EMath 1102

EMATH 1102
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS FOR SE

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 Quantifiers
Proof of Techniques
 EMath 1102
QUANTIFIERS

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST – ORDER LOGIC

- quantifier is a symbol that quantifies the
variables. If we use a quantifier before a predicate,
then the predicate becomes a proposition.

Quantifications:
 all
 some
 many
 none
 few

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102
QUANTIFIERS

TWO TYPES OF QUANTIFICATION:

1. Universal Quantification ∀
 tells us that a predicate is true for every element
under consideration

2. Existential Quantification (∃)

 tells us that there is one or more element under
consideration for which the predicate is true.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102
QUANTIFIERS

Universal Quantification of 𝑷(𝒙) is the statement

“P(x) for all values of x in the domain.”

The notation ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) denotes the universal quantification

of 𝑃(𝑥).

∀ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) as “𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)”, “𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)”

An element for which 𝑃(𝑥) is false is called a

counterexample of ∀ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102
QUANTIFIERS

EXAMPLE 1: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is even number and the

universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Find the truth value of ∀ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥 ).

EXAMPLE 2: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 ≠ 5 and the universe

of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Find the truth value of ∀ 𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥).

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS

Existential quantification of 𝑷(𝒙) is the statement

“There exists some 𝑥 in the universe of discourse
such that P(x)” denoted by the symbol ∃ 𝒙 𝑷( 𝒙 )

EXAMPLE 1: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is even number and the

universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Find the truth value of ∃ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

EXAMPLE 2: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 > 5 and the universe

of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find the
truth value of ∃ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).
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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102
QUANTIFIERS

Free and Bound Variables

A variable in a predicate is said to be bound if a
quantifier is used before it. A variable is free if it is not
bounded.

The variable 𝑥 is a bound variable in both

∀ 𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) and ∃ 𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) whereas 𝑦 is a free
variable.

The scope of a quantifier is the formula immediately

following the quantifier. 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is the scope of the
quantifier in both the cases.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST – ORDER LOGIC

Symbolize the following by using quantifiers, predicates,
and logical connectives:

Example 1: The square of any real number is

greater than or equal to zero.
let: 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is a real number
𝑄 𝑥 : 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Then in symbols, the given sentence takes the form

∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 𝑄 𝑥

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST – ORDER LOGIC

Symbolize the following by using quantifiers, predicates,
and logical connectives:

Example 2: Some integers are multiples of 7.

let: 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is an integer
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is multiple of 7.

Then in symbols, the given sentence takes the form

∃ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST –ORDER LOGIC

Symbolize the following by using quantifiers, predicates, and
logical connectives:

Example 3: There is an integer 𝒙 such that 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔.

let: 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 2 = 16

Then in symbols, the given sentence takes the form

∃𝑥𝑄 𝑥

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST – ORDER LOGIC

Symbolize the following by using quantifiers, predicates,
and logical connectives:

Example 4: There exists an integer such that it is

even and prime.
Let: 𝑃(𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 is even.
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is prime.

Then in symbols, the given sentence takes the form

∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ∧ 𝑄 𝑥
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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

QUANTIFIERS AND FIRST – ORDER LOGIC

In the following, use
𝑃(𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 is an odd integer
𝑄(𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 is a prime integer
𝑅(𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 2 is an odd integer

Write a statement in English corresponding to each symbolic statement.

(a) ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 𝑅 𝑥
Sol’n: The squares of all odd integers are odd.
(b) ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ∧ 𝑄 𝑥
Sol’n: All integers are odd and prime.
(c) ∃ 𝑥 (𝑃 𝑥 ∧ 𝑄(𝑥))
Sol’n: Some odd integer are prime.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 Quantifiers
Proof of Techniques
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

• In the previous topics, we presented various ways of using

logical arguments and delivering conclusions.

• In mathematics and computer science, mathematical logic

is used to prove theorems and the correctness of programs.

• After formally defining the term theorem, we describe

some general techniques that are used in proving theorems

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES
Recall:
Theorem – is a statement that can be shown to be true
(under certain conditions)

For example,
 If 𝑥 is an integer and 𝑥 is odd, then 𝑥 2 is odd,

or, equivalently,

 For all integers 𝑥, if 𝑥 is odd, then 𝑥 2 is odd.

This statement can be shown to be true.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

Theorem are typically stated as follows:

1) As facts
 6 is an even integer.
 The equation 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 has no solutions in real numbers.

2) As Implications/conditional statement
 For all integers x, if x is even, then x + 1 is odd.

3) As bi-implications/biconditional statement
 For all integers x, x is even if and only if x is divisible by 2.

 As proof may consists of previously known facts, proved results,

or previous statements of proof.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

1. DIRECT PROOF

The most straight forward type of proof; the

conclusion is established by logically the axioms,
definitions, and earlier theorems

Example:
Prove that, for all integers 𝒙, if 𝒙 is odd, then
𝒙𝟐 is odd.

