D.

Research and Development Model

A. Four D Model
1. Four D Model
The Four-D Model software development model was suggested by Sivasailam
Thiagarajan, Dorothy S. Semmel, and Melvyn I. Semmel. This model consists of 4
stages of development, namely Define, Design, Develop, and Disseminate.
1) Define
Activities at this stage are carried out to determine and define development
requirements. In general, in this definition, development needs analysis activities are
carried out, product development requirements that are in accordance with user needs
and research and development models (R & D models) that are suitable for developing
products. Analysis can be done through literature studies or preliminary research.
Thiagarajan analyses 5 activities carried out at the define stage, namely: front-end
analysis, learner analysis, task analysis, concept analysis and formulation of learning
objectives (specifying instructional objectives).
2) Design
The design stage aims to design learning devices. Thiagarajan, et al. divide the design
into four steps that must be carried out at this stage, namely: (a) preparation of test
standards (criterion-test construction), (b) selection of media (media selection) that is in
accordance with the characteristics of the material and learning objectives, (c) selection
of formats (format selection), namely reviewing the existing teaching material formats
and determining the format of the teaching material to be developed, (d) making an
initial design according to the selected format.
3) Develop
Thiagarajan divides the development stage into two activities, namely: expert
appraisal and developmental testing. Expert appraisal is a technique to validate or assess
the feasibility of a product design. In this activity, an evaluation is carried out by experts
in their fields. The suggestions given are used to improve the material and learning
design that has been prepared. Developmental testing is an activity to test the product
design on the actual target subjects. During this trial, response data, reactions or
comments from the target users of the model are sought. The results of the trial are used
to improve the product. After the product is repaired, it is retested until effective results
are obtained. In the context of developing teaching materials (books or modules), the
 development stage is carried out by testing the contents and readability of the module or
textbook to the experts involved in the design validation and students who will use the
module or textbook.
4) Disseminate
The dissemination stage consists of three activities, namely: validation testing,
packaging, diffusion and adoption. At the validation testing stage, the product that has
been revised at the development stage is then implemented on the actual target. At the
time of implementation, the achievement of the objectives is measured. This
measurement is carried out to determine the effectiveness of the product being
developed. After the product is implemented, the developer needs to see the results of
achieving the objectives. Objectives that have not been achieved need to be explained so
that the same mistakes are not repeated after the product is disseminated. The last
activity of the development stage is to carry out packaging, diffusion and adoption. This
stage is carried out so that the product can be used by others. Packaging of the learning
model can be done by printing a learning model application guidebook.

