come up with many
research topics. For example, think about what teaching techniques you believe work well,
or do not work well. Would you be interested in doing a research study on one or more of
those techniques? Another example is: Is it better to offer teachers lunch or to give them
money to buy their own lunch?

• Practical issues can be a source of research ideas. What are some current problems facing
the teaching profession (e.g., poor pay, big classes, lack of motivation). What research topics
do you think can address some of these current problems?

21
 • Past research can be an excellent source of research ideas. Past research is probably the
most important source of research ideas. That is because a great deal of research has
already been conducted on a multitude of topics, and, importantly, research usually
generates more questions than it answers.

• Theory (i.e., explanations of phenomena) can be a source of research ideas. You may decide
to integrate and summarise a set of past studies into a theory; or you may need to
empirically test theoretical predictions or you think about collecting data to help you
generate a theory using the grounded theory technique.

• Problems confronted in the teaching, workplace, health, community, counselling etc.

• Technological changes and new developments

• New policies e.g., on education, HIV/AIDS, etc.

• Reading research reports. Doing so will suggest additional and new areas of research.
Researchers normally make recommendations for future research.

• Suggestions from research reports and articles. These may suggest techniques and
procedures for attacking other problems.

Activity 4
For the last 5 years, boys have been performing better than girls in your school. You set out to
investigate the reasons behind this trend. Which kind of source of a problem is this?

Topic 2: Ideas that cannot be researched empirically

The point in this section is that empirical research (i.e., research that is based on the collection of
observable data) cannot provide answers to “ultimate,” “metaphysical,” or “ethical” questions. If a
question is asking which value is true or correct, empirical research can’t offer the solution.

For example, is morning prayer good? Should homosexuals be allowed to legally marry?, Should the
teaching of Christianity (and no other religion) be provided in public schools? These are moral and
legal issues which cannot be directly addressed or resolved by empirical research in the social or
behavioural sciences. So do not expect to conduct an empirical research study that will "show
whether Morning Prayer should be adopted."

Topic 3: Selecting a Research Topic

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The topic is the subject to be researched, analysed and interpreted. The topic may arise as a
problem to be solved or as an issue to be better understood. Typical research problems may be
educational phenomena to be described or observed events to be explained or problems to be
solved.

Characteristics of a researchable problem:

• The problem asks about a relationship between two or more variables
• The problem is stated clearly and unambiguously written, usually in question form
• Data can be collected to answer the question(s) asked
• The problem does not present a moral or ethical position
• The problem is testable by empirical methods
• The problem lends itself to study by a single researcher, on a limited budget, and within a
limited time frame
• The nature of the variables included in the problem should be a clue to testability.
• Good problems go below the surface questions which demand no interpretation of data
(Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

Considerations in choosing a problem

A researchable problem should be:

• Workable/feasible. The contemplated study must be within the limits of the researcher’s
resources and time available. It should not be too broad in scope. The sample required
must be accessible. It should be possible to come up with an answer to the research
problem. The required methodology must be manageable and understandable.

• Interesting or motivating. The researcher must be interested in the problem area and
the potential solution. An area that is related to one’s background, career may generate
interest and motivate the researcher to complete the study.

• Of theoretical value. The results should be of practical importance to fill in a gap in the
world of knowledge/literature. Other persons must recognize the importance of the
research. It should contribute to advancement in that particular field. It should be
publishable.

• Of practical value. The solution to the problem should improve/change life. The findings
should be able to draw interest from policy makers.

• Of critical mass. It should be of sufficient magnitude and scope to fulfil the requirement that has
motivated the study. There should be enough variables and potential results.

Activity 5
You want to study the level of illiteracy in all the Kenyan ethnic groups. What problems are you
likely to experience?

23
Evaluating the problem
Before the proposed problem is considered appropriate, several questions should be raised and
answered:

• Can the problem be solved effectively through the process of research? Can data be gathered
to test the hypothesis?
• Is the problem significant? The solution should make a difference as far as theory or practice
is concerned.
• Is the problem a new one? If not new is there need to replicate the study?
• Is research on the problem feasible?
• Is the researcher competent enough to handle the problem? For example, in data analysis.
• Are pertinent data accessible?
• Are valid and reliable data-gathering devices and procedures available?
• Will the necessary financial resources be available to carry out the research?
• Will there be enough time to complete the study?

Topic 4: Review of the Literature

After you have identified your research idea, and identified a general problem that sounds
interesting to you, the next step is to become familiar with the published information on your topic.
Conducting a literature review will help you to see if your topic has already been researched, help
you to see how you might need to revise your research idea, and show methodological techniques
and problems specific to your research problem that will help you in designing a study. Most
importantly, after conducting a thorough literature review, your specific research questions and
hypotheses will become clearer to you.

Purpose of Review of literature

• To delineate research problem

• To seek new approaches to doing research
• To avoid sterile approaches
• To gain insights into other methods of doing research
• To seek recommendations for further research
• To sample current opinions on research areas (Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

Steps in Review of Literature

• Define problem
• Review secondary sources
• Select the most appropriate preliminary sources
• Translate the problem into key words
• Search the preliminary sources

24
 • Read Primary sources
• Organise notes and
• Write report

A literature review can take a different form in qualitative and quantitative research:

• In qualitative research (which often means exploratory research), little prior literature may
be available. Literature is especially important during the later stages (e.g., interpreting
results, discussion) of exploratory research. Still, for much qualitative research, it is
recommended that a literature review is conducted to see what has been done and to
provide sensitizing concepts. Then when data are collected, the researcher can use
strategies to minimize the researcher’s biases.

• In quantitative research, the researcher directly "builds" on past research. Therefore,

review of prior research must be done before conducting the study. In quantitative research,
the literature review will help you to see if your research problem has already been done,
show you data collection instruments that have been used, show designs that have been
used, and show theoretical and methodological issues that have arisen.

Sources of Information

According to Kathuri and Pals (1993), there are three major sources of information in locating and
using research. These sources are described as preliminary, primary and secondary.

Preliminary Sources: are used to locate books, articles and other documents related to the research
problem. Most of these preliminary sources are indexes, which give the author, title, and place of
publication. These sources are usually organised by subject.

Primary Sources: are direct descriptions of an occurrence by an individual who actually observed or
witnessed the occurrence. They are publications in which persons who carry out the research
report their findings. Most primary sources are journals. Journals provide more recent information
than books and provide full length empirical research articles for you to carefully examine.

Secondary Sources: are publications written by an author who was not a direct observer or
participant in the events described. The author reports on research someone carried out. The most
common secondary sources in education are scholarly books and textbooks. Books are a good
starting point. They give you an overview and a summary of relevant research and theory.

Computer databases are excellent sources for locating information. Dissertation Abstracts (for
summaries of doctoral dissertations in education and related fields).

25
Topic 5: Statement of the Purpose, Research Questions and Hypotheses of the
Study

Your research purpose follows from the problem you have selected, and it is your statement of your
intent or objective for your research study. It is important to include this in your proposals and final
reports because it helps orient your reader to your study.

• In quantitative research, the purpose identifies the specific type of relationship being
investigated using a specific set of variables.

• In qualitative research, the purpose focuses on exploring or understanding a phenomenon.

Statement of Research Questions

After you have completed your literature review and have digested the literature, you will need to
make an exact statement of the specific research questions you want to pursue. This will help
ensure that you have a good grasp of what you want to do, it will enable you to communicate your
idea to others, and it will help guide the research process (e.g., what variables will be examined,
what methods will be needed). A good literature review will logically end with your specific
research questions.

• In quantitative research, a research question typically asks about a relationship that may exist
between or among two or more variables. It should identify the variables being investigated and
specify the type of relationship (descriptive, predictive, or causal) to be investigated. For
example, what effect does participation in games have on learners’ overall performance?

• In qualitative research, a research question asks about the specific process, issue, or
phenomenon to be explored or described. For example, how does the social context of a school
influence pre-service teachers’ beliefs about teaching?

Formulating Hypotheses

Hypothesis is a preliminary assumption or a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts,
taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing; a theory.

Many beginning researchers or for those who are conducting pilot, untested programmes often
adopt nondirectional hypotheses such as: “The academic and social services of private universities
differs from those of public universities." If you are looking for differences, but controversy or
contradictions exist in the field about the differences, or you are looking at a new area, then the
nondirectional hypothesis is acceptable.
However, directional research hypotheses make sense in areas where prior research has been
conducted or where there is a strong theory base. '"Dropout rates are higher for learners who come
from low socioeconomic backgrounds than for those from high socioeconomic backgrounds." The

26
question one would have for this hypothesis is "What is the need for your study?" If prior research
exists on this topic, your problem statement should make clear what new knowledge you are
adding to the field.
Last, one should note that researchers do not test the research hypotheses. The logic of hypothesis
testing demands that the "burden of proof" lies with the researcher. Thus, the null hypothesis
(statistical hypothesis) is presented as the "given." The researcher's data (evidence) must convince
the field that the given is not supportable. It is up to the researcher to providing "overwhelming"
evidence to counter the null.

So, for each research hypothesis which is also referred to as the alternative hypothesis, there is a
complementary null hypothesis. They are inseparable. It's like two sides of a coin.
Activity 6

If you predict that two variable A and B will be related, what is the null hypothesis?

Listed below are examples of directional, nondirectional, and null hypotheses for difference or
relationship statements:
• Difference
Below are some examples of difference hypotheses:
o Research or alternative hypothesis: (nondirectional)
▪ There is a difference in teachers’ average salaries between small and large
countries.

o Research or alternative hypothesis: (directional)

▪ Large countries have higher teacher average salaries than small countries.

o Null hypothesis
▪ There is no difference in teachers’ average salaries between large and small
countries.
• Relationship
Below are some examples of relationship hypotheses:

o Research hypothesis: (directional)

▪ There is a positive relationship between size of a country and average teachers’
salaries. OR
▪ Larger countries have higher average teachers’ salaries than smaller countries.

o Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no relationship between size of country and average teachers’ salaries.

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Activity 7
From the following research hypotheses, try to work out the null hypotheses
1. It is predicted that there will be a difference between males and
females in spatial ability
2. It is predicted that alcohol consumed will be related to number of
driving errors
3. It is predicted that reaction times will be different when participants
are stressed than when they are relaxed
4. It is predicted that the closer we get to the general election, the more
lies will be told by politicians.

Characteristics of Good Hypotheses

Hypotheses for research should meet certain criteria of accessibility for purposes of empirical
testing. So, these criteria should be used to judge the adequacy for the proposed hypotheses.

1. Hypotheses ought to be a possible explanation of what it is attempting to explain.

2. Hypotheses should state clearly and briefly the expected relationship between variables.

3. Hypotheses should be stated as simply and concisely as possible. This makes the testing of the
hypothesis easier as well as providing a basis for a clear and easily comprehended report at the
end of the study. Remember that it may be wise to break a broad general hypothesis into
several specific ones in order to provide testability and clarity.

4. Hypotheses whose variables can be given operational definitions are preferred. In any case,
avoid the use of constructs for which it would be difficult or impossible to find adequate
measures.

5. Hypotheses should be consistent with existing body of knowledge. In other words, hypotheses
should not contradict previously well-established theories, laws or other hypotheses of proven
value.

6. Hypotheses must be testable. The hypothesis should permit the drawing of conclusions,
deductions or implications to the extent that empirical observations will either support or refute
the hypothesis (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2000).

Topic 6: The Research Proposal

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After you have identified your research idea, reviewed the research literature, determined the
feasibility of your study, made a formal statement of the research questions (and hypotheses for a
quantitative study), you are ready to develop a research proposal to guide your research study.

It is essential that you develop your research proposal before conducting a research study. This will
force you to carefully spell out the rationale for your research study, and it will make you think
about and specify each step of your study.

Here are the major sections for a typical research proposal:

• Basic components of research proposal
o Title Page
o Abstract
o Introduction (CHAPTER ONE)
▪ Background information
▪ Statement of the Problem
▪ Statement of the purpose e.g. The purpose of this study is to examine …
▪ Objectives of the study
▪ Research Questions or Hypotheses
▪ Significance of the Study
▪ Assumptions and Limitations of the Study
o Review of Literature (CHAPTER TWO)
o Methodology (CHAPTER THREE)
▪ Research Design
▪ Population
▪ Sampling procedures and Sample size
▪ Instrumentation (i.e., methods of data Collection and how they were
developed)
▪ Administration of instruments – Details of how data is to be collected
▪ Data Analysis
▪ Calendar of Work or Time Schedule
o Research Budget
o References (Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

Summary
• Sources of Research Ideas include everyday life experiences, practical issues, past
research, theory etc.
• After you have identified your research idea, and identified a general problem that sounds
interesting to you, the next step is to become familiar with the published information on
your topic.
• Preliminary sources of literature are indexes, which give the author, title, and place of
publication.
• Primary Sources are direct descriptions of an occurrence by an individual who actually
observed or witnessed the occurrence. Most primary sources are journals.

29
 • Secondary Sources are publications written by an author who was not a direct observer or
participant in the events described. The most common secondary sources in education are
scholarly books and textbooks
• Computer databases are excellent sources for locating information.
• Hypothesis is a preliminary assumption or tentative explanation that accounts for a set of
facts, taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing; a theory. It can be either
null or alternative

? Revision Questions
1. Identify three sources of research ideas
2. What considerations must you make when choosing a research problem?
3. What is the purpose of literature review?
4. Explain three sources of literature
5. What is a hypothesis?
6. What are the characteristics of a good research hypothesis?

30
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH ETHICS

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Explain why researchers follow certain ethics when conducting
research on human beings
2. Explain the three main areas of ethical concern for researchers
3. Explain the various ethical considerations that researchers must
take into account.

Introduction

Ethics is the division in the field of philosophy that deals with values and morals. It is a topic that
people may disagree on because it is based on people's personal value systems. What one person or
group considers to be good or right might be considered bad or wrong by another person or group.
In this chapter, we define ethics as the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things
we value.

Topic 1: Ethical Concerns

There are three primary areas of ethical concern for researchers:

1. The relationship between society and science.

a. Should researchers study what is considered important in society at a given time?

b. Should the government and other funding agencies use grants to affect the areas
researched in a society?
c. Should researchers ignore societal concerns?

2. Professional issues.
a. The primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity (fabrication or alteration of
results) by scientists. Obviously, cheating or lying are never defensible.

31
 b. Duplicate publication (publishing the same data and results in more than one journal
or other publication) should be avoided.
c. Partial publication (publishing several articles from the data collected in one study).
This is allowable as long as the different publications involve different research
questions and different data, and as long as it facilitates scientific communication.
Otherwise, it should be avoided.

3. Treatment of Research Participants

a. This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue in the field of empirical
research.
b. It is essential that one insures that research participants are not harmed physically
or psychologically during the conduct of research.
c. In the next section, we will go into the issue of treatment of research participants in
depth.

Topic 2: Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans

1. Informed Consent. Potential research participants must be provided with information that
enables them to make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate in the
research study. For minors, informed consent must be obtained from parents or guardians
of minors.

2. Deception: Deception is present when the researcher provides misleading information or

when the researcher withholds information from participants about the nature and/or
purpose of the study. Deception is allowable when the benefits outweigh the costs. However,
the researcher is ethically obligated not to use any more deception than is needed to
conduct a valid study.

a. If deception is used, debriefing should be used. Debriefing is a post study interview in

which all aspects of the study are revealed, any reasons for deception are explained,
and any questions the participant has about the study are answered.
b. Debriefing has two goals:

i. Dehoaxing — informing study participants about deception that was used

and the reasons for its use.
ii. Desensitizing — helping study participants deal with and eliminate any
stress or other undesirable feelings that the study might have created.