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

DIRECT PROOF

Example:
Prove that, for all integers 𝒂, if 𝒙 is odd, then 𝒂𝟐 is odd.

Solution: Let “𝑎” be an integer such that “𝑎2 ” is odd.

Then,
𝑎 = 2𝑛 + 1 for some integer n
𝑎2 = 2𝑛 + 1 2
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟒𝒏𝟐 + 𝟒𝒏 + 𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐(𝟐𝒏𝟐 + 𝟐𝒏) + 𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏
where 𝒎 = 𝟐𝒏𝟐 + 𝟐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓
∴ 𝒂𝟐 is an odd integer.

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

Prove that a property known to hold for one number holds

for all natural numbers.

Let N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ….} be the set of natural numbers

P(n) be a mathematical statement involving the natural
number n belonging to N such that
P(1) is true for n = 1
P(n+1) is true whenever P(n) is true.
P(n) is true implies P(n+1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for all natural numbers “n”.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

Prove that all integers of the form 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏 are odd.

For n = 1, 2n + 1 = 3 and 3 is odd. Thus P(1) is true.

For 2n + 1 for some n, 2(n +1) +1 = (2n + 1) +2

If 2n + 1 is odd, then (2n + 1) + 2 must also be odd, because

adding 2 to an odd numbers results in an odd number.
So P(n + 1) is true if P(n) is true.

Thus, 2n + 1 is odd, for all natural numbers n.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

2. INDIRECT PROOF

Indirect proof infers the conclusion “if p then q” from the

premise “if not q then not p”

For example, this proof can be used to established that,

given an integer 𝑥, if 𝑥² is even, thus 𝑥 is even.

Suppose 𝑥 is not even. Then 𝑥 is odd. The product of two odd

numbers is odd, hence 𝑥² = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 is odd. Thus 𝑥² is not even.

ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

PROOF TECHNIQUES

3. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

It is shown that if some statement were true, a logical

contradiction occurs, hence the statement must be false.

Example: Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof of

contradiction.

Solution: Let: p = 2 is irrational.

So by definition 2 = a/b where a and b are non-zero integers
with no common factor

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Thus, 𝑏 2 = 𝑎
Squaring both sides: 2𝑏² = 𝑎²
So 𝑎² is even, which implies that a must also be even
So we can write a = 2c, where c is also an integer
Substitution into the original equation: 2𝑏2 = 2𝑐 2 = 4𝑐2
Dividing both sides by 2 yields 𝑏2 = 2𝑐2

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

4. PROOF BY MATHEMATHICAL INDUCTION

In proof by mathematical induction, a single

“base case” is proved, and an ”induction rule” is
proved, which establishes that a certain case
implies the next case.

Applying the induction rule repeatedly, starting

from the independently proved base case, proves
many, often infinitely many other cases.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

COMMON APPLICATION
 But then, by the same argument as before,
2 divides b2 , so b must be even.
 However, if a and b are both even, they share
a factor, namely 2.
 This contradicts our assumption, so we are
forced to conclude that √2 is an irrational
number.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

5. Proof by construction/Proof by example

Is the construction of a concrete example with a
property to show that something having that
property exists.

It can also be used to construct a counter example

to disprove a proposition that all elements have a
certain property.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Proof by construction/Proof by example

Example: Show that the statement: “Every positive integer
is the sum of the squares of two integers” is false.

Solution:
To show that this statement is false, we look for a
counterexample, which is a particular integer that is not the
sum of the squares of two integers
3 – cannot be written as the sum of the squares of two
integers
Therefore, we have shown that “ Every positive integer is
the sum of the squares of two integers.” is false.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

6. Proof by equivalence/Bi-conditional Proof

A statement of the form p↔ q, we show that
p → q and q → p are both true

The validity of this approach is based on the

tautology. (p ↔ q) ↔ (p → q) Λ (q → p)

Example:
(1) Prove that the product of even integers is an even integer.
Solution:
Suppose: x & y are even integers
Then: x = 2m & y = 2n for some integers m & n

Therefore, xy = (2m)(2n) = 4mn = 2(2mn) = 2t

where t = 2mn
Because, m & n are integers, t is an integer

Hence, xy is an even integer. ENGR. M.M. ALIMO-OT

FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

 In the previous topics, we defined and discussed basic properties of
statements (also called propositions).
 There, we were interested only in the truth and falsity of the statement.
 The structure of the statement was not taken into account.
 The logic that we discussed before is categorized as the statement logic,
or propositional logic.
 There are many justified arguments whose validity cannot be tested
within the framework of propositional logic.

For example,
Every integer is a rational number.
3 is an integer.
Therefore, 3 is a rational number.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

Every integer is a rational number.
3 is an integer.
Therefore, 3 is a rational number.

 In mathematics, this is a justified argument.

 In propositional logic, to check the validity of this argument we
symbolize it using statement letters.

Let p denote: Every integer is a rational number.

q denote: 3 is an integer.
r denote: 3 is a rational number.
The above argument takes the form
p
q
∴𝑟

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

 Now, this argument is valid if the statement formula (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 is a
tautology.

 For if (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 is a tautology, then for any assignment of truth values

to p, q and r, the truth value of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 must be T.

 However, if we assign T to p, T to q, and F to r then the truth value is F.

 Hence, according to the propositional logic, the argument is not valid.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

 If we introduce logical notions called predicates and quantifiers, then
most of the everyday arguments (most of the arguments in
mathematics and computer science) can be symbolized in such a way
that we can verify the validity of the arguments.
 For example,

x is an integer.

Let us denote this sentence by P(x):

P(x): x is an integer.

Then P(5): 5 is an integer, is true.

P(2.5): 2.5 is an integer, is false.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

 To study the properties of such sentence, we need to extend the
framework of propositional logic.
 The discussion of logic that follows is categorized as first-order logic.
 Once again consider the sentence

x is an integer.

Two parts of the sentence

x – the variable
is an integer – relation

 We call the relation “ is an integer” – the predicate, denoted by P.

 Moreover, P(x) is called a predicate or propositional function.
 Notice that there is a set of values, (in this case, say real numbers),
associated with P(x), called the domain.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

Definition: Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a sentence.
Then P(x) is called a predicate or propositional function
with respect to the set D if for each value of x in D, P(x) is a statement
[P(x) is true or false].
Moreover, D is called the domain of the discourse and x is
called the free variable.

Example:
P(x): x is an even integer,

where the domain of the discourse is the set of integers.

Then
P(4): 4 is an even integer, is T.
P(3): 3 is an even integer, is F.
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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

 The predicates that we considered until now involved only one variable.
 We can also have predicates involving two or more variables.

Example: P(x,y): x equals y + 1.

Hence, the predicate P(x,y) involves two variables and represents
the relation “equal”.
Let the domain be set of integers.
x = 2 and y = 1 : x=2=1+1=y+1 P(2,1) is T.

x = 5 and y = 4 : x=5=4+1=y+1 P(5,4) is T.

x = 6 and y = 4: x=6≠4+1=y+1 P(6,4) is F.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

Quantifiers and First-Order Logic

Example: Let Q(x,y) denote the sentence

Q(x,y): 𝑥 2 is greater than or equal to y.

Let the domain be the set of integers.

Here the predicate Q(x,y) involves two variables.

Consider Q(2,3),

𝑥 2 = 4 > 3, it follows that Q(2,3) is true.

However, Q(2,5) is false…

22 = 4 is neither greater than 5 or equal to 5.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

ALGORITHM
 An algorithm is a finite sequence of precise
instructions for performing a computation or
for solving a problem.
 The term algorithm is a corruption of the name
al-Khowarizmi, a mathematician of the ninth
century, whose book on Hindu numerals is the
basis of modern decimal notation.
 Originally, the word algorism was used for the
rules for performing arithmetic using decimal
notation.

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FACULTY – ECE DEPARTMENT
 EMath 1102

ALGORITHM
PROPERTIES OF ALGORITHMS
There are several properties that algorithms generally share. They are
useful to keep in mind when algorithms are described. These properties
are:
1. Input. An algorithm has input values from a specified
set.
2. Output. From each set of input values an algorithm
produces output values from a specified set.
The output values are the solution to the
problem.
3.Definiteness. The steps of an algorithm must be
defined precisely.
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 EMath 1102

ALGORITHM
4. Correctness. An algorithm should produce the correct
output values for each set of input values.
5. Finiteness. An algorithm should produce the desired output
after a finite (but perhaps large) number of
steps for any input in the set.
6. Effectiveness. It must be possible to perform each step of
an algorithm exactly and in a finite amount of
time.
7. Generality. The procedure should be applicable for all
problems of the desired form, not just for a
particular set of input values.

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 EMath 1102

GREEDY ALGORITHM
 One of the simplest approaches often leads to a solution
of an optimization problem.
 This approach selects the best choice at each step,
instead of considering all sequences of steps that may
lead to an optimal solution.

Algorithms that make what seems to be the “best” choice at

each step are called greedy algorithms.

 Once we know that a greedy algorithm finds a feasible

solution, we need to determine whether it has found an
optimal solution.

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 EMath 1102

GREEDY ALGORITHM
 Note that we call the algorithm “greedy” whether or not it
finds an optimal solution.

 To do this, we either prove that the solution is optimal or we

show that there is a counterexample where the algorithm
yields a non-optimal solution.

 Greedy algorithm is also called the shortest path algorithm.

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 EMath 1102

END OF DISCUSSION

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