2. Characteristics
1) Structural and Systematic: The model consists of four clear and structured stages,
which allow development to be carried out sequentially. The model has four clear and
systematic stages.
2) Iterative: The process in this model is iterative, where each stage can be evaluated and
modified based on the feedback received.
3) Needs focused: The process in this model is iterative, where feedback received can be
evaluated and modified: The first stage (Define) emphasizes needs analysis, ensuring
that product development is relevant to the problem at hand.
4) Collaborative Approach: The second stage (Define) emphasizes product development:
Involving various parties, including experts and users, in the validation and evaluation
process.
5) Data Driven: Decisions in each stage are based on data and systematic evaluation.
3. Purposes in General
The general objective of the FOUR D MODEL is to provide an effective framework
for developing products or solutions that meet user needs, especially in an educational
context. The model aims to ensure that the resulting product is of high quality and
relevant to the set objectives.
4 Procedures in Research and Development
- Define: Analysis of needs and problems, identification of goals, and constraints.
- Design: Designing solutions, selecting media and formats, and creating initial
prototypes: Design the solution, selecting the media and format, and creating an initial
prototype.
- Develop: Develop the prototype, conduct formative evaluation, and modify the product
based on feedback. Conduct formative evaluation, and modify the product based on
feedback.
- Disseminate: Conduct a summative evaluation, deploy the final product, and ensure
effective use by users procedures in Research and Development.
5. Advantages and Disadvantages
a. Advantages
1) Structured: Provides a clear framework, easing the development process.
2) Flexibility: Can be adapted for different contexts and development needs.
3) Iterative: Allows for continuous improvement through evaluation and feedback:
Allows for continuous improvement through evaluation and feedback.
4) Focus on Needs: Ensures the relevance of the product to user needs.
b. Disadvantages
1) Time and Resources: A structured process can be time-consuming and require
significant resources.
2) Complexity: Can be complex if not managed properly, especially at the evaluation
stage.
3) Risk of Over-Engineering: Sometimes, the focus on prototyping and evaluation can
lead to products that are overly complicated or do not fit the original needs.
B. ADDIE Model
The word “ADDIE” stands for Analyse, Design, Development, Implementation,
Evaluation. The ADDIE model is a very popular framework used in various types of
research, especially in research and development (R&D). This model offers systematic
steps that help researchers design, develop, and evaluate a product or research program.
1. Characteristics
Key Characteristics of the ADDIE Model:
a. Systematic and Structured:
- Each stage in the ADDIE Model is interrelated and sequential.
- Each stage has a clear and measurable goal.
- This model provides detailed guidance for each stage.
b. Focus on Users:
- The ADDIE model always puts the user at the centre of attention.
- Every decision taken at each stage is based on the needs and characteristics of
the user.
c. Flexible:
- The ADDIE model can be adapted to a variety of project types and contexts.
- This model can be modified to meet the specific needs of a project.
d. Iterative:
- The ADDIE model is iterative, meaning each stage can be repeated if necessary.
- The evaluation results at one stage can be input for improving the previous
stage.
e. Comprehensive
ADDIE model covers the entire product or program development cycle, from
planning to evaluation.
Characteristics of Each Stage in the ADDIE Model:
1. Analysis: Focuses on identifying needs, goals, and context.
2. Design: Focuses on planning and designing products or programs.
3. Development: Focuses on creating real products or programs.
4. Implementation: Focuses on implementing the product or program to users.
5. Evaluation: Focuses on assessing the effectiveness of a product or program.
2. Purposes
The ADDIE model is designed with the primary goal of ensuring the development of
learning products or programs that are effective, efficient, and relevant to user needs. In
general, the goals of this model are:
1) Ensuring quality: Produce high quality learning products or programs, both in terms
of content and delivery.
2) Increasing relevance: Ensuring that the products or programs produced are relevant
to user needs and expectations.
3) Increase efficiency: Optimizing the use of resources (time, cost, and effort) in the
development process.
4) Minimizing the risk of failure: Reduce the possibility of errors or failures in the
development process.
5) Facilitate evaluation: Provides a clear framework for evaluating the effectiveness of a
product or program.
The specific goals of each stage in the ADDIE model:
1) Analysis: Identifying needs, goals, and constraints associated with product or
program development.
2) Design: Designing a product or program that meets the needs identified in the
analysis stage.
3) Development: Developing real products or programs based on designs that have been
created.
4) Implementation: Implement the product or program to users and collect initial data.
5) Evaluation: Assess the effectiveness of a product or program in achieving stated
goals.
3. Procedure In R & D
a. Analysis
 Identification of problems: Determine the problem or knowledge gap to be
researched.
 Literature Review: Conduct a literature review to find relevant previous research.
 Needs Analysis: Identify the needs of users or target groups.
  Restricting the problem: Limit the scope of research to be more focused.
b. Design
 Designing Research: Determine the most appropriate research design (e.g.,
experiment, survey, case study).
 Creating Research Instruments: Develop research instruments such as
questionnaires, tests, or interview guidelines.
 Determining Research Procedures: Detail the steps that will be taken in the
research.
 Determining Population and Sample: Determine who will be the research subjects.
c. Development
 Data collection: Collect data according to the research design that has been created.
 Data processing: Process the collected data, for example by using statistical
software.
 Data analysis: Data analysis to answer research questions.
d. Implementation
 Report Preparation: Compile a research report containing findings and conclusions.
 Dissemination: Disseminate research results through scientific publications,
presentations, or conferences.
e. Evaluation
 Process Evaluation: Evaluate whether the research process is in accordance with the
plan.
 Evaluation of Results: Evaluate whether the research results have answered the
research questions.
4. Advantages of the ADDIE Model
1) Systematic and Structured: The ADDIE model provides a clear and sequential framework
for instructional design, ensuring that all key steps are addressed.
2) Comprehensive: It covers all stages of instructional design, from analysis to evaluation,
providing a comprehensive approach.
3) Flexible: The ADDIE model can be adapted to various contexts and instructional needs,
making it versatile.
4) Focus on Learner Needs: It emphasizes the importance of understanding learner needs
 and tailoring instruction accordingly.

5) Facilitates Evaluation: The model includes an evaluation stage, allowing for the
assessment of the effectiveness of the instructional materials.

5. Disadvantages of the ADDIE Model

1) Linear Nature: The ADDIE model can be perceived as too linear, as it suggests a sequential
progression through each stage. In reality, instructional design often involves iteration and
backtracking.
2) Time-Consuming: The ADDIE model can be time-consuming, especially for complex
projects.
3) Lack of Flexibility: While the model is adaptable, it may not be suitable for all instructional
Situations, particularly those that require rapid prototyping or agile development.
4) Focus on End-Product: The ADDIE model can sometimes prioritize the development of the
final product over the learning process itself.
5) Limited Attention to Learner Engagement: While the model emphasizes learner needs, it
may not always delve deeply into strategies for engaging learners.