3. Freedom to Withdraw: Participants must be informed that they are free to withdraw from
the study at any time without penalty. If you have a power relationship with the participants
(e.g., if you are their teacher principal) you must be extra careful to make sure that they
really do feel free to withdraw.

32
 4. Protection from Mental and Physical Harm
This is the most fundamental ethical issue confronting the researcher. Experiments involving
human beings may often entail exposing them to painful, stressful or unpleasant experiences. The
nature of a research may expose subjects to risk or negatively affect the lives of the research
participants. For example, it would be unethical to conduct experiments on biological warfare on
innocent civilians.

A good example of an experiment in which human rights were violated was the Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiment. For forty years between 1932 and 1972, the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) conducted
an experiment on 399 black men in the late stages of syphilis. These men, for the most part illiterate
sharecroppers from one of the poorest counties in Alabama, were never told what disease they
were suffering from or of its seriousness. Informed that they were being treated for “bad blood,”
their doctors had no intention of curing them of syphilis at all (Wanene, 2003).

The data for the experiment was to be collected from autopsies of the men, and they were thus
deliberately left to degenerate under the ravages of tertiary syphilis—which can include tumours,
heart disease, paralysis, blindness, insanity, and death. “As I see it,” one of the doctors involved
explained, “we have no further interest in these patients until they die.”

By the end of the experiment, 28 of the men had died directly of syphilis, 100 were dead of related
complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children had been born with
congenital syphilis. How had these men been induced to endure a fatal disease in the name of
science?

Activity 8
In the Tuskegee experiment, what ethics were violated?

5. Confidentiality and Anonymity

Confidentiality is a basic requirement in all studies. It means that the researcher agrees not to
reveal the identity of the participant to anyone other than the researcher and his or her staff.

A stronger and even better condition (if it can be met) is called anonymity. Anonymity means that
the identity of the participant is not known by anyone in the study, including the researcher. An
example would be where the researcher has a large group of people fill out a questionnaire but NOT
write their names on it. In this way, the researcher ends up with data, but no names.

Others ethical considerations include:

• Institutional approval
• Compliance with laws and standards

33
 • Sharing and utilization of data
• Honouring commitments
• Care in the use of animals
• Avoiding fabrication of data
• No duplicate publication of data
• Plagiarism

Summary
• Ethics is the division in the field of philosophy that deals with values and morals.
• There are three primary areas of ethical concern for researchers: The relationship between
society and science, professional issues and treatment of Research Participants
• Some of the basic ethical considerations to make touch on, informed Consent, deception,
freedom to withdraw, protection from mental and physical harm, confidentiality and
anonymity

? Revision Questions
1. Why should researchers follow certain ethics when conducting research on human beings?
2. Explain the three main areas of ethical concern for researchers
3. Explain the various ethical considerations that researchers must take into account.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE
STANDARDISED MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define measurement
2. Differentiate between the four scales of measurement.
3. Differentiate between reliability and validity
4. Explain the different types of validity and reliability
5. Explain the different methods of estimating reliability of a
research questionnaire

Introduction

When we measure, we attempt to identify the dimensions, quantity, capacity, or degree of

something. Measurement is formally defined as the act of measuring by assigning symbols or
numbers to something according to a specific set of rules.

Measurement can be categorized by the type of information that is communicated by the symbols or
numbers assigned to the variables of interest. In particular, there are four levels or types of
information called the scales of measurement.

Topic 1: Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale

This is a nonquantitative measurement scale in which numbers do not represent any magnitude. It
is used to categorize, label, classify, name, or identify variables. It classifies groups or types.

Numbers can be used to label the categories of a nominal variable but the numbers serve only as
markers, not as indicators of amount or quantity (e.g., if you wanted to, you could mark the
categories of the variable "gender" with 1=female and 2=male, or the categories of the variable
teachers with training versus untrained teachers

Some examples of nominal level variables are the country you were born in, Registration
number, PIN, and Passport number.

35
Ordinal Scale

This level of measurement enables one to make ordinal judgments (i.e., judgments about rank
order). Any variable where the levels can be ranked (but you don't know if the distance between the
levels is the same) is an ordinal variable.

Some examples are order of finish position in a marathon and rank in class.

Interval Scale

This scale or level of measurement has the characteristics of rank order and equal intervals (i.e.,
the distance between adjacent points is the same). It does not possess an absolute zero point.

Some examples are Celsius temperature, Fahrenheit temperature, IQ scores.

Here is the idea of the lack of a true zero point: zero degrees Celsius does not mean no temperature
at all; in a Fahrenheit scale, it is equal to the freezing point or 32 degrees. Zero degrees in these
scales does not mean zero or no temperature.

Comparison of absolute amounts is not possible in this scale of measurement. For example, a
person with IQ score of 150 does have twice as much as a person with IQ score of 75.

Ratio Scale

This is a scale with a true zero point. It also has all of the "lower level" characteristics (i.e., the key
characteristic of each of the lower level scales) of equal intervals (interval scale), rank order
(ordinal scale), and ability to mark a value with a name (nominal scale).

Some examples of ratio level scales are students’ weight, height, response time, Kelvin
temperature, and annual income of teachers.

Here is an example of the presence of a true zero point: If your annual income is exactly zero
shillings then you earned no annual income at all (you can buy absolutely nothing with zero
shillings). Zero means zero or nothing.

Comparisons of absolute amounts can be made, for example, a teacher who is 130 kg is twice as
heavy as another one of 65 kg.

Activity 9

36
 Which of the following are continuous, which are discrete and which are categorical?
i. Wind speed
ii. Types of degree offered by a university
iii. Level of extraversion
iv. Makes of cars
v. Football teams
vi. Weight of students

Topic 2: Good Test or Assessment Procedure

Good measurement is fundamental for research. If we do not have good measurement then we
cannot have good research. That’s why it’s so important to use testing and assessment procedures
that are characterized by high reliability and high validity.

Reliability

Reliability refers to consistency or stability. In psychological and educational testing, it refers to the
consistency or stability of the scores that we get from a test or assessment procedure (Gronlund,
1981). Reliability is usually determined using a correlation coefficient (it is called a reliability
coefficient).

A correlation coefficient is a measure of relationship that varies from -1 to 0 to 1 and the farther the
number is from zero, the stronger the correlation. For example, minus one (-1.00) indicates a
perfect negative correlation, zero indicates no correlation at all, and positive one (+1.00) indicates a
perfect positive correlation. Regarding strength, -.80 is stronger than +.55, and +.70 is stronger than
+.30. When you have a negative correlation, the variables move in opposite directions (e.g., poor diet
of teachers and life expectancy); when you have a positive correlation, the variables move in the
same direction (e.g., training of teachers and annual income).

Measuring reliability

Test-retest reliability
This refers to the consistency of test scores over time. It is measured by correlating the test scores
obtained at one point in time with the test scores obtained at a later point in time for a group of
people. A primary issue is identifying the appropriate time interval between the two testing
occasions. The longer the time interval between the two testing occasions, the lower the reliability
coefficient tends to be.

Equivalent forms reliability

This refers to the consistency of test scores obtained on two equivalent forms of a test designed to
measure the same thing. It is measured by correlating the scores obtained by giving two forms of

37
the same test to a group of people. The success of this method hinges on the equivalence of the two
forms of the test.

Internal consistency reliability

It refers to the consistency with which the items on a test measure a single construct. Internal
consistency reliability only requires one administration of the test, which makes it a very
convenient form of reliability. Internal consistency reliability can be determined using the split-half
reliability, which involves splitting a test into two equivalent halves and checking the consistency of
the scores obtained from the two halves.

Inter-scorer reliability
Inter-Scorer Reliability refers to the consistency or degree of agreement between two or more
scorers, judges, or raters.

You could have two judges rate one set of papers. Then you would just correlate their two sets of
ratings to obtain the inter-scorer reliability coefficient, showing the consistency of the two judges’
ratings.

Activity 10
What factors may affect the reliability of scores obtained from a measuring instrument

Validity

Validity refers to the accuracy of the inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the basis of
test scores (Gronlund, 1981). Technically speaking, it is incorrect to say that a test is valid or invalid.
It is the interpretations and actions taken based on the test scores that are valid or invalid.

All of the ways of collecting validity evidence are really forms of what used to be called construct
validity. All that means is that in testing and assessment, we are always measuring something (e.g.,
IQ, gender, age, depression, self-esteem).

Validation refers to gathering evidence supporting some inference made on the basis of test scores.

Collecting validity evidence

Evidence Based on Content

Content-related evidence is based on a judgment of the degree to which the items, tasks, or
questions on a test adequately represent the domain of interest. Expert judgment is used to provide
evidence of content validity.

Evidence Based on Internal Structure

Some tests are designed to measure one general construct, but other tests are designed to
measure several components or dimensions of a construct.

38
Evidence Based on Relations to other Variables
This form of evidence is obtained by relating your test scores with one or more relevant criteria. A
criterion is the standard or benchmark that you want to predict accurately on the basis of the test
scores. Note that when using correlation coefficients for validity evidence we call them validity
coefficients.

Summary
• Nominal Scale is a nonquantitative measurement scale, in which numbers do not represent
any magnitude. It is used to categorize, label, classify, name, or identify variables. It
classifies groups or types.
• Ordinal Scale enables one to make ordinal judgments (i.e., judgments about rank order). Any
variable where the levels can be ranked (but you don't know if the distance between the
levels is the same) is an ordinal variable.
• Interval Scale has the characteristics of rank order and equal intervals (i.e., the distance
between adjacent points is the same). It does not possess an absolute zero point. Some
examples are Celsius temperature, Fahrenheit temperature, IQ scores.
• Ratio Scale has a true zero point. It also has all of the "lower level" characteristics (i.e., the
key characteristic of each of the lower level scales) of equal intervals (interval scale), rank
order (ordinal scale), and ability to mark a value with a name (nominal scale).
• Reliability refers to consistency or stability. In psychological and educational testing, it
refers to the consistency or stability of the scores that we get from a test or assessment
procedure.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of the inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the
basis of test scores

? Revision Questions
1. Define the term measurement
2. Differentiate between the four scales of measurement.
3. Differentiate between reliability and validity
4. Explain the different types of validity and reliability
5. Explain the different methods of estimating reliability of a research questionnaire

39
 CHAPTER SIX
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Give the strengths and weaknesses of tests as methods of data
collection
2. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires as a
method of data collection
3. List the strengths and weaknesses of interviews as a method of
data collection
4. Explain the qualities of a good research questionnaire

Introduction

The term method of data collection simply refers to how the researcher obtains the empirical data
to be used to answer his or her research questions. Once data are collected they are analyzed and
interpreted and turned into information and results or findings. All empirical research relies on one
or more method of data collection.

There are a number of methods of data collection:

• Tests (i.e., includes standardized tests that usually include information on reliability, validity,
and norms as well as tests constructed by researchers for specific purposes, skills tests,
etc).

• Questionnaires (i.e., self-report instruments).

• Interviews (i.e., situations where the researcher interviews the participants).

• Observation (i.e., looking at what people actually do).

• Existing or Secondary data (i.e., using data that are originally collected and then archived or
any other kind of “data” that was simply left behind at an earlier time for some other
purpose) (Kathuri & Pals, 1993; Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999).

40
Topic 1: Tests

Tests are commonly used in research to measure personality, aptitude, achievement, and
performance. Tests can also be used to complement other measures. A researcher must develop a
test to measure the specific knowledge, skills, behaviour, or cognitive activity that is being studied.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Tests

• Strengths of tests

o Can provide measures of many characteristics of people.

o Allows comparability of common measures across research populations.

o Many tests can be administered to groups which saves time.

o Can provide “hard,” quantitative data.

o Response rate is high for group administered tests.

o Ease of data analysis because of quantitative nature of data.

• Weaknesses of tests

o Reactive effects such as social desirability can occur.

o Open-ended questions and probing not available.

o Tests are sometimes biased against certain groups of people.

o No response to selected items on the test.

Topic 2: Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a self-report data collection instrument that is filled out by research participants
(Oppenheim, 1966). Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments, but they can also be
placed on the web for participants to go to and “fill out.” Questionnaires are sometimes called
survey instruments, which are fine, but the actual questionnaire should not be called “the survey.”
The word “survey” refers to the process of using a questionnaire or interview protocol to collect
data. For example, you might do a survey of teachers’ attitudes about free primary education; the
instrument of data collection should be called the questionnaire or the survey instrument.

41
A questionnaire is composed of questions and/or statements.

Principles for writing Questionnaires

Principle 1: Make sure the questionnaire items match your research objectives.

Principle 2: Understand your research participants.

• Your participants (not you!) will be filling out the questionnaire.

• Consider the demographic and cultural characteristics of your potential participants so that
you can make it understandable to them.

Principle 3: Use natural and familiar language. Familiar language is comforting; jargon is not.

Principle 4: Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short.
• If your participants don't understand the items, your data will be invalid
• Short items are more easily understood and less stressful than long items.

Principle 5: Do not use "leading" or "loaded" questions.

• Leading questions lead the participant to where you want him or her to be.
• Loaded questions include loaded words (i.e., words that create an emotional reaction or
response by your participants).
Always use neutral wording.

Principle 6: Avoid double-barrelled questions. A double-barrelled question combines two or more

issues in a single question (e.g., here is a double barrelled question: “Do you report to the principal
and deputy principal?” It’s double barrelled because if someone answered it, you would not know
whether they were referring to the principal or deputy principal or both).

Does the question include the word "and"? If yes, it might be a double-barrelled question. Answers
to double-barrelled questions are ambiguous because two or more ideas are confounded.

Principle 7: Avoid double negatives. Does the answer provided by the participant require combining
two negatives? (e.g., "I disagree that teachers should not be required to monitor the students during
their weekend outing"). If yes, rewrite it.

Principle 8: Determine whether an open-ended or a closed ended question is needed.

• Open-ended questions provide qualitative data in the participants' own words. Here is an
open ended question: How can your principal improve the morale of teachers?
_______________________________________________
• Closed-ended questions provide quantitative data based on the researcher's response
categories. Here is an example of a closed-ended question: Do you prefer teaching an
examination class? ( ) Yes ( ) No (tick appropriately)

42
 • Open-ended questions are common in exploratory research and closed-ended questions are
common in confirmatory research.

Principle 9: Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories for closed-ended questions.
• Mutually exclusive categories do not overlap (e.g., ages 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 are NOT mutually
exclusive and should be rewritten as less than 10, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, ...).
• Exhaustive categories include all possible responses (e.g., if you are doing a national survey
of teachers’ ages then these categories (18-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49) are NOT exhaustive
because there is no where to put someone who is 50 years old or older.

Principle 10: Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended
questionnaire items.
• Rating scales are the most commonly used, including:
o Numerical rating scales (where the endpoints are anchored; sometimes the centre
point or area is also labelled).
1234567
Very Low Very High
o Fully anchored rating scales (where all the points on the scale are anchored).

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

o Omitting the centre point on a rating scale (e.g., using a 4-point rather than a 5-
point rating scale) does not appreciably affect the response pattern. Some
researchers prefer 5- point rating scales; other researchers prefer 4-point rating
scales. Both generally work well.
• Rankings (i.e., where participants put their responses into rank order, such as most
important, second most important and third most important).
• Checklists (i.e., where participants "check all of the responses in a list that apply to them").

Principle 11: Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs. This is required if you want your
measures to have high reliability and validity.

Principle 12: Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs.

