Study Notes for GE-Ethics Characteristics of a Moral Standard The Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Moral standards involve behavior that seriously affects

other people’s well-being. 1. Personal dilemma is when your decision in a situation
Module 1: 2. Moral standards are more important than other where there is moral conflict is the cause of either
Key Concepts (Introduction to Ethics) standards, including self-interest. your own; that of another person; or a group of
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external people’s potential harm.
Why do you need to study Ethics? authority but on how the person perceives the
Ethics deals with the principles of ethical behavior in reasonableness of the action.
modern society at the level of the person, and society, and in 4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. 2. Organizational dilemma is when a member or member
interaction with the environment and other shared resources. 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. of an organization is in a situation where there is
(CHED CMO 20 s. 2013). 6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm
depicts emotion or feelings. either some members of the group or the
Rules - one of the systems that humans developed are organization itself.
standards that guide human activities Other Rules in Life Ex.:
- a statement that tells you what is or is not allowed in Etiquette a. Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior
a particular situation (Merriam-Webster, 2017) - A set of rules on how individuals should responsibly b. Toxic workplace culture
behave in society (Taylor and Williams, 2017) c. Discrimination and harassment/employee favoritism
Examples: Policy d. Unrealistic and conflicting goals
 Traffic rules (regulate how motorists should behave on - A clear, simple statement of how an organization plans e. Use of the organization’s technology, social media, use
the road) to handle its services, actions, or business technology and privacy concerns
 Sports rules (ensure that players play fair and safe) - Guiding rules to help with decision-making (Univ. of f. Business travel ethics
Sydney, 2022-2017)
Law 3. Structural dilemma is when a person or group of
The Importance of Rules - A rule created and enforced by the government and its persons who hold high-level positions in society face
- ensure a safety level for its members agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire
- allow people to productively function in the community protect a person’s liberty and rights (Robertson, social system is affected.
despite the existence of conflict among its members 2008 & Brickley and Gottesman, 2017) Ex.:
- manage harmful behaviors; it hopes to prevent chaos; it aims Commandment a. Differentiation vs. Integration
to encourage stability - A rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said b. Gap vs. Overlap
to be set by a divine entity (Stahl, 2009) c. Lack of clarity vs. Lack of creativity
d. Excessive autonomy vs. Excessive interdependence
Moral versus Non-moral Standards
Moral standards are those that “individuals or groups What are Dilemmas?
have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or A dilemma is a situation in which a tough choice must Why Only Humans Can Be Ethical?
wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be made between two or more options, especially more or Only human beings can be ethical because, 1) only
be morally good or morally bad” (philonotes.com, 2018). On less equally undesirable ones (dictionary.com, 2017). human beings are rational, autonomous (free), and self-
the other hand, Non-Moral standards refer to rules “by which Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Moral dilemmas conscious, 2) only human beings can act morally or
we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non- (ethical dilemmas) are “situations where persons are forced immorally, and 3) only human beings are part of the moral
moral way” (philonotes.com, 2018). to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of community.
which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner”
(philonotes.com, 2018).
The Foundation of Morality: Freedom Characteristics of Culture: a. Norms
Morality involves CHOICE. It is choosing ethical codes, a. Learned b. Symbols
values, or standards to guide our lives. Choosing is b. Shared c. Language
impossible without freedom. Everyone who wishes to function c. Social d. Beliefs
morally in a society has to make choices every minute of the d. Continuous e. Values
day (De Guzman, 2018). e. Integrated f. Customs
Furthermore, freedom demands responsibility. g. Rituals
According to Sartre, even though individuals must make their Factors that influence personal moral behavior: h. Social organization
own choices because they are free, these choices also have 1. Family - the basic unit in a society, may include i. Religion
consequences–these consequences are something that the biological or adoptive orientation
person must endure (Gallinero, 2018). 2. School - may include formal or informal educational Types of Cultures:
system, provides learning needs 1. Material culture - the physical objects, resources,
3. Church - an institution that determines what is and spaces that people use to define their culture
Philosophical Insights on Freedom considered right or wrong, composed of believers in 2. Non-material culture - the nonphysical ideas that
- Freedom is a gift (Gabriel Marcel) the same faith. people have about their culture, including beliefs,
- Freedom is complementary (Aristotle) 4. Mass media – used mass channels to entertain, values, rules, norms, morals, languages, social
- Freedom is absolute (Jean-Paul Sartre) inform, and educate. roles, ethics, music, literature, customs, traditions,
- Freedom demands responsibility (Jean-Paul Sartre organizations and institutions
and Lao Tzu) Cultural norms
- guidelines for daily living and contribution to the
Module 2: health and well-being of a culture Cultural Relativism
The Moral Agent - act as prescriptions for correct and moral behavior - A term used to show that the ways of life of people
The father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor - lend meaning and coherence to life are different around the world
stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a group of - provides a means of achieving a sense of integrity, - It is also the view that an action is morally right if
people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, safety, and belonging one’s culture approves of it
customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018). Types of Norms Ethnocentrism
“The moral agent” that we are referring to is no other 1. Folkways norms - The perspective that one particular ethnic group is
than YOU (or anyone) -the one who is in charge and 2. Taboo norms somehow superior to others
responsible for all of your actions and decisions. Generally, 3. Mores norms Examples: white supremacy, racial discrimination, Asian
you will learn from this module how culture and Filipino moral 4. Laws norms hate, apartheid
identity affect your behavior as a “moral agent”. Likewise, you
will learn how to assess your personal experiences and How Culture Influence Moral Behavior Categories of Cultural Relativism:
decisions against Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. 1. Social and command 1. Critical
2. Defines normative behavior - poses questions about cultural practices in terms of
Culture and Moral Behavior 3. Develop restrictions and set boundaries who is accepting them and why
What is Culture? 4. Conditions the mind - recognizes oppressors, winners, and victims
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly 5. Identify the authorities or governing individuals or
all aspects of shared human experiences. Culture possesses groups 2. Absolute
five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values, and - whatever goes on in a culture must not be
norms (Gallinero, 2018). Elements of Culture questioned by outsiders
The dangers of cultural relativism are: c. lack of discipline righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the
1) “We cannot call out societal practices to promote harm, d. passivity and lack of initiative heart of wisdom (Zhi) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
2) “We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful e. colonial mentality 2017).
practices”, and f. kanya-kanya syndrome According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in
3) “The idea of societal progress becomes doubtful” g. lack of self-analysis and self-reflection desire to be virtuous, and if a person is focused on being a
(Gallinero, 2018) good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you
will do good things. The principle of being virtuous is called
The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of The Moral Agent: Developing Virtua as Habit the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one
Moral Behavior that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (Gallinero,
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and How is Moral Character Developed? 2018).
Western cultures. Patricia Licuanan, former commissioner of Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of
CHED and a psychologist, wrote that the strengths and virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and Stages of Moral Development and Conscience
weaknesses of the Filipino Character are rooted in many loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral characters are those Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental
different factors. dispositions or tendencies to act or think in a particular way psychologist and philosopher, is known for his theory on
Factors: by which a person can be held morally responsible (Gallinero, Moral Development. According to Kohlberg, there are three
1. home environment 2018). levels of moral development (pre-conventional level,
2. culture and language According to De Guzman, “In moral development, conventional level, and post-conventional level), each with
3. history there is a circular relation between acts that build character two stages composing his so-called “six stages of moral
4. educational system and moral character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral development”, namely: 1) punishment-obedience stage, 2)
5. religion character will produce particular actions that are related to it, reward orientation, 3) good boy/ good girl orientation, 4)
6. the economic system and on the other hand, the individual actions that you execute authority orientation, 5)social contract orientation, and 6)
7. political environment will determine the kind of moral character that you possess. ethical-principle orientation.
8. mass media For example, if you possess an “honest character”, it will
9. leaders/role models always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and
you may rarely do actions related to dishonesty). On the other
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character way around, when you “tell the absolute truth even at the risk
The most common strong aspects of the Filipino of attracting troubles”, this particular action determines the
character are: kind of moral character that you have – which is, honesty.
a. pakikipagkapwa-tao
b. family orientation Dispositions
c. joy and humor - the virtues and vices that comprise one's moral character
d. flexibility are typically understood as dispositions to behave in certain
e. adaptability and creativity ways in certain sorts of circumstances.
f. hard work and industry - these dispositions are typically understood as relatively
g. faith and religiosity stable and long-term.
h. ability to survive.
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
The most common weak aspects of the Filipino In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an
character are: achieved state of moral excellence”. Moral development was
a. extreme personalism attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human personality,
b. extreme family centeredness namely: 1) the heart of compassion (jen), 2) the heart of