CHAPTER - 10

LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

LIGHT
An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected light when received by our eyes,
enables us to see things.

Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium
on striking the surface of any object.
There are two types of reflection:
1. Regular reflection or Specular Reflection
2. Irregular reflection or Diffuse Reflection

Regular Reflection: When the reflecting surface is smooth and well polished, the
parallel rays falling on it are reflected parallel to one another, the reflected light goes
in one particular direction. This is Regular reflection or Specular reflection see below
figure.

Irregular reflection: When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on
it reflected in different direction, as shown in below fig. Such a reflection is known as
diffuse reflection or irregular reflection.

LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT

According to the laws of Reflection of light,

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the
reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.

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These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including
spherical surfaces.

OBJECTS
Anything which gives out light rays either its own or reflected by it is called an
object.

LUMINOUS OBJECTS: The objects like the sun, other stars, electric bulb, tube-
light etc. which emit their own light are called luminous objects.
NON – LUMINOUS OBJECTS: The objects which do not emit light themselves but
only reflect or scatter the light which falls on them, are called non-luminous objects.
A flower, chair table, book, trees, etc are all non-luminous objects.

IMAGES
Image is an optical appearance produced when light rays coming from an object are
reflected from a mirror (or refracted through lens).

REAL IMAGE
The image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image. In a cinema hall,
we see the images of actors and actress on the screen. So, the images formed on a
cinema screen is an example of real images.

VIRTUAL IMAGE
The image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image. A virtual
image can be seen only by looking into a mirror. The image of our face in a plane
mirror is an example of virtual image.

LATERAL INVERSION
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, then the right side of object
appears to become the left side of image; and the left side of object appears to become
the right side of image. This change of sides of an object and its mirror image is called
lateral inversion.
The phenomenon of lateral inversion is due to the reflection of light.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLAN E MIRRORS

The characteristics of images formed by plane mirrors are:

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1. The image of real object is always virtual. Such image cannot be taken on a
screen.
2. The image formed in a plane mirror is always erect.
3. The size of the image in a plane mirror is always the same as the size of the
object.
4. The image formed in a plane mirror is as far behind the mirror, as the object is in
front of the mirror.
5. The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted i.e. the left side of the
objects becomes the right side of the image and vice-versa.

SPHERICAL MIRROR
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow
sphere of glass. The spherical mirrors are of two types: Concave mirror and Convex
mirror.

CONCAVE MIRROR: A concave mirror is that spherical mirror in which the

reflection of light takes place at the concave surface (or bent-in surface).

CONVEX MIRROR: A convex mirror is that spherical mirror in which the

reflection of light takes place at the convex surface (or bulging –out surface).

TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Centre of Curvature(C): The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centre
of the hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical mirror is a part. It is represented
by letter ‘C’.
Pole(P): The pole of a spherical mirror is the centre of the mirror. It is represented by
letter ‘P’.
Radius of Curvature(R): The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius
of the hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical is a part. It is represented by the
letter ‘R’.
Principal axis: The principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line passing
through the centre of curvature C and pole P of the spherical mirror, produced on both
sides.
Aperture: The aperture of a spherical mirror is the diameter of the reflecting surface
of the mirror.

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PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR

The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point on its principal axis to which all the
light rays which are parallel and close to the axis, converge after reflection from the
concave mirror. A concave mirror has a real focus. The focus of a concave mirror is in
front of the mirror. Since a concave mirror converges a parallel beams of light rays, it
is also called converging mirror.

The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point on its principal axis from which a
beam of light rays, initially parallel to the axis, appears to diverge after being reflected
from the convex mirror. A convex mirror has a virtual focus. The focus of a convex
mirror is situated behind the mirror. Since a convex mirror diverges a