Principle 13: Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items to prevent response sets.
(A response set is the tendency of a participant to respond in a specific direction to items
regardless of the item content.)
• Reversing the wording of some items can help ensure that participants don't just "speed
through" the instrument, checking "yes" or "strongly agree" for all the items.
• On the other hand, you may want to avoid reverse wording if it creates a double negative.
• Also, recent research suggests that the use of reverse wording reduces the reliability and
validity of scales. Therefore, you should generally use reverse wording sparingly, if at all.

43
Principle 14: Develop a questionnaire that is easy for the participant to use.
• The participant must not get confused or lost anywhere in the questionnaire.
• Make sure that the instructions are clear.

Principle 15: Always pilot test your questionnaire.

• You will always find some problems that you have overlooked.
• The best pilot tests are with people similar to the ones to be included in your research study.
• After pilot testing your questionnaire, revise it and pilot test it again, until it works correctly.

Activity 11
Asked whether one have ever had an extra marital affair, many couples would respond with a
“No” answer even when the answer is actually “Yes”. What term is used to describe this tendency?

Strengths and Weaknesses of Questionnaires

• Strengths of questionnaires
o Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content from research participants.
o Inexpensive (especially mail questionnaires and group administered questionnaires).
o Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of thinking.
o Can be administered to probability samples.
o Can be administered to groups.
o Closed-ended items can provide exact information needed by the researcher.
o Open-ended items can provide detailed information in respondents’ own words.
o Ease of data analysis for closed-ended items.
o Useful for exploration as well as confirmation.

• Weaknesses of questionnaires
o Usually must be kept short.
o Reactive effects may occur (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is
socially desirable).
o No response to selective items.
o People filling out questionnaires may not recall important information and may
lack self-awareness.
o Response rate may be low for mail and email questionnaires.
o Open-ended items may reflect differences in verbal ability, obscuring the issues
of interest.
o Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.
o Measures need validation.

Topic 3: Interviews

44
In an interview, the interviewer asks the interviewee questions (in-person or over the telephone).
Trust and rapport are important. Probing is available (unlike in paper-and-pencil questionnaires)
and is used to reach clarity or gain additional information

Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews

• Strengths of interviews
o Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest.
o Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the interviewer.
o Can provide in-depth information.
o Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of thinking.
o Closed-ended interviews provide exact information needed by researcher.
o Moderately high measurement validity (i.e., high reliability and validity) for well
constructed and tested interview protocols.
o Can be used with probability samples.
o Relatively high response rates are often attainable.
o Useful for exploration as well as confirmation.

• Weaknesses of interviews
o In-person interviews usually are expensive and time consuming.
o Reactive effects (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is socially desirable).
o Investigator effects may occur (e.g., untrained interviewers may distort data
because of personal biases and poor interviewing skills).
o Interviewees may not recall important information and may lack self-awareness.
o Perceived anonymity by respondents may be low.
o Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.
o Measures need validation.

Topic 4: Observation

In the method of data collection called observation, the researcher observes participants in natural
and/or structured environments. It is important to collect observational data (in addition to
attitudinal data) because what people say is not always what they do.

Observation can be carried out in two types of environments:

• Laboratory observation (which is done in a lab set up by the researcher).
• Naturalistic observation (which is done in real-world settings).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Data

• Strengths of observational data

o Allows one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they say
they do.

45
 o Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer participates in activities.
o Can provide relatively objective measurement of behaviour.
o Observer can determine what does not occur.
o Observer may see things that escape the awareness of people in the setting.
o Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.
o Helps in understanding importance of contextual factors.
o Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.
o May provide information on things people would otherwise be unwilling to talk
about.
o Observer may move beyond selective perceptions of people in the setting.

• Weaknesses of observational data

o Reasons for observed behaviour may be unclear.
o Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are being observed (e.g.,
people being observed may behave in atypical ways).
o Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception of observers)
o Observer may “go native” (i.e., over-identifying with the group being studied).
o Sampling of observed people and settings may be limited.
o Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.
o Some settings and content of interest cannot be observed.
o Collection of unimportant material may be moderately high.
o More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and tests.
o Data analysis can be time consuming.

Topic 5: Secondary/Existing Data

Secondary data (i.e., data originally used for a different purpose) are contrasted with primary data
(i.e., original data collected for the new research study). The most commonly used secondary data
are documents, physical data, and archived research data.

• Documents. There are two main kinds of documents:

o Personal documents (i.e., things written or recorded for private purposes). Letters,
diaries, family pictures.
o Official documents (i.e., things written or recorded for public or private
organizations). Newspapers, annual reports, yearbooks, minutes.

• Physical data (are any material thing created or left by humans that might provide
information about a phenomenon of interest to a researcher).

• Archived research data (i.e., research data collected by other researchers for other
purposes, and these data are saved often in tape form or CD form so that others might later
use the data).

46
Strengths and Weaknesses of Secondary Data

• Strengths of documents and physical data

o Can provide insight into what people think and what they do.
o Unobtrusive, making reactive and investigator effects very unlikely.
o Can be collected for time periods occurring in the past (e.g., historical data).
o Provides useful background and historical data on people, groups, and
organizations.
o Useful for corroboration.
o Grounded in local setting.
o Useful for exploration.

• Strengths of archived research data

o Archived research data are available on a wide variety of topics.

o Inexpensive.
o Are often reliable and valid (high measurement validity).

o Can study trends.

o Ease of data analysis.
o Often based on high quality or large probability samples.

• Weaknesses of documents and physical data:

o May be incomplete.
o May be representative only of one perspective.
o Access to some types of content is limited.
o May not provide insight into participants’ personal thinking for physical data.
o May not apply to general populations.

• Weaknesses of archived research data

o May not be available for the population of interest to you.

o May not be available for the research questions of interest to you.
o Data may be outdated.
o Open-ended or qualitative data usually not available.
o Many of the most important findings have already been mined from the data.

Summary
• The term method of data collection refers to how the researcher obtains the empirical data
to be used to answer his or her research questions.
• Tests are commonly used in research to measure personality, aptitude, achievement, and
performance.

47
 • A questionnaire is a self-report data collection instrument that is filled out by research
participants.
• In an interview, the interviewer asks the interviewee questions (in-person or over the
telephone).
• In the method of data collection called observation, the researcher observes participants in
natural and/or structured environments.
• Secondary data is data originally used for a different purpose while primary data are
original data collected for a new research study. The most commonly used secondary data
are documents, physical data, and archived research data.

? Revision Questions
1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of tests as methods of data collection?
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires as a method of data collection?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of interviews as a method of data collection?
4. What are the qualities of a good research questionnaire?
5. Differentiate between open and closed ended questions

48
 CHAPTER SEVEN
SAMPLING

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define sampling, sample and population
2. Explain three techniques of sampling.
3. Explain the meaning of the term sampling error
4. Explain what is a statistic and a parameter in terms of sampling
5. Differentiate between random and non-random sampling
techniques.

Introduction

Sampling is a process of selecting few cases in order to provide information that can be used to
make judgement about a much larger number of cases. The few cases are referred to as a sample
while the larger number of cases are referred to as a population or universe (Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

Topic 1: Terminologies Used in Sampling

Here are some important terms used in sampling:

• A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population. The sample is a subset of the
population which is the full set of elements or people or whatever you are sampling.
• A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample, but a parameter is a numerical
characteristic of population.
• The response rate is the percentage of people in the sample selected for the study who
actually participate in the study.
• A sampling frame is just a list of all the people that are in the population.
• Census is a complete enumeration of a population.
• Random assignment is a case in which individuals are randomly assigned to different
groups or treatments for information gathering.

49
 • Sampling unit is a single member of a population, which must not be overlapping and
comprise the whole population. For example, a learner is a sampling unit when a sample of
learners is to be selected from a population of students.
• Stratum is a sub-population which results when a set of specifications divide the population
into mutually exclusive parts. For example, first year degree students are a sub-population
of the total degree student population when year of study is used as a dividing specification.

Activity 12
Which of the following represents the best estimate of the population mean?
a) The sample mean
b) The mean of several sample means
c) The mode of several sample means
d) The median of several sample means

Topic 2: Objectives of sampling

The purpose of sampling is to find out something about the population from which the sample units
were taken. The following are some of the objectives of sampling according to Kathuri and Palls
(1993):
• To shorten the time that would otherwise be spent in studying the whole population.
• To reduce costs because fewer sampling units and resources are required.
• To gain greater accuracy in data collection and analysis of data because fewer people are
required to carry out the study. It is easier to train and supervise fewer people.
• To increase the scope and flexibility of coverage due to ability to use limited time and
resources.

Topic 3: Sampling strategies

There two main types of sampling strategies: Probability sampling and nonprobability sampling
(Mugenda & Mugenda, 2000 & Kasomo, 2007).

• Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, each element in the population has an equal, independent chance of
being selected. The essential point is that for each case there is some specified probability
that it will be included in the sample. Probability sampling is the only approach that makes
possible representative sampling.
o Principles of randomisation
➢ The population (universe) to be sampled and the units comprising it must be
clearly defined.
➢ A population composed of many small units is preferable to one composed of
fewer but larger units.
➢ The units should be equal in size.

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 ➢ If any unit appears more than once in population to be sampled, all the other
units should appear the same number of times.
➢ All units should be independent of each other so that if one is drawn it will in
no way interfere with the choice of another.
➢ The same unit should be used in sampling and in data processing.
➢ The chance of selecting a certain unit in the total population must be uniform
from sample to another.
➢ The population must be present or catalogued so that every unit is listed or
has an identifying symbol to be used during the drawing of the sample.
➢ All units in the population should be available at the time the sample is
drawn.
➢ Every unit must be accessible to the researcher for the collection of
information.

Activity 13
What is the relationship between sample size and sampling error?
a) The larger the sample size, the larger the sampling error
b) The larger the sample size, the smaller the sampling error
c) Sample size equals sampling error
d) None of the above

o Types of probability sampling

They include: Simple random sampling, Stratified random sampling, Cluster

sampling and Systematic sampling

➢ Simple random sampling allows each unit in the population an equal

opportunity to be included in the sample. The procedure involves assigning a
number or any other identifying symbol and then using the number or the
identifying symbol to select the sample size or percentage required. The
most usual method is to use random numbers.

Random numbers are an excellent way of ensuring a random sample. The

random numbers are generated easily by using a scientific calculator. Other
sources of random numbers are: Log tables and computers.

Here is an example on how to use random numbers. You have a population of

100 units and you need to randomly select 10 units to be included in the
sample. The first thing to do is to number the members of the population:
001, 002, 003, 004, 005, 006, 007, 008, 009, 010, 011, 012, 013, 014, 015, 016,
017, 018, 019, 020, 021, 022, 023, 024, 025, 026, 027, 028, 029, 030, 031, 032,
033, 034, 035, 036, 037, 038, 039, 040, 041, 042, 043, 044, 045, 046, 047, 048,
049, 050, 051, 052, 053, 054, 055, 056, 057, 058, 059, 060, 061, 062, 063, 064,
065, 066, 067, 068, 069, 070, 071, 072, 073, 074, 075, 076, 077, 078, 079, 080,

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 081,082, 083, 084, 085, 086, 087, 088, 089, 090, 091, 092, 093, 094, 095, 096,
097, 098, 099, 100.

Then use the following random numbers, generated from a scientific

calculator: 0738, 0987, 0718, 0781, 0221, 0009, 0780, 0814, 0074, 0003, 0703,
0171, 0949, 0837, 0261

Make a decision which numbers to use. You may decide to use the first three
digits of each random number or the latter three digits. In our case let us use
the first three digits.

The final step would be to select the units represented by the random
numbers: 073, 098, 071, 078, 022, 081, 074, 070, 017 and 094.

Note that random number 0780 was not used since it would have led to unit
number 078 being selected twice. Random number 0009 was skipped since
there no unit with number 000.

➢ Stratified random sampling is a type of sampling that is necessary when the

population to be sampled is not homogeneous in terms of certain required
characteristics. Rather than selecting randomly from the entire population,
the researcher has to divide the population into two or more subpopulation,
strata. These strata are expected to constitute the expected homogeneity.
For example dividing teacher population into male and female
subpopulations creates two homogeneous strata. All strata are represented
in the sample and all sample units are selected from each stratum at
random, as in simple random sampling. Proportionate allocation of sampling
fraction or percentage is used to determine the number of units to be drawn
from each stratum.

➢ Area or Cluster sampling is type of sampling that involves the random

selection of clusters from a large population of clusters. All population
members of a selected cluster are included in the sample. The difference
between cluster sampling and stratified random sampling is that whereas in
cluster sampling the sampling unit is the cluster or stratum, the sampling
unit in the stratified random sampling is the individual element within the
stratum. Cluster sampling is used when the population is diversely spread
over a geographical area. Where for various reasons it is preferable to
include groups of subjects from several sites rather than randomly selecting
the whole sample from the whole population.

➢ Systematic sampling is a type of sampling that involves randomly selecting

the first number or name of the sample from a list and from that point on
picks every nth number or name on the list. For proper systematic sampling,

52
 it is necessary that before the list of the population units is compiled all
units should be randomized.

Activity 14
Suppose you took 100 different samples of seven-year-olds and measured their reading ability. For
each sample you calculate a mean and then plot the means of all the samples as a frequency
histogram. What will be the shape of this frequency histogram?

• Nonprobability Sampling

In this approach of sampling, the probability that a person will be selected is not known;
therefore, the researcher generally cannot claim that the sample is representative of the
larger population.

o Quota sampling – The proportions of various subgroups in the population are determined
and the sample drawn (usually not randomly) to have the same percentage in it. It is the
equivalent of stratified sampling with the added requirement that each stratum is
generally represented in the same proportion as in the entire population.
o Convenience sampling is also known as accidental sampling. The sample is secured by
taking cases that happen to be available until the desired sample size is secured. What
is lost in sampling accuracy is saved in time and money.
o Judgmental sampling is also known as purposive sampling. The main objective in this
type of sampling is to pick cases that are typical of the population being studied. The
researcher’s judgement is used to select the respondents then picks only those who
best meet the purposes of the study.
o Snowball Sampling is a type of sampling that is done in stages. In the first stage, a few
persons having the requisite characteristics are identified and interviewed. These are
used as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the sample. The second
stage involves interviewing these persons, who in turn lead to still more persons who
can be interviewed in the third stage, and so on. The term “snowball” stems from the
analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls
downhill.

Summary
• Sampling refers to drawing a sample (a subset) from a population (the full set).
• A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample, but a parameter is a numerical
characteristic of population.
• Sampling error refers to the difference between the value of a sample statistic, such as the
sample mean, and the true value of the population parameter, such as the population mean.

53
 • A Simple random sample is a sample drawn by a procedure where every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected
• A Systematic sample is a sample obtained by determining the sampling interval, selecting a
random starting point between 1 and k, and then selecting every kth element.
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and then
selecting a random sample from each group.
• Cluster sampling is a type of sampling in which clusters are randomly selected
• Convenience sampling is one in which people who are available, volunteer, or can be easily
recruited and included in the sample
• In quota sampling the researcher determines the appropriate sample sizes or quotas for the
groups identified as important and takes convenience samples from those groups
• In snowball sampling each research participant is asked to identify other potential research
participants.
• In purposive sampling the researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of
interest and locates individuals with those characteristics

? Revision Questions
1. What is sampling?
2. What is meant by the terms sample and population?
3. Explain three techniques of sampling.
4. What is sampling error?
5. What is a statistic and a parameter in terms of sampling?
6. Differentiate between random and non-random sampling techniques.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define descriptive statistics
2. State the importance of descriptive statistics
3. Identify the symbols used in statistics
4. Explain how data is organised
5. Explain four ways of graphically representing data.
6. Describe the three measures of central tendency
7. Explain the three measures of variability.
8. Explain two measures of relative standing.

Introduction

Research and innovations are essential in any walk of life or field of knowledge for its enrichment,
progress and development. A lot of research work is carried out and statistical methods help
researchers in carrying out these researches successfully.

Statistics, branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, and analysis of
numerical data and with such problems as experiment design and decision making.

Statistics is divided into two major divisions: Descriptive and Inferential statistics. In this chapter we
will concern ourselves to descriptive statistics.

Topic 1: Importance of statistics in research

Descriptive statistics is the use of statistics to describe, summarize, and explain or make sense of a
given set of data.

Guilford (1973) summarized the importance of statistics in research:

• Thy permit the most exact kind of description
• They force us to be definite and exact in our thinking
• They enable us to summarise our results in a meaningful and convenient form
• They enable us to draw general conclusions

55
 • They enable us to predict.
• They enable us o analyse some of the causal factors underlying complex and otherwise
bewildering events

Statistics, in general, renders valuable services in the following dimensions:

• In the collection of data
• In classification, organization and summarization of numerical facts.
• In drawing conclusions and inferences or making predictions on the basis of data (Mangal,
1990).

Topic 2: Statistical Symbols

The following are statistical symbols:

• X - The raw score or the midpoint of the class interval in a frequency distribution
• X-M (or x) - The deviation score indicating how far a score deviates from the mean
• ∑ X - Sum of the scores in a series
• i - The class interval in a frequency distribution.
• f - Frequency that is the number of cases with specific score in a particular class interval.
• n – Sample size
• N – Population size
• cf – Cumulative frequency
• M, Md, Mo – Mean, median, mode
• Q1, Q2, Q3, etc. – First quartile, second quartile, third quartile, etc
• P1, P2, P3, etc. – First percentile, second percentile, third percentile, etc
• σ – Standard deviation
• r – Product moment correlation coefficient
• ρ – Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficient
• Ho – Null hypothesis
• HA – Alternate Hypothesis

Topic 3: Organisation of Data

The word data is plural of datum. It means the evidence or facts for describing a group or situation.
Examples of data are height of students, score of intelligence and weight of learners.

For understanding the meaning and deriving useful conclusion the data have to be organised or
arranged in some systematic way. Organisation of data is the arrangement of original data in a
proper way for deriving useful interpretation (Mangal, 1990 and Kasomo, 2007). It involves the
following ways:

➢ Organising in form of statistical tables.

56
 ➢ Organising in the form of rank order.
➢ Organising in the form of Frequency distribution (which is distribution in suitable groups)

Statistical Tables

Here, you tabulate or arrange the data in some properly selected classes and the arrangement is
described by titles and sub-titles. Such tables can list original raw data as well as percentages,
means, standard deviations (Mangal, 1990). The following are general rules for constructing tables:

➢ Title should be simple, concise and unambiguous. The title usually is top of the table.
➢ The table should be suitably divided into columns and rows according to the nature of data
and purpose. These rows and columns should be arranged in a logical order to facilitate
comparisons.
➢ The heading of each column or row should be as brief as possible. Two or more columns or
rows with similar headings may be grouped under a common heading to avoid repetition.
➢ Sub-totals for each separate classification and general total for all combined classes are to
be given. These totals should be given at the bottom or right of concerned items.
➢ The units in which the data are given must be mentioned, preferably, in the headings of
columns or rows.
➢ Necessary footnotes for providing essential explanation of he points to ambiguous
interpretation of the tabulated data must be given at the bottom of the table.
➢ Provide the source of data at the end of the table.
➢ The table should be simple to allow easy interpretation.

Rank Order

The original data may be grouped in an ascending or descending series exhibiting an order with
respect to the rank or merit position of the individual. For this purpose, would use a descending
series arranging the highest score on the top and the lowest at the bottom.

Example: Fifty students obtained the following scores on their psychology test, tabulate these
data in the form of rank order:

63, 22, 27, 33, 57, 37, 38, 40, 54, 41, 55, 43, 45, 62, 69, 29, 34, 57, 58, 38, 53, 40, 46, 48, 49, 59, 46, 47,
48, 41, 54, 43, 44, 64, 31, 35, 59, 36, 39, 53, 42, 52, 45, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 51, 39

Solution: The rank order tabulation of this data will be as given below:

Rank Scores Rank Scores Rank Scores

1 69 21 47 41 38
2 64 22 46 42 37
3 63 23 46 43 36
4 62 24 46 44 35
5 59 25 45 45 34

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6 58 26 45 46 33
7 57 27 44 47 31
8 57 28 44 48 29
9 55 29 44 49 27
10 55 30 43 50 22

11 54 31 43
12 53 32 42
13 53 33 42
14 52 34 41
15 51 35 41
16 50 36 40
17 49 37 40
18 49 38 39
19 48 39 39
20 47 40 38

Frequency Distributions

One useful way to view the data of a variable is to construct a frequency distribution (i.e., an
arrangement in which the frequencies, and sometimes percentages, of the occurrence of each
unique data value are shown). By frequency of a datum, we mean the number of times the datum is
repeated in a given series.

In this form of organisation and arrangement of data, you group the numerical data into some
arbitrarily chosen classes or groups. For this purpose, usually, the data are distributed into groups
of data (classes) and each datum is allotted a place in the respective group or class. It is also seen
how many times a particular datum or group of data occur in the given data. In this way, frequency
distribution may be considered a method of presenting a collection of groups of data in each group
of data or class.

Frequency distribution is organised via a number of steps:

➢ Step 1: finding the range. You can obtain the range by subtracting the lowest datum from the
highest datum. In the above rank order example, the range is:
69 - 22 = 47
➢ Step 2: Determining the class interval or grouping interval. This you can do by following any
of the following rules:
o Rule 1: to obtain the class interval, denoted as i, the range is divided by number of
classes desired. As a general rule, if the series has fewer cases than 50, the number
of classes should not exceed 10; if the series has between 50 and 100, you should use
between 10 and 15 classes and if the series has more than 100 items, you should use
15 or more classes.

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 o Rule 2: the class interval is decided first and then the number of classes is
determined
In the above case, using rule 1, the range is 47 and since the number of cases in our series are
50, 10 classes should be sufficient. The class interval will be 47/10=4.7 which is 5, the nearest
whole number.
➢ Step 3: now you should write the contents of the frequency distribution. This you are able to
do by drawing three columns with the following headings:
o Classes of the distribution, the lowest class is decided and the rest of the classes
are added up to the highest, in this case, let us use the lowest class as: 20-24
o Tallies - done on data into proper classes
o Frequencies – the number of data in each class are written in the third column and
the total frequency entered.
➢ The above data would be present as shown on the following table:

TABLE 3.1 Construction of a Frequency Distribution Table

Classes of Data Tallies Frequencies
65-69 l 1
60-64 lll 3
55-59 llll l 6
50-54 llll l 6
45-49 llll llll 10
40-44 llll llll l 11
35-39 llll ll 7
30-34 lll 3
25-29 ll 2
20-24 l 1
Total Frequencies (N) = 50

While grouping the raw scores into a frequency distribution, we assume that the mid-point of the
class interval is the score obtained by each of the individuals represented by that interval. In the
above table, notice, for example, the class interval 35-39, had original values of 39, 39, 38, 38, 37, 36
and 35 respectively. In grouping we assume that these measures have the value of the midpoint of
their respective class or group, i.e. 37. They are represented by a single measure 37. This
assumption leads to grouping error.

Cumulative Frequency and Cumulative Percentage Frequency Distribution

A Frequency Distribution Table tells you the way in which frequencies are distributed over the
various class intervals but it does not tell you the total number of cases or the percentage of cases
lying below or above a class interval. You can perform this task with the help of cumulative
frequency and cumulative percentage frequency distribution.
The following table on the above data will illustrate how this is done:

TABLE 3.2 Computation of Cumulative frequencies and cumulative percentage frequencies

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Class interval Frequency Cumulative Cumulative percentage
frequency frequency
65-69 1 50 100.00
60-64 3 49 98.00
55-59 6 46 96.00
50-54 6 40 80.00
45-49 10 34 68.00
40-44 11 24 48.00
35-39 7 13 26.00
30-34 3 6 12.00
25-29 2 3 6.00
20-24 1 1 2.00

Cumulative frequencies are, thus, obtained by adding successively, starting from the bottom, the
individual frequencies. In the above table when we start from the bottom, the first cumulative
frequency is written as 1 against the lowest class interval, i.e. 20-24, the next cumulative frequency
is 3 because 1 is added to the frequency of the second class interval which is 2, then 6 by adding 3 to
the frequency of the third class interval which is 3 and so on.
To convert the cumulative frequencies into cumulative percentage frequencies, you just need the
particular cumulative frequency and then multiply it by 100/N, where N isthe total number of
frequencies

Graphic Representations of Data

Another excellent way to describe your data is to construct graphical representations of the data.
According to Mangal (1990), the following are the advantages of graphic representation of data:
➢ Attractive and appealing to the eye.
➢ Provides more lasting effect on the brain.
➢ Comparative analysis and interpretation may effectively and easily be made.
➢ Various statistics like median, mode, quartiles, may be easily computed.
➢ May help in proper estimation, evaluation and interpretation of characteristics of items and
individuals
➢ The real value of graphical representation lies in its economy and effectiveness. It carries a
lot of communication power.
➢ Helps in forecasting as it indicates the trend and movements of the data in the past

Some common graphical representations are bar graphs, histograms, line graphs, and scatter
plots.

Bar Graphs
A bar graph uses vertical bars to represent the data.

• The height of the bars usually represent the frequencies for the categories that sit on the X
axis.

60
 • Note that, by tradition, the X axis is the horizontal axis and the Y axis is the vertical axis.

• Bar graphs are typically used for categorical variables.

Histograms
A histogram is a graphic that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a quantitative
variable.

• In statistics, we often want to see the shape of the distribution of quantitative variables; having
your computer programme provide you with a histogram is a simple way to do this.

• Line Graphs
A line graph uses one or more lines to depict information about one or more variables.

• A simple line graph might be used to show a trend over time (e.g., with the years on the X axis
and the population sizes on the Y axis).

• Line graphs are used for many different purposes in research. Line graphs are used in
factorial experimental designs to depict the relationship between two categorical
independent variables and the dependent variable.

• This line graph shows that the "sampling distribution of the mean" is normally distributed.

• Line graphs have in common their use of one or more lines within the graph (to depict the
levels or characteristics of a variable or to depict the relationships among variables).

Scatterplots
A scatterplot is used to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables.

• Typically, the independent or predictor variable is represented by the X axis (i.e., on the
horizontal axis) and the dependent variable is represented by the Y axis (i.e., on the vertical
axis).
Activity 15
What are the characteristics of a normal distribution?

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency provide descriptive information about the single numerical value that
is considered to be the most typical of the values of a quantitative variable.

• Three common measures of central tendency are the mode, the median, and the mean.

61
The mode is simply the most frequently occurring number.
The median is the centre point in a set of numbers; it is also the fiftieth percentile.

• To get the median by hand, you first put your numbers in ascending or descending order.

• Then you check to see which of the following two rules applies:

• Rule One. If you have an odd number of numbers, the median is the centre number (e.g.,
three is the median for the numbers 1, 1, 3, 4, 9).

• Rule Two. If you have an even number of numbers, the median is the average of the two
innermost numbers (e.g., 2.5 is the median for the numbers 1, 2, 3, 7).

The mean is the arithmetic average (e.g., the average of the numbers 2, 3, 3, and 4, is equal to 3).

Activity 16
1. Which measure of central tendency would be most suitable for each of the following
sets of data?
i. 1, 23,25, 26, 27, 23, 29, 30
ii. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 50
iii. 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 6, 6, 8, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
iv. 1, 101, 104, 106, 111, 108, 109, 200

2. If you randomly select a sample of 20 12-year-old girls( sample A) and then select a
sample of 500 12-year-olds Sample B) and then calculate the mean weight and height
for each sample. Which is likely to give abetter estimate of the population mean weight
and height?

Measures of Variability
Measures of variability tell you how "spread out" or how much variability is present in a set of
numbers. They tell you how different your numbers tend to be. Note that measures of variability
should be reported along with measures of central tendency because they provide very different
but complementary and important information. To fully interpret one (e.g., a mean), it is helpful to
know about the other (e.g., a standard deviation).

An easy way to get the idea of variability is to look at two sets of data, one that is highly variable
and one that is not very variable. For example, which of these two sets of numbers appears to be
the most spread out, Set A or Set B?

• Set A. 93, 96, 98, 99, 99, 99, 100

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 • Set B. 10, 29, 52, 69, 87, 92, 100

If you said Set B is more spread out, then you are right! The numbers in set B are more "spread out";
that is, they have more variability.
All of the measures of variability should give us an indication of the amount of variability in a set of
data. We will discuss three indices of variability: the range, the variance, and the standard deviation.

Range
A relatively crude indicator of variability is the range (i.e., which is the difference between the
highest and lowest numbers).

• For example the range in Set A shown above is 7, and the range in Set B shown above is 90.

Variance and Standard Deviation

Two commonly used indicators of variability are the variance and the standard deviation.

• Higher values for both of these indicators indicate a larger amount of variability than do lower
numbers.

• Zero stands for no variability at all (e.g., for the data 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, the variance and standard
deviation will equal zero).

• When you have no variability, the numbers are a constant (i.e., the same number).

• (Basically, you set up the three columns shown, get the sum of the third column, and then plug
the relevant numbers into the variance formula.)

• The variance tells you (exactly) the average deviation from the mean, in "squared units."

• The standard deviation is just the square root of the variance (i.e., it brings the "squared units"
back to regular units).

• The standard deviation tells you (approximately) how far the numbers tend to vary from the
mean. (If the standard deviation is 7, then the numbers tend to be about 7 units from the
mean. If the standard deviation is 1500, then the numbers tend to be about 1500 units from
the mean.)

Activity 17

63
 Work out the mean, median and mode for the following sets of scores
i. 12, 23, 9, 14, 14, 12, 25, 9, 12
ii. 1, 4, 5, 6, 19, 1, 5, 3, 16, 12, 5, 4
iii. 32, 56, 91, 16, 32, 5, 14, 62, 19, 12

Virtually everyone in research is already familiar with the normal curve

If data are normally distributed, then an easy rule to apply to the data is what we call “the 68, 95,
99.7 percent rule." That is:

• Approximately 68% of the cases will fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

• Approximately 95% of the cases will fall within two standard deviations of the mean.

• Approximately 99.7% of the cases will fall within three standard deviations of the mean.

Measures of Relative Standing

Measures of relative standing are used to provide information about where a particular score falls
in relation to the other scores in a distribution of data. Two commonly used measures of relative
standing are percentile ranks and Z-scores.

You can determine the mean of the type of standard scores below by simply looking under Mean.
You can determine the standard deviation by looking at how much the scores increase as you move
from the mean to 1 SD.

• Z-Scores: have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Therefore, if you converted any set of
scores (e.g., the set of student grades on a test) to z-scores, then that new set WILL have a
mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.

• IQ has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

• SAT has a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100.

• Note: percentile ranks are a different type of scores; because they only have ordinal
measurement properties, the concept of standard deviation is not relevant.

Activity 18
If you have a negative z-score, does it fall above or below the mean? With a
negative z-score do the majority of the population score higher or lower than you?

Percentile Ranks

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A percentile rank tells you the percentage of scores in a reference group (i.e., in the norming group)
that fall below a particular raw score.
• For example, if your percentile rank is 93 then you know that 93 percent of the scores in the
reference group fall below your score.

Z-Scores
A z-score tells you how many standard deviations (SD) a raw score falls from the mean.

• A SD of 2 says a score falls two standard deviations above the mean.

• A SD of -3.5 says the score falls three and a half standard deviations below the mean.

To transform a raw score into z-score units, just use the following formula:
Raw score - Mean Z-score = ------------------------ Standard Deviation
For example, you know that the mean for IQ scores is 100 and the standard deviation for IQ scores is
15

Therefore, if your IQ is 115, you can get your z-score...

115 - 100 15 Z-score = --------------- = -------- = 1 15 15
An IQ of 115 falls one standard deviation above the mean.
Note that once you have a set of z-scores, you can convert to any other scale by using this formula:
New score = Z-score(SD of new scale) + mean of the new scale.

• For example, let’s convert a z-score of three to an IQ score

• New score=3(15) + 100 (remember, the mean of IQ scores is 100 and the standard deviation of IQ
scores is 15). Therefore, the new score (i.e., the IQ score converted from the z-score of 3
using the formula just provided) is equal to 145 (3 times 15 is 45, and when 100 is added you
get 145).

Activity 19
Suppose that your marks in Mathematics and English are 65% and 71%
respectively. Which is your better subject in comparison with the others if the
group means and SD are 60 and 5 (Mathematics) and 65 and 7 ( English)

Examining Relationships among Variables

We have been talking about relationships among variables throughout your textbook. For example,
we have already talked about correlation, partial correlation, analysis of variance which is used for
factorial designs and analysis of covariance.
At this point in this chapter on descriptive statistics, we introduce two additional techniques that
you also can use for examining relationships among variables: contingency tables and regression
analysis.

65
Contingency Tables

When all of your variables are categorical, you can use contingency tables to see if your variables
are related.

• A contingency table is a table displaying information in cells formed by the intersection of two
or more categorical variables.

When interpreting a contingency table, remember to use the following two rules:

• Rule One. If the percentages are calculated down the columns, compare across the rows.

• Rule Two. If the percentages are calculated across the rows, compare down the columns.

• When you follow these rule you will be comparing the appropriate rates (a rate is the
percentage of people in a group who have a specific characteristic).

• When you listen to the local and national news, you will often hear the announcers compare
rates.

• The failure of some researchers to follow the two rules just provided has resulted in
misleading statements about how categorical variables are related; so be careful.

Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a set of statistical procedures used to explain or predict the values of a
quantitative dependent variable based on the values of one or more independent variables.

• In simple regression, there is one quantitative dependent variable and one independent
variable.

• In multiple regression, there is one quantitative dependent variable and two or more
independent variables.

The components of the regression equations (e.g., the Y-intercept and the regression coefficients).
Here are the important definitions:

• Regression equation-The equation that defines the regression line

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 • Here is the simple regression equation showing the relationship between starting salary (Y or
your dependent variable) and GPA (X or your independent variable)

Ŷ = 9,234.56 + 7,638.85 (X)

• The 9,234.56 is the Y intercept (look at the above regression line; it crosses the Y axis a little
below $10,000; specifically, it crosses the Y axis at $9,234.56).

• The 7,638.85 is the simple regression coefficient, which tells you the average amount of
increase in starting salary that occurs when GPA increases by one unit (it is also the slope
or the rise over the run).

• Now, you can plug in a value for X (i.e., starting salary) and easily get the predicted starting
salary.

• If you put in a 3.00 for GPA in the above equation and solve it, you will see that the predicted
starting salary is $32,151.11

• Now plug in another number within the range of the data (how about a 3.5) and see what the
predicted starting salary (check on your work: it is $35,970.54)

• The main difference is that in multiple regression, the regression coefficient is now called a
partial regression coefficient, and this coefficient provides the predicted change in the
dependent variable given a one unit change in the independent variable, controlling for the
other independent variables in the equation. In other words, you can use multiple regression
to control for other variables (i.e., for what we called in earlier chapters statistical control).

Summary
• Descriptive statistics are statistics that focus on describing, summarizing, or explaining
data.
• A frequency distribution is an arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data
value are shown
• Bar Graphs use vertical bars to represent data
• A histogram is a graphic that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a
quantitative variable.
• A line graph uses one or more lines to depict information about one or more variables.
• A scatter plot is used to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables.
• Mode is the most frequently occurring number.

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 • Median is the centre point in a set of numbers; it is also the fiftieth percentile.
• The mean is the arithmetic average
• Measures of variability tell you how "spread out" or how much variability is present in a set
of numbers
• Range is the difference between the highest and lowest numbers
• The variance tells us the average deviation from the mean, in "squared units."
• Standard deviation tells us how far the numbers tend to vary from the mean.
• Measures of relative standing are used to provide information about where a particular
score falls in relation to the other scores in a distribution of data.
• A contingency table is a table displaying information in cells formed by the intersection of
two or more categorical variables.
• Regression analysis is a set of statistical procedures used to explain or predict the values of
a quantitative dependent variable based on the values of one or more independent
variables.

? Revision Questions
1. What are descriptive statistics?
2. Explain four ways of graphically representing data.
3. What are the three measures of central tendency?
4. Explain the three measures of variability.
5. Explain two measures of relative standing

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 CHAPTER NINE
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define inferential statistics
2. Describe a sampling distribution
3. Differentiate between null and alternative hypotheses
4. Explain the concept of significance level
5. Differentiate when to use a t-test, one-way analysis of variance and
two-way analysis of variance
6. Explain the techniques used to test relationship between variable.

Introduction
This is probably the most challenging chapter in your book. However, you can understand it. It just
takes attention and effort. After you carefully study the material, it will become clear to you. Your
lecturers will be available to answer any questions you have.

• As you can see, inferential statistics is divided into estimation and hypothesis testing, and
estimation is further divided into point and interval estimation.

Inferential statistics is defined as the branch of statistics that is used to make inferences about the
characteristics of a populations based on sample data.

• The goal is to go beyond the data at hand and make inferences about population parameters.

• In order to use inferential statistics, it is assumed that either random selection or random
assignment was carried out (i.e., some form of randomization must is assumed).

Statisticians use Greek letters to symbolize population parameters (i.e., numerical characteristics of
populations, such as means and correlations) and English letters to symbolize sample statistics (i.e.,
numerical characteristics of samples, such as means and correlations).
For example, we use the Greek letter mu (i.e., μ) to symbolize the population mean and the
Roman/English letter X with a bar over it, X (called X bar), to symbolize the sample mean.

Sampling Distributions

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One of the most important concepts in inferential statistics is that of the sampling distribution.
That's because the use of sampling distributions is what allows us to make "probability" statements
in inferential statistics.

• A sampling distribution is defined as "The theoretical probability distribution of the values of a

statistic that results when all possible random samples of a particular size are drawn from
a population." (For simplicity you can view the idea of "all possible samples" as taking a
million random samples. That is, just view it as taking a whole lot of samples!)

• A one specific type of sampling distribution is called the sampling distribution of the mean. If
you wanted to generate this distribution through the laborious process of doing it by hand
(which you would NOT need to do in practice), you would randomly select a sample,
calculate the mean, randomly select another sample, calculate the mean, and continue this
process until you have calculated the means for all possible samples. This process will give
you a lot of means, and you can construct a line graph to depict your sampling distribution
of the mean

• The sampling distribution of the mean is normally distributed (as long as your sample size is
about 30 or more for your sampling).

• Also, note that the mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is equal to the population
mean! That tells you that repeated sampling will, over the long run, produce the correct
mean. The spread or variance shows you that sample means will tend to be somewhat
different from the true population mean in most particular samples.

Although we just described the sampling distribution of the mean, it is important to remember that
a sampling distribution can be obtained for any statistic. For example, you could also obtain the
following sampling distributions:

• Sampling distribution of the percentage (or proportion).

• Sampling distribution of the variance.

• Sampling distribution of the correlation.

• Sampling distribution of the regression coefficient.

• Sampling distribution of the difference between two means.

The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is called the standard error. In other words, the
standard error is just a special kind of standard deviation and you learned what a standard
deviation was in the last chapter.

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 • The smaller the standard error, the less the amount of variability present in a sampling
distribution.

It is important to understand that researchers do not actually empirically construct sampling

distributions! When conducting research, researchers typically select only one sample from the
population of interest; they do not collect all possible samples.

• The computer programme that a researcher uses (e.g., SPSS and SAS) uses the appropriate
sampling distribution for you.
• The computer programme will look at the type of statistical analysis you select (and also
consider certain additional information that you have provided, such as the sample size in
your study), and then the statistical programme selects the appropriate sampling
distribution.

• (It's kind of like the Greyhound Bus analogy: Leave the driving to us...SPSS will take care of
generating the appropriate sampling distribution for you if you give it the information it
needs.)

So please remember that the idea of sampling distributions (i.e., the idea of probability distributions
obtained from repeated sampling) underlies our ability to make probability statements in inferential
statistics.

Estimation
The key estimation question is "Based on our random sample, what is our estimate of the population
parameter?"

• The basic idea is that you are going to use your sample data to provide information about the
population.

There are actually two types of estimation.

• They can be first understood through the following analogy: Let's say that you take your car to
your local car dealer's service department and you ask the service manager how much it
will cost to repair your car. If the manager says it will cost you $500 then she is providing a
point estimate. If the manager says it will cost somewhere between $400 and $600 then she
is providing an interval estimate.

In other words, a point estimate is a single number, and an interval estimate is a range of numbers.

• A point estimate is the value of your sample statistic (e.g., your sample mean or sample
correlation), and it is used to estimate the population parameter (e.g., the population mean
or the population correlation).

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 • For example, if you take a random sample from adults living an the United States and you find
that the average income for the people in your sample is $45,000, then your best guess or
your point estimate for the population of adults in the U.S. will be $45,000.

In the above example, you used the value of the sample mean as the estimate of the population
mean.

• Again, whenever you engage in point estimation, all you need to do is to use the value of your
sample statistic as your "best guess" (i.e., as your estimate) of the (unknown) population
parameter. Often times, we like to put an interval around our point estimates so that we
realize that the actual population value is somewhat different from our point estimate
because sampling error is always present in sampling.

• An interval estimate (also called a confidence interval) is a range of numbers inferred from the
sample that has a known probability of capturing the population parameter over the long
run (i.e., over repeated sampling).

• The "beauty" of confidence intervals is that we know their probability (over the long run) of
including the true population parameter (you can't do this with a point estimate).

• Specifically, if you have the computer provide you with a 95 percent confidence interval (based
on your data), then you will be able to be "95% confident" that it will include the population
parameter. That is, your “level of confidence” is 95%.

• For example, you might take the point estimate of annual income of U.S. adults of $45,000
(used earlier as a point estimate) and surround it by a 95% confidence interval. You might
find that the confidence interval is $43,000 to $47,000. In this case, you can be "95%
confident" that the average income is somewhere between $43,000 and $47,000.

• If you have the computer programme give you a 99% confidence interval, then you can be "99%
confident" that the confidence interval provided will include the population parameter (i.e., it
will capture the true parameter 99% of the time in the long run).

Activity 20
How confident can we be that the population mean is within 1.96 standard
errors from the sample mean?

You might ask: So why don’t we just use 99% confidence intervals rather than 95% intervals, since
you will make fewer mistakes?

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 • The answer is that for a given sample size, the 99% confidence interval will be wider (i.e., less
precise) than a 95% confidence interval. For example, the interval $40,000 to 50,000 is
wider than the interval $43,000 to $47,000.

• 95% confidence intervals are popular with many researchers. However, you may, at times,
want to use other confidence intervals (e.g., 90% confidence intervals or 99% confidence
intervals).

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is the branch of inferential statistics that is concerned with how well the sample
data support a null hypothesis and when the null hypothesis can be rejected in favour of the
alternative hypothesis.

• First note that the null hypothesis is usually the prediction that there is no relationship in the
population.

• The alternative hypothesis is the logical opposite of the null hypothesis and says there is a
relationship in the population.

• We use hypothesis testing when we expect a relationship to be present; in other words, we

usually hope to “nullify” the null hypothesis and tentatively accept the alternative
hypothesis.
• Here is the key question that is answered in hypothesis testing: "Is the value of my sample
statistic unlikely enough (assuming that the null hypothesis is true) for me to reject the null
hypothesis and tentatively accept the alternative hypothesis?"

• Note that it is the null hypothesis that is directly tested in hypothesis testing (not the
alternative hypothesis).

An Analogy from Jurisprudence

The Kenyan criminal justice system operates on the assumption that the defendant is innocent until
proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. In hypothesis testing, this assumption is called the null
hypothesis. That is, researchers assume that the null hypothesis is true until the evidence suggests
that it is not likely to be true. The researcher's null hypothesis might be that a technique of
counseling does not work any better than no counseling. The researcher is kind of like a
prosecuting attorney. The prosecuting attorney brings someone to trial when he or she believes
there is some evidence against the accused, and the researcher brings a null hypothesis to "trial"
when he or she believes there is some evidence against the null hypothesis (i.e., the researcher
actually believes that the counseling technique does work better than no counseling). In the
courtroom, the jury decides what constitutes reasonable doubt, and they make a decision about
guilt or innocence. The researcher uses inferential statistics to determine the probability of the
evidence under the assumption that the null hypothesis is true. If this probability is low, the

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researcher is able to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. If this
probability is not low, the researcher is not able to reject the null hypothesis. No matter what
decision is made, things are still not completely settled because a mistake could have been made. In
the courtroom, decisions of guilt or innocence are sometimes overturned or found to be incorrect.
Similarly, in research, the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis is based on probability,
so researchers sometimes make a mistake. However, inferential statistics gives researchers the
probability of their making a mistake.

• Here is the main point: In the Kenyan System of Jurisprudence, a defendant is "presumed
innocent" until evidence calls this assumption into question. That is, the jury is told to
assume that a person is innocent until they have heard all of the evidence and can make a
decision. Likewise, in hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis is assumed to be true (i.e., it is
assumed that there is no relationship) until evidence clearly calls this assumption into
question.

• In jurisprudence, the jury rejects the claim of innocence (rejects the null) in the face of strong
evidence to the contrary and makes the opposite conclusion that the defendant is guilty.
Likewise, in hypothesis testing, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis in the face of
strong evidence to the contrary.

• In hypothesis testing, "strong evidence to the contrary" is found in a small probability value,
which says the research result is unlikely if the null hypothesis is true. When the researcher
rejects the null hypothesis (i.e., rejects the assumption of no relationship), he or she
tentatively accepts the alternative hypothesis (i.e., which says there is a relationship in the
population).

• In short, in the procedure called hypothesis testing, the researcher states the null and
alternative hypotheses. Then if the probability value is small, the researcher rejects the null
hypothesis and goes with the alternative hypothesis and makes the claim that statistical
significance has been found.

• When you look at the table, be sure to notice that the null hypothesis has the equality sign in it
and the alternative hypothesis has the "not equals" sign in it.

You may be wondering, when do you actually reject the null hypothesis and make the decision to
tentatively accept the alternative hypothesis?

• Earlier we mentioned that you reject the null hypothesis when the probability of your result
assuming a true null is very small. That is, you reject the null when the evidence would be
unlikely under the assumption of the null.

• In particular, you set a significance level (also called the alpha level) to use in your research
study, which is the point at which you would consider a result to be very unlikely. Then, if

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 your probability value is less than or equal to your significance level, you reject the null
hypothesis.

• It is essential that you understand the difference between the probability value (also called the
p-value) and the significance level (also called the alpha level).
• The probability value is a number that is obtained from the SPSS computer printout. It is based
on your empirical data, and it tells you the probability of your result or a more extreme
result when it is assumed that there is no relationship in the population (i.e., when you are
assuming that the null hypothesis is true which is what we do in hypothesis testing and in
jurisprudence).

• The significance level is just that point at which you would consider a result to be "rare." You
are the one who decides on the significance level to use in your research study. A
significance level is not an empirical result; it is the level that you set so that you will know
what probability value will be small enough for you to reject the null hypothesis.

• The significance level that is usually used in education is .05.

Activity 21
Why do we set our criterion for significance at 0.05?

• It boils down to this: if your probability value is less than or equal to the significance level (e.g.,
.05) then you will reject the null hypothesis and tentatively accept the alternative
hypothesis. If not (i.e., if it is > .05) then you will fail to reject the null hypothesis. You just
compare your probability value with your significance level.

• You must memorize the definitions of probability value and significance level right away
because they are at the heart of hypothesis testing. At the most simple level, the process
just boils down to seeing whether your probability value is less than (or equal to) your
significance level. If it is, you are happy because you can reject the null hypothesis and
make the claim of statistical significance (still don’t forget the last step of determining
practical significance).

• The final step after conducting a hypothesis test, you must interpret your results, make a
substantive, real-world decision, and determine the practical significance of your result.

• Statistical significance does not tell you whether you have practical significance.

• If a finding is statistically significant then you can claim that the evidence suggests that the
observed result (e.g., your observed correlation or your observed difference between two
means) was probably not just due to chance. That is, there probably is some non-zero
relation present in the population.

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Activity 22
Try to think of bivariate positive relationships. Are your examples likely to be
perfect relationships?

• An effect size indicator can aid in your determination of practical significance and should
always be examined to help interpret the strength of a statistically significant relationship.
An effect size indicator is defined as a measure of the strength of a relationship.

• A finding is practically significant when the difference between the means or the size of the
correlation is big enough, in your opinion, to be of practical use. For example, a correlation
of .15 would probably not be practically significant, even if it was statistically significant. On
the other hand, a correlation of .85 would probably be practically significant.

• Practical significance requires you to make a non-quantitative decision and to think about
many different factors such as the size of the relationship, whether an intervention would
transfer well to the real world, the costs of using a statistically significant intervention in
the real world, etc. It is a decision that YOU make.

The next idea is for you to realize that you will either make a correct decision about statistical
significance or you will make an error whenever you conduct a hypothesis test.

• When the null hypothesis is true you can make the correct decision (i.e., fail to reject the null)
or you can make the incorrect decision (rejecting the true null). The incorrect decision is
called a Type I error or a "false positive" because you have erroneously concluded that there
is an effect or relationship in the population.

• When the null hypothesis is false you can also make the correct decision (i.e., rejecting the
false null) or you can make the incorrect decision (failure to reject the false null). The
incorrect decision is called a Type II error or a "false negative" because you have
erroneously concluded that there is no effect or relationship in the population.

• You need to memorize the definitions of Type I and Type II errors, and after working with many
examples of hypothesis testing they will become easier to ponder.

Activity 23
1. In law, a person is presumed to be innocent (that is, the null hypothesis). Explain the idea of Type
I and Type II errors here. Which error has occurred when an innocent person is found guilty? Which
error has occurred when a guilty person is found innocent by the jury?

2. When we reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact, true, then we have
a) Made a type I error
b) Made a type II error

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 c) Made scientific progress
d) Both B and C above

Hypothesis Testing in Practice

In this last section of the chapter, I apply the process of hypothesis testing (which is also called
"significance testing") to the data set.
• Since we are now using this data set for inferential statistics, we will assume that the 25
people were randomly selected.

• Note that there are three quantitative variables and two categorical variables (can you list
them?).

• Also note that I will use the significance level of .05 for all of my statistical tests below.

(The answers to the earlier questions about the two types of errors are in the first case a Type I
error was made and in the second case a Type II error was made.)

• Before we test some hypotheses, we want to point out the reason WHY we use hypothesis or
significance testing: We do it because researchers do not want to interpret findings that are
not statistically significant because these findings are probably nothing but a reflection of
chance fluctuations.

Note that in all of the following examples we will be doing the same thing. we will get the p-
value and compare it to my preset significance level of .05 to see if the relationship is
statistically significant. And then I will also interpret the results by looking at the data,
looking at an effect size indicator, and by thinking about the practical importance of the
result.

• Again, after practice, significance becomes very easy because you do the same procedure
every single time. Determining the practical significance is probably the hardest part.

t-Test for Independent Samples One frequently used statistical test is called the t-test for
independent samples. We do this when we want to determine if the difference between two groups
is statistically significant.
Here is an example of the t-test for independent samples using our recent college graduate data
set:

• Research Question: Is the difference between average starting salary for males and the
average starting salary for females significantly different?

• Here the hypotheses (note that they are stated in terms of population parameters):

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 • Null Hypothesis Ho: μM = μF (i.e., the population mean for males equals the population mean for
females)

• Alternative Hypothesis H1: μM ≠ μF (i.e., the population mean for males does not equal the
population mean for females)

The probability value was .048 (we got this off of my SPSS printout).

• Since my probability value of .048 is less than my significance level of .05, I reject the null
hypothesis and accept the alternative.

• I conclude that the difference between the two means is statistically significant.

• Now I would need to look at the actual means and interpret them for substantive and practical
significance.

• The males’ mean is $34,333.33 and the females’ mean is $31,076.92.

• I can simply look at these means and see how different they are.

• To help in judging how different the means are, I also calculated an effect size indicator called
eta-squared which was equal to .16. This tells me that gender explains 16% of the variance in
starting salary in my data set.

• I conclude that males earn more than females, and because this is an important issue in
society, I also conclude that this difference is practically significant.

Activity 24
What does the independent t-test examine?
a) The difference between the median for each condition
b) The difference between the variances for each condition
c) The difference between the mean for each condition

One-Way Analysis of Variance

One-way analysis of variance is used to compare two or more group means for statistical
significance.
Here is an example using our “recent college graduate” data set:

• Research Question: Is there a statistically significant difference in the starting salaries of

education majors, arts and sciences majors, and engineering majors?

• Here the hypotheses (note that they are stated in terms of population parameters):

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 • Null Hypothesis. Ho: μE = μA&S = μB (i.e., the population means for education students, arts and
sciences students, and business students are all the same)

• Alternative Hypothesis. H1: Not all equal (i.e., the population means are not all the same)

The probability value was .001 (I got this off of my SPSS printout).

• Since .001 is less than .05, I reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. I conclude
that at least two of the means are significantly different.

• The effect size indicator, eta-squared, was equal to .467 which say that almost 47 percent in
the variance of starting salary was explained or accounted for by differences in college
major.

• Now we need to find out which of the three means are different.

• In order to decide which of these three means are significantly different, I must follow the
“post hoc testing” procedure explained in the next. Notice that is I had done an ANOVA with
an independent variable that was composed of only two groups, I would not need follow-up
tests (which are only needed when there are three or more groups).

Activity 25
ANOVA is useful for:
a)Analysing correlational data
b) Analysing data from research with more than one IV and one DV
c) Teasing out the individual effects of factors on an IV
d) All of the above

Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance

Here are the three average starting salaries for the three groups examined in the previous analysis
of variance (i.e., these are the three sample means):

• Education: $29,500

• Arts and Sciences: $32,300

• Business: $36,714.29

The question in post hoc testing is "Which pairs of means are significantly different?"
In this case that results in three post hoc tests that need to be conducted:

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1. First, is the difference between education and arts and sciences significantly different"

• Here are the null and alternative hypotheses for this first post hoc test:
• Null Hypothesis Ho: μE = μA&S (i.e., the population mean for education majors equals the
population mean for arts and sciences majors)

• Alternative Hypothesis H1: μE ≠ μA&S (i.e., the population mean for education majors does
not equal the population mean for arts and sciences majors)

• The Bonferroni "adjusted" p-value, which I got off the SPSS printout, was .233.

• Since .233 is > .05, I fail to reject the null that the population means for education and
arts and sciences are equal.

• In short, this difference was not statistically significant.

2. Second, is the difference between education and business significantly different?

• Here are the null and alternative hypotheses for this first post hoc test:

• Null Hypothesis Ho: μE = μB (i.e., the population mean for education majors equals the
population mean for business majors)

• Alternative Hypothesis H1: μE ≠ μB (i.e., the population mean for education majors does
not equal the population mean for business majors)

• The adjusted p-value was .001.

• Since .001 is < .05, we reject the null hypothesis that the two population means are
equal.

• We make the claim that the difference between the means is statistically significant.

• We also claim that the salaries are higher for business than for education students in
the populations from which they were randomly selected.

• Because this finding could affect many students’ choices about majors and because it
may also reflect the nature of salary setting by the private versus public sectors, We
also conclude that this difference is practically significant.

3. Third, is the difference between arts and sciences and business significantly different?

• Here are the null and alternative hypotheses for this first post hoc test:

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 • Null Hypothesis Ho: μB = μA&S (i.e., the population mean for business majors equals the
population mean for arts and sciences majors)

• Alternative Hypothesis H1: μB ≠ μA&S (i.e., the population mean for business majors does
not equal the population mean for arts and sciences majors)

• The adjusted p-value was .031.

• Since .031 is < .05, we reject the null hypothesis that the two population means are
significantly different.

• We make the claim that this difference between the means is statistically significant.

• We also claim that the salaries are higher form arts and sciences than for education
students in the populations from which they were randomly selected.

• Because this finding could affect students’ choices about majoring in business versus
arts and sciences, I believe that this finding is practically significant.

Activity 26
A type II errors occurs when:
a) The null hypothesis is not rejected when it should be
b) The null hypothesis is rejected when it should be
c) The null hypothesis is rejected when it should not have been
d) The null hypothesis is not rejected when it should not have been

In short, based on my post hoc tests, I have found that two of the differences in starting salary were
statistically significant, and, in my view, these differences were also practically significant.

The t-Test for Correlation Coefficients

This test is used to determine whether an observed correlation coefficient is statistically significant.
Here is an example using our “recent college graduate” data set:

• Research Question: Is there a statistically significant correlation between GPA (X) and starting
salary (Y)?

• Here are the hypotheses:

• Null Hypothesis. H0: ΡXY = 0 (i.e., there is no correlation in the population)

• Alternative Hypothesis. H1: ΡXY ≠ 0 (i.e., there is a correlation in the population)

• The observed correlation in the sample was .63.

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 • The probability value was .001.

• Since .001 is < .05, I reject the null hypothesis.

• The observed correlation was statistically significant.

• We conclude that GPA and starting salary are correlated in the population.

• If you square the correlation coefficient you obtain a “variance accounted for” effect size
indicator: .63 squared is .397 which means that almost 40 percent of the variance in starting
salary is explained or accounted for by GPA

• Because the effect size is large and because GPA is something that students can control
through studying, we conclude that this statistically significant correlation is also practically
significant.

Activity 27
A correlation coefficient of +0.2 is considered:
a) Zero b) Weak c) Moderate d) Strong

The t-Test for Regression Coefficients

This test is used to determine whether a regression coefficient is statistically significant.
The multiple regression equation analyzed in the last chapter is shown here again, but this time we
will test each of the two regression coefficients for statistical significance.
Yˆ = 3,890.05 + 4,675.41 (X1) + 26.13(X2) where, Yˆ is predicted starting salary
3,890.05 is the Y intercept (or predicted starting salary when GPA and
GRE Verbal are zero)
4,675.41 is the regression coefficient for grade point average
X1 is grade point average (GPA)
X2 is GRE Verbal
Research Question One: Is there a statistically significant relationship between starting salary (Y)
and GPA (X1) controlling for GRE Verbal (X2)? That is, is the first regression coefficient statistically
significant?

• Here are the hypotheses:

• Null Hypothesis. H0: βYX1.X2 = 0 (i.e., the population regression coefficient expressing the
relationship between starting salary and GPA, controlling for GRE Verbal is equal to zero;
that is, there is no relationship)

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 • Alternative Hypothesis. H1 : βYX1.X2 ≠ 0 (i.e., the population regression coefficient expressing the
relationship between starting salary and GPA, controlling for GRE Verbal is NOT equal to
zero; that is, there IS a relationship)

• The observed regression coefficient was 4,496.45.

• The probability value was .035

• Since .035 is < .05, I conclude that the relationship expressed by this regression coefficient is
statistically significant.

• A good measure of effect size for regression coefficients is the semi-partial correlation
2
squared (sr ) . In this case it is equal to .10, which means that 10% of the variance in starting
salary is uniquely explained by GPA

• Because GPA is something we can control and because the effect is explains a good amount of
variance in starting salary, we conclude that the relationship expressed by this regression
coefficients is practically significant.

Research Question Two: Is there a statistically significant relationship between starting salary (Y)
and GRE Verbal (X2), controlling for GPA (X1)? That is, is the second regression coefficient
statistically significant?

• Here are the hypotheses:

• Null Hypothesis. H0: βYX2.X1 = 0 (i.e., the population regression coefficient expressing the
relationship between starting salary and GRE Verbal, controlling for GPA is equal to zero;
that is, there is no relationship)
• Alternative Hypothesis. H1 : βYX2.X1 ≠ 0 (i.e., the population regression coefficient expressing the
relationship between starting salary and GRE Verbal, controlling for GPA is NOT equal to
zero; that is, there IS a relationship)

• The observed regression coefficient was 26.13.

• The probability value was .014

• Since .014 is < .05, we conclude that the relationship expressed by this regression coefficient is
statistically significant.

• A good measure of effect size for regression coefficients is the semi-partial correlation
2
squared (sr ) . In this case it is equal to .15, which means that 15% of the variance in starting
salary is uniquely explained by GRE Verbal

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 • Because GRE Verbal is also something we can work at (as well as take preparation
programmes for) and because the effect is explains15% of the variance in starting salary, we
conclude that the relationship expressed by this regression coefficient is practically
significant.

The Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables This test is used to determine whether a relationship
observed in a contingency table is statistically significant.

• Research Question: Is the observed relationship between college major and gender
statistically significant?

• The probability value was .046.

• The effect size indicator used for this contingency table is Cramer’s V. It was equal to .496,
which tells us that the relationship is moderately large.

• Because the effect size indicator suggested a moderately large relationship and because of the
importance of these variables in real world politics, we would also conclude that this
relationship is practically significant.

Activity 28
Decide whether the following situations are best suited to Pearson’s or Chi-
square: The relationship between:
a) Height (cm) and weight (kg)
b) Distance run (metres) and time taken (Minutes and seconds)
c) A person’s body shape and occupational level ( professional, clerical,
manual)
d) length of figure and length of toe (cm)
e) Handedness (right or left) and spatial ability (excellent, average, hopeless)

Believe it or not, we are done. our goal in this last section was to show that every single time we do
one of these tests, you do the same thing. You get your probability value, compare it to your
significance level, and, finally, you make a decision.
You have now come a long way toward understanding the logic of significance testing. Remember,
when reading journal articles look out for those probability values (to see if they are less than .05),
and also look for effect sizes and statements about whether a finding is practically significant

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Summary
• Inferential statistics is the division of statistics focused on going beyond the immediate data
and inferring the characteristics of population based on samples; statistics that go beyond
the immediate data and infer the characteristics of populations based on samples
• A sampling distribution is defined as the theoretical probability distribution of the values of
a statistic that results when all possible random samples of a particular size are drawn
from a population.
• The sampling distribution of the mean is normally distributed (as long as your sample size is
about 30 or more for your sampling).
• Standard error is the standard deviation of a sampling distribution
• Hypothesis testing is the branch of inferential statistics that is concerned with how well the
sample data support a null hypothesis and when the null hypothesis can be rejected in
favour of the alternative hypothesis.
• The null hypothesis is usually the prediction that there is no relationship in the population.
• The alternative hypothesis is the logical opposite of the null hypothesis and says there is a
relationship in the population.
• The significance level is that point at which you would consider a result to be "rare." You are
the one who decides on the significance level to use in your research study. The
significance level that is usually used in education is .05.
• We use a t-test when we want to determine if the difference between two groups is
statistically significant.
• One-Way Analysis of Variance is used to compare two or more group means for statistical
significance.

? Revision Questions
1. What are inferential statistics?
2. What is a sampling distribution?
3. Giving examples differentiate between a null and alternative hypotheses
4. Explain the concept of significance level
5. When do we use t-test, one-way analysis of variance and two-way analysis of variance?
6. Explain the techniques used to test relationship between variable.

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 CHAPTER TEN
WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Discuss the various key parts of a report writing
2. Explain how referencing is done in the text
3. Identify when to use italics
4. Explain how direct citation is done
5. Explain the importance of research reports
6. Explain what an abstract is

Introduction

The purpose of this final chapter is to provide useful advice on how to organize and write a research
paper that has the potential for publication.
There are four main sections in this chapter:
1. General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report.
2. Writing Quantitative Research Reports Using the APA Style.
3. Writing Qualitative Research Reports.
4. Writing Mixed Research Reports.

General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report

We begin this section with some general writing tips and by listing some sources on writing.

• Simple, clear, and direct communication should be your most important goal when you write a
research report.

Language The following three guidelines will help you select appropriate language in your report:
1. Choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias. One way to do this is to be very specific
rather than less specific.
2. Avoid labelling people whenever possible.
3. Write about your research participants in a way that acknowledges their participation.

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 • For example, avoid the impersonal term "subject" or subjects; words such as “research
participants” or children or adults are preferable.

Keeping in mind the above guidelines, you should give special attention to the following issues
which are explained more fully in our chapter and, especially, in the APA Publication Manual:

• Gender. The bottom line is to avoid sexist language.

• Sexual Orientation. Terms such as homosexual should be replaced with terms such as
lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women or men. Specific instances of sexual behavior
should be referred to with terms such as same gender, male-male, female-female, and
male-female.

• Racial and Ethnic Identity. Ask participants about their preferred designations and use them.
When writing this term, capitalize it (e.g., African American).
• Disabilities. Do not equate people with their disability. For example, refer to a participant as a
person who has cancer rather than as a cancer victim.

• Age. Acceptable terms are boy and girl, young man and young woman, male adolescent and
female adolescent. Older person is preferred to elderly. Call people eighteen and older men
and women.

Editorial Style
Italics.

• As a general rule, use italics infrequently. If you are submitting a paper for publication, you can
now use italics directly rather than using underlines to signal what is to be italicized.

Abbreviations

• Use abbreviations sparingly, and try to use conventional abbreviations (such as IQ, e.g., c.f., i.e.,
etc.).

Headings

• The APA Manual and our chapter specify five different levels of headings and the combinations
in which they are to be used in your report.

• If you are using two levels of headings, centre the first level and use upper and lower case
letters (i.e., do not use all caps), and place the second heading on the left side in upper and
lower case letters and in italics. Here is an example:

Method
Procedure

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 • If you are using three levels of headings, do the first two levels as just shown for two levels.
The third level should be in upper and lowercase letters, italicized, indented, and ending
with a period.

• Here is an example of how to use three levels of headings:

Method
Procedure
Instruments. (Start the text on this same line)
Quotations

• Quotations of fewer than 40 words should be inserted into the text and enclosed in double
quotation marks. Quotations of 40 or more words should be displayed in a free standing
block of lines without quotation marks. The author, year, and specific page from which the
quote is taken should always be included.

Numbers

• Use words for numbers that begin a sentence and for numbers that are below ten.

• See the APA Publication Manual for exceptions to this rule. Physical Measurements

• APA recommends using metric units for all physical measurements. You can also use other
units, as long as you include the metric equivalent in parentheses.

Activity 29
What are some of the commonly used metric units?

Presentation of Statistical Results

• Provide enough information to allow the reader to corroborate the results. See your book and
the APA manual for specifics (e.g., an analysis of variance significance test of four group
means would be presented like this: F(3, 32) = 8.79, p ═ .03).

• Note that the use of an equal sign is preferred when reporting probability values.

• If a probability value is less than .001, then use p < .001 rather than p = .000

Reference Citations in the Text

• APA format is an author-date citation method. The text shows the specifics.

• Here is one example: "Smith (1999) found that . . ."

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 • Frequently you will put references at the end of sentences. Here is an example, “Mastery
motivation has been found to affect achievement with very young children (Turner &
Johnson, 2003).”

Reference List

• All citations in the text must appear in the reference list.

• Here are two examples:

American Psychological Association (1994). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Turner, L.A., & Johnson, R. B. (2003). A model of mastery motivation for at-risk
preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 495-505.
Typing

• Double space all material.

• Use 1-inch margins.

• Use only one space between the end of a sentence and the beginning of the next sentence.

Writing Quantitative Research Reports Using the APA Style

There are seven major parts to the research report: 1. Title page 2. Abstract 3. Introduction 4.
Method 5. Results 6. Discussion and 7. References. We will make a few brief comments on each of
these below.

• Discussion of author notes, footnotes, tables, figure captions, and figures is only in the textbook
(and, of course, in the APA Publication Manual).

1. Title Page

• Your paper title should summarize the main topic of the paper in about 10 to 12 words.

2. Abstract

• This should be a comprehensive summary which is about 120 words. For a manuscript
submitted for review, it is typed on a separate page.

3. Introduction

• This section is not labelled. It should present the research problem and place it in the context
of other research literature in the area.

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4. Method

• This section does not start on a separate page in a manuscript being submitted for review.

• The most common subsections are Participants (e.g., list the number of participants, their
characteristics, and how they were selected), Apparatus or Materials or Instruments (e.g.,
list materials used and how they can be obtained), and Procedure (e.g., provide a step-by-
step account of what the researcher and participants did during the study so that someone
could replicate it).

5. Results

• This does not start on a separate page in your manuscript.

• It is where you report on the results of your data analysis and statistical significance testing.

• Be sure to report the significance level that you are using (e.g., "An alpha level of .05 was used
in this study") and report your observed effect sizes along with the tests of statistical
significance.

• Tables and figures are expensive but can be used when they effectively illustrate your ideas.

6. Discussion

• This is where you interpret and evaluate your results presented in the previous section.

• Be sure to state whether your hypotheses were supported.

• Also, answer the following questions:

1. What does the study contribute?

2. How has it helped solve the study problem?
3. What conclusion and theoretical implications can be drawn from the study?
4. What are the limitations of the study?
5. What are some suggestions for future research in this area?

7. References

• Centre the word References at the top of the page and double-space all entries.

Writing Qualitative Research Reports

We recommend that qualitative researchers also follow the guidelines given above when writing
manuscripts for publication.

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We recommend that qualitative researchers use the same seven major parts that were discussed
for the quantitative research report.

• Title Page and Abstract. The goals are exactly the same as before. You should provide a clear
and descriptive title. The abstract should describe the key focus of the study, its key
methodological features, and the most important findings.

• Introduction. Clearly explain the purpose of your study and situate it in any research literature
that is relevant to your study. In qualitative research, research questions will typically be
stated in more open-ended and general forms such as the researcher hopes to "discover,"
"explore a process," "explain or understand," or "describe the experiences."

• Method. It is important that qualitative researchers always include this section in their reports.
This section includes information telling how the study was done, where it was done, with
whom it was done, why the study was designed as it was, how the data were collected and
analyzed, and what procedures were carried out to ensure the validity of the arguments and
conclusions made in the report.

• Results. The overriding concern when writing the results section is to provide sufficient and
convincing evidence. Remember that assertions must be backed up with empirical data. The
bottom line is this: It's about evidence.
i. You will need to find an appropriate balance between description and interpretation in
order to write a useful and convincing results section.
ii. Several specific strategies are discussed in the chapter (e.g., providing quotes, following
interpretative statements with examples, etc.).
iii. We state that regardless of the specific format of your results section, you must always
provide data (i.e., descriptions, quotes, data from multiple sources, and so forth) that
back up your assertions.
iv. Effective ways to organize the results section are organizing the content around the
research questions, a typology created in the study, the key themes, or around a
conceptual scheme used in the study.
v. It can also be very helpful to use diagrams, matrices, tables, figures, etc. to help
communicate your ideas in a qualitative research report.

• Discussion. You should state your overall conclusions and offer additional interpretations in
this section of the report. Even if your research is exploratory, it is important to fit your
findings back into the relevant research literature. You may also make suggestions for
future research here.

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Writing Mixed Research Reports

• First, know your audience and write in a manner that clearly communicates.

• The suggestions already discussed in this chapter for quantitative and qualitative also apply
for mixed research.

• In general, try to use the same seven headings discussed above.

• Here are a few organization options:

1. Organize the introduction, method, and results by research question.

2. Organize some sections (e.g., method and results) by research paradigm (quantitative
and qualitative).

3. Write essentially two separate subreports (one for the qualitative part and one for the
quantitative part).

4. NOTE: in all cases, if you are writing a mixed research report, mixing must take place
somewhere (e.g., at a minimum the findings must be related and “mixed” in the
discussion section).

Summary
• When writing a research report we should use language which is clear and free from bias.
• Avoid labelling people whenever possible in report writing.
• Use abbreviations sparingly, and try to use conventional abbreviations (such as IQ, e.g., c.f.,
i.e., etc.).
• There are seven major parts to the research report: 1. Title page 2. Abstract 3. Introduction
4. Literature review 5. Method 6. Results 7. Discussion 8. References.

? Revision Questions
1. Discuss the various key parts of a report writing
2. Explain how referencing is done in the text
3. When do we use italics?
4. Explain how direct citation is done
5. Explain the importance of research reports
6. What is an abstract?

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 GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH METHODS TERMS

A
➢ Abstract — brief summary of what is in an article
➢ Accessible population — the research participants who are available for participation in the
research
➢ Achievement tests — tests that are designed to measure the degree of learning that has
taken place after person has been exposed to a specific learning experience
➢ Action research — applied research focused on solving practitioner’s local problems
➢ Active consent — a process whereby consent is provided by signing a consent form
(compare to passive consent)
➢ Alternative hypothesis — statement that the population parameter is some value other than
the value stated by the null hypothesis
➢ Anonymity — keeping the identity of the participant from everyone, including the researcher
➢ Applied research — research focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively
immediate solutions
➢ Aptitude tests — tests that focus on information acquired through the informal learning that
goes on in life
➢ Assent — agreeing to participate after being informed of all the features of the study that
could affect the participant’s willingness to participate
➢ Assessment — gathering and integrating data to make educational evaluations
➢ Attrition — loss of people who do not complete the experiment
B
• Bar graph — a graph that uses vertical bars to represent the data
• Basic research — research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical
understanding about basic human and other natural processes
C
➢ Case study research — a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed
account and analysis of one or more cases
➢ Categorical variable — a variable that varies in type or kind

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➢ Causal-comparative research — a form of nonexperimental research in which the primary
independent variable of interest is a categorical variable
➢ Cause and effect relationship — relationship in which one variable affects another variable
➢ Census — a study of the whole population rather than a sample
➢ Checklist — a list of response categories that respondents check if appropriate
➢ Chi-square test for contingency tables — statistical test used to determine whether a
relationship observed in a contingency table is statistically significant
➢ Closed-ended question — a question that forces participants to choose a response
➢ Cluster — a collective type of unit that includes multiple elements
➢ Cluster sampling — type of sampling in which clusters are randomly selected
➢ Confidence interval — a range of numbers inferred from the sample that has a certain
probability or chance of including the population parameter
➢ Confidence limits — the endpoints of a confidence interval
➢ Confidentiality — not revealing the identity of the participant to anyone other than the
researcher and his or her staff
➢ Confounding variable — a type of extraneous variable that was not controlled for and is the
reason a particular “confounded” result is observed; a confounding variable systematically
varies with the independent variable and also influences the dependent variable
➢ Construct validity — the extent to which a higher-order construct is represented in a
particular study
➢ Content-related evidence — validity evidence based on a judgment of the degree to which
the items, tasks, or questions on a test adequately represent the construct domain of
interest
➢ Contingency table — a table displaying information in cells formed by the intersection of
two or more categorical variables
➢ Control group — the group that does not receive the experimental treatment condition
➢ Convenience sampling — people who are available, volunteer, or can be easily recruited are
included in the sample
➢ Correlation coefficient — an index that indicates the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables
➢ Correlational research — a form of nonexperimental research in which the primary
independent variable of interest is a quantitative variable

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 ➢ Criterion-related validity evidence — validity evidence based on the extent to which scores
from a test can be used to predict or infer performance on some criterion such as a test or
future performance
➢ Cross-sectional research — data are collected at a single point in time
D
➢ Debriefing — a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, any
reasons for deception are explained, and any questions the participant has about the study
are answered.
➢ Deception — misleading or withholding information from the research participant
➢ Deductive reasoning — the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises
➢ Dehoaxing — informing study participants about any deception used and the reasons for its
use
➢ Deontological approach — an ethical approach that says ethical issues must be judged on
the basis of some universal code
➢ Dependent variable — a variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or more
independent variables
➢ Descriptive validity — the factual accuracy of an account as reported by the researcher
➢ Descriptive research — research focused on providing an accurate description or picture of
the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomenon
➢ Descriptive statistics — statistics that focus on describing, summarizing, or explaining data
➢ Desensitizing — helping study participants deal with and eliminate any stress or other
➢ Disproportional stratified sampling — type of stratified sampling in which the sample
proportions are made to be different from the population proportions on the stratification
variable
➢ Double negative — a sentence construction that includes two negatives
➢ Double-barrelled question — a question that combines two or more issues or attitude
objects
➢ Duplicate publication — publishing the same data and results in more than one journal or in
other publications
E
➢ Empiricism — the idea that knowledge comes from experience
➢ Epistemology — the study of how knowledge is generated and justified

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 ➢ Equal probability selection method — any sampling method where each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected
➢ Equivalent-forms reliability — the consistency of a group of individuals’ scores on two
equivalent forms of a test measuring the same thing
➢ Error — the difference between a person’s true score and his or her observed score
➢ Ethics — the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value
➢ Ethnography — a form of qualitative research focused on describing the culture of a group
of people; the discovery and comprehensive description of the culture of a group of people;
it’s a form of qualitative research focused on describing the culture of a group of people
➢ Evaluation — determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation object
➢ Experiment — an environment in which the researcher objectively observes phenomena
that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more variables are
varied and the others are kept constant
➢ Experimental group — the group that receives the experimental treatment condition
➢ Experimental control — eliminating any differential influence of extraneous variables
➢ Experimental research — research in which the researcher manipulates the independent
variable
➢ Explanatory research — testing hypotheses and theories that explain how and why a
phenomenon operates as it does
➢ Extraneous variable — A variable that may compete with the independent variable in
explaining the outcome; any variable other than the independent variable that might
influence the dependent variable
➢ External validity — the extent to which the study results can be generalized to and across
populations of persons, settings, times, outcomes, and treatment variations; NOTE: a good
synonym for external validity is “generalizing validity” because that’s what it’s about.
F
➢ Focus group — a moderator facilitates a discussion with a small group of people
➢ Formative evaluation — evaluation focused on improving the evaluation object
➢ Frequency distribution — arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data value
are shown
G
➢ Generalize — making statements about a population based on sample data

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 ➢ Grounded theory — a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory from the
data that the researcher collects; a general methodology for developing theory that is
grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed
➢ Grouped frequency distribution — the data values are clustered or grouped into separate
intervals and the frequencies of each interval are given
H
➢ Histogram — a graphic that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a
quantitative variable
➢ Historical research — research about events in the past; the process of systematically
examining past events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what happened
in the past
➢ History — any event, other than a planned treatment event, that occurs between the pre-
test and post-test measurement of the dependent variable and influences the post
measurement of the dependent variable
➢ Hypothesis — a prediction or guess of the relation that exists among the variables being
investigated; the formal statement of the researcher’s prediction of the relationship that
exists among the variables under investigation
➢ Hypothesis testing — the branch of inferential statistics that is concerned with how well the
sample data support a null hypothesis and when the null hypothesis can be rejected
I
➢ Independent variable — a variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable
➢ Inductive reasoning — reasoning from the particular to the general
➢ Inferential statistics — the division of statistics focused on going beyond the immediate data
and inferring the characteristics of population based on samples; statistics that go beyond
the immediate data and infer the characteristics of populations based on samples
➢ Informed consent — agreeing to participate in a study after being informed of its purpose,
procedures, risks, benefits, alternative procedures, and limits of confidentiality
➢ Interscorer reliability — the degree of agreement or consistency between two or more
scorers, judges, or raters
➢ Internet — a network consisting of millions of computers and tens of millions of users all
over the world, all of which are interconnected to promote communication
➢ Interval scale — a scale of measurement that has equal intervals of distances between
adjacent numbers

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 ➢ Intervening variable — a variable that occurs between two other variables in a causal chain;
it’s a mediating variable
➢ Interview — a data-collection method where interviewer asks the interviewee questions
➢ Interview protocol — data-collection instrument used in an interview
K
➢ Kuder-Richardson formula 20 — a statistical formula used to compute an estimate of the
reliability of a homogeneous test
L
➢ Leading question — a question that suggests a certain answer
➢ Level of confidence — the probability that a confidence interval to be constructed from a
random sample will include the population parameter
➢ Likert scale — a summated rating scale (see summated rating scale)
➢ Line graph — a graph that relies on the drawing of one or more lines
➢ Loaded question — a question containing emotionally charged words
➢ Longitudinal research — data are collected at multiple time points and comparisons are
made across time
M
➢ Manipulation — an intervention studied by an experimenter
➢ Maturation — any physical or mental change that occurs over time in a participant and
affects the participant’s performance on the dependent variafble
➢ Mean — the arithmetic average
➢ Measure of central tendency — the single numerical value considered most typical of the
values of a quantitative variable
➢ Measure of variability — a numerical index that provides information about how spread out
or how much variation is present
➢ Measurement — assigning symbols or numbers to something according to a specific set of
rules
➢ Median — the 50th percentile
➢ Mediating variable — see intervening variable
➢ Mixed method research — research in which the researcher uses the qualitative research
paradigm for one phase of a research study and the quantitative research paradigm for a

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 different phase of the study; a quantitative phase and a qualitative phase are included in the
overall research study
➢ Mixed model research — research in which the researcher uses both qualitative and
quantitative research within a stage or across two of the stages in the research process;
quantitative and qualitative approaches are mixed within or across the stages of the
research process
➢ Mode — the most frequently occurring number
➢ Moderator variable — a variable that changes the relationship between other variables; it’s
a variable that is involved in an interaction effect; see interaction effect
➢ Multiple regression — regression based on one dependent variable and two or more
independent variables
➢ Mutually exclusive — property that categories or intervals do not overlap; response
categories that are separate and distinct
N
➢ n — the sample size
➢ N — the population size
➢ Naturalistic observation — observation done in “real world” settings
➢ Negatively skewed — skewed to the left
➢ Nominal scale — a scale of measurement that uses symbols, such as words or numbers, to
label, classify, or identify people or objects
➢ Normal distribution — a unimodal, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution that is the
theoretical model of many variables
➢ Null hypothesis — a statement about a population parameter
O
➢ Open-ended question — a question that allows participants to respond in their own words
➢ Ordinal scale — a rank-order scale of measurement
➢ Outlier — a number that is very atypical of the other numbers in a distribution
P
➢ Parameter — a numerical characteristic of a population
➢ Passive consent — a process whereby consent is given by not returning the consent form
(compare to active consent)

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 ➢ Percentile rank — the percentage of scores in a reference group that fall below a particular
raw score; percentile ranks divide a distribution into 100 equal parts
➢ Phenomenology — a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to
understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon; the description of one
or more individuals’ consciousness and experience of a phenomenon
➢ Population — the complete set of cases; it’s the large group to which a researcher wants to
generalize the sample results
➢ Positively skewed — skewed to the right
➢ Predictive validity evidence — validity evidence based on the relationship between test
scores collected at one point in time and criterion scores occurring at a later time
➢ Primary source — a source in which the creator was a direct witness or in some other way
directly involved or related to the event
➢ Principle of evidence — the philosophical idea that research provides evidence, not proof
➢ Proportional stratified sampling — type of stratified sampling in which the sample
proportions are made to be the same as the population proportions on the stratification
variable
➢ Purposive sampling — the researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of
interest and locates individuals with those characteristics
Q
➢ Qualitative research — research relying primarily on the collection of qualitative data
➢ Quasi-experimental research design — an experimental research design that does not
provide for full control of potential confounding variables primarily because it does not
randomly assign participants to comparison groups
➢ Questionnaire — a self-report data collection instrument filled out by research participants
➢ Quota sampling — the researcher determines the appropriate sample sizes or quotas for
the groups identified as important and takes convenience samples from those groups
R
➢ Random assignment — a procedure that makes assignments to conditions on the basis of
chance and in this way maximizes the probability that the comparison groups will be
equated on all extraneous variables
➢ Random selection — randomly selecting a group of people from a population
➢ Range — the difference between the highest and lowest numbers
➢ Rating scale — a continuum of response choices

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 ➢ Ratio scale — a scale of measurement that has a true zero point as well as the
characteristics of the nominal (labelling), ordinal (rank ordering), and interval (equal
distance) scales
➢ Regression coefficient — the predicted change in Y given a one unit change in
X
➢ Replication — research examining the same variables with different people and, often, in
slightly different ways
➢ Representative sample — a sample that resembles the population
➢ Research design — the outline, plan, or strategy used to answer a research question
➢ Research ethics — a set of principles to guide and assist researchers in deciding which
goals are most important and in reconciling conflicting values
➢ Research problem — An education issue or problem within a broad topic area
➢ Research proposal — a written document that summarizes the prior literature, identifies the
research topic area and the research questions to be answered, and specifies the
procedure that will be followed in obtaining an answer to these research questions
➢ Retrospective research — the researcher starts with the dependent variable and moves
backward in time
S
➢ Sample — the set of elements taken from a larger population; a subset of cases drawn from
a population
➢ Sampling — the process of drawing a sample from a population
➢ Sampling error — the difference between a sample statistic and a population parameter
➢ Sampling frame — a list of all the elements in a population
➢ Scatter plot — a graph used to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables
➢ Science — an approach for the generation of knowledge
➢ Secondary data — existing data originally collected or left behind at an earlier time by a
different person for a different purpose
➢ Secondary source — a source that was created from primary sources, secondary sources,
or some combination of the two
➢ Significance level — the cut-off the researcher uses to decide when to reject the null
hypothesis; also called the alpha level

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 ➢ Simple random sample — a sample drawn by a procedure where every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected
➢ Snowball sampling — each research participant is asked to identify other potential research
participants
➢ Spearman-Brown formula — a statistical formula used for correcting the split-half
reliability coefficient (because of the shortened test length created by splitting the full
length test into two equivalent halves)
➢ Split-half reliability — a measure of the consistency of the scores obtained from two
equivalent halves of the same test
➢ Standard deviation — the square root of the variance
➢ Standard error — the standard deviation of a sampling distribution
➢ Statistically significant — a research finding is probably not attributable to chance; it’s the
claim made when the evidence suggests an observed result was probably not just due to
chance (i.e., there is a real relationship present)
➢ Stratified sampling — dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and then
selecting a random sample from each group
➢ Survey research — a term applied to nonexperimental research based on questionnaires or
interviews
➢ Systematic sample — a sample obtained by determining the sampling interval, selecting a
random starting point between 1 and k, and then selecting every kth element
T
➢ Table of random numbers — a list of numbers that fall in a random order
➢ Target population — the larger population to whom the study results are to be generalized
➢ Test-retest reliability — a measure of the consistency of scores over time
➢ Theory — an explanation or an explanatory system that discusses how a phenomenon
operates and why it operates as it does; a generalization or set of generalizations used
systematically to explain some phenomenon
➢ Type I error — rejecting a true null hypothesis
➢ Type II error —failing to reject a false null hypothesis
U
➢ Utilitarianism — an ethical approach that says judgments of the ethics of a study depend on
the consequences the study has for the research participants and the benefits that may
arise from the study

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V
➢ Validation — the process of gathering evidence that supports inferences made on the basis
of test scores
➢ Validity coefficient — a correlation coefficient computed to provide validity evidence, such
as the correlation between test scores and criterion scores
➢ Validity — the accuracy of the inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the basis of
test scores
➢ Variable — a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories
➢ Variance — a measure of the average deviation from the mean in squared units
W
➢ Web surveys — participants read and complete a survey form that is developed for and
located on the web
Y
➢ Y-intercept — the point where the regression line crosses the Y-axis
Z
➢ Z-score — a raw score that has been transformed into standard deviation units

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Borg W R. & Gall, M. D (1993).Educational Research: An Introduction (4th Ed.) New York:
Longman, Inc.
2. Borg W. R (1987). Applying Educational Research: A Practical Guide For Teachers (2nd Ed)
New York: Longman Inc.
3. Campbell, J., Garza, M., O'Campo, P., Kub, J., et. al. (2003). Intimate partner violence and
abuse among active duty military women. Violence Against Women, 9, 1072-1092.
4. Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female
veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106. [Posted April 2007]
5. Coyle, B. S., Wolan, D. L., & Van Horn, A. S. (1996). The prevalence of physical and sexual
abuse in women veterans seeking care at a veterans affairs medical center. Military
Medicine, 161, 588-593.
6. Gronlund, N. E. (1981). Measurement and evaluation in teaching. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc.
7. Guilford, J. P. (1973). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology & Education. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
8. Huffman, K. Vernoy, M. and Vernoy, J. (1995). Essentials of Psychology in Action. New York:
John Wiley & Sons Inc
9. Kathuri, N. J. & Pals, D. (1993).Introduction to Educational Research. Njoro: Egerton
University Educational Material Centre.
10. Kasomo, D. (2007). Research Methods in Humanities and Education. Eldoret: Zapf Chancery
Research Consultants and Publishers.
11. Kerlinger, F.N., (1973). Foundations of Behavioral Research (2nd Ed.) Holt, Richard E Winston.
New York. D
12. Magley, V. J., Waldo, C. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). The impact of sexual
harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology,
11, 283-302.
13. Mangal, S. K. (1987). Statistics in psychology and education. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited
14. Mugenda, O. M & Mugenda, A. G (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press.
15. Mutai, B. K. (2000). How to Write Quality Proposal: A Complete And Simplified Recipe. New
Delhi: Thelly Publication.
16. Mutai, B. K. (2001).How to Write a standard Dissertation: A systematic and Simplified
Approach. New Delhi: Thelly Publication.
17. Oppenheim, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire design and attitude measurement. London:
Heinemann.
18. Sadler, A. G., Booth, B. M., Cook, B. L. & Doebbeling, B. N. (2003). Factors associated with
women’s risk of rape in the military environment. American Journal of Industrial Medicine,
43, 262-273.
19. Wanene, G. S. N. (2003). The ABC of globalization of Africa: From Black to White. Nairobi.
20. Wegulo and Udoto, M. O. (2007). Research Methods for Diploma Military Science. Nakuru: Egerton
University.

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ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1
The three major sources of knowledge are:
• Experience
• Expert opinion and
• Reasoning

Activity 2
In a study to find out the effect of class size on academic performance, the independent variable is
class size, the dependent variable is academic performance and the moderator variables are
gender, school category etc.

Activity 3
Classify the following studies as either correlational, experimental or quasi-experimental
i. Relationship between caffeine intake and incidence of headaches – correlational
ii. Differences between males and females in academic performance – quasi-experiment
iii. Effect on exam performance of participants randomly assigned to high-noise and no-noise
exam conditions - experimental
iv. Difference in self-esteem of tall and short people - quasi-experiment
v. Relationship between stress and hours spent working - correlational

Activity 4
Observation

Activity 5
You want to study the level of illiteracy in all the Kenyan ethnic groups. The problems you are likely
to experience:
• Accessibility
• Lack of time and adequate funding
• Sampling

Activity 6
If you predict that two variables A and B will be related, the null hypothesis is that “there is no
relationship between A and B”
Activity 7
The following are the relevant hypotheses
1. There will be no difference between males and females in spatial ability
2. There will be no relationship between alcohol and number of driving errors
3. There will be no difference in reaction times when relaxed and when stressed
4. There will be no relationship between the time to the general election and number of lies
told by politicians

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Activity 8
In the Tuskegee experiment, the following ethics were violated:
• Informed consent
• Protection from physical harm
• Deception and failure to debrief the subjects

Activity 9
i. Wind speed – Continuous
ii. Types of degree offered by a university – categorical
iii. Level of extraversion – continuous
iv. Makes of cars – categorical
v. Football teams – categorical
vi. Weight of students – continuous

Activity 10
Factors that may affect the reliability of scores obtained from a measuring instrument:
• Practice or experience of the observer
• Observer fatigue
• Adequacy of definition of the behaviour being measured

Activity 11
Social desirability

Activity 12
b

Activity 13
b

Activity 14
The frequency distribution of the means of your samples would be normal in shape.

Activity 15
A normal distribution:
• Is bell-shaped
• Is symmetrical
• Has tails that meet the x-axis at infinity

Activity 16
1. Which measure of central tendency would be most suitable for each of the following sets of data?
i. 1, 23,25, 26, 27, 23, 29, 30 – median
ii. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 50 - mode
iii. 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 6, 6, 8, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 - mean
iv. 1, 101, 104, 106, 111, 108, 109, 200 – median

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2. Sample B

Activity 17
The mean, median and mode are as follows:
i. Mean = 13.6, median = 12 , mode = 12
ii. Mean = 6.75, median = 5, mode = 5
iii. Mean =33.9 , median = 25.5, mode = 32

Activity 18
If you have a negative z-score it will be below the mean. With a negative z-score the majority of the
population will score above you

Activity 19
Your z-score for Mathematics would be 1 ((65-60)/5). For English it would be 0.86 (( 71-65)/7).
Therefore your better subject in comparison with the others in your group is Mathematics

Activity 20
We can be 95% confident

Activity 21
We set our criterion for significance at 0.05 because:
• This represents a good balance between making a type I and a type II errors
• It is the traditional level used by psychologists

Activity 22
It is hard to find perfect relationships.

Activity 23
1. When an innocent person is found guilty, type I error will have occurred. When a guilty person is
found innocent, type II error will have occurred

2.a

Activity 24
c

Activity 25
b

Activity 26
a

Activity 27
b

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Activity 28
a) Height (cm) and weight (kg) - Pearson’s r
b) Distance run (metres) and time taken (Minutes and seconds) - Chi-square
c) A person’s body shape and occupational level ( professional, clerical, manual) - Chi-square
d) Length of finger and length of toe (cm) - Pearson’s r
e) Handedness (right or left) and spatial ability (excellent, average, hopeless) - Chi-square

Activity 29
Some of the commonly used metric units are: centimetres, metres, kilometres ( linear measures);
cubic centimetres, cubic metres (Cubic measures); millilitres, centilitres, litres ( capacity
measures); milligrams, grams, kilograms, tons (measures of mass) etc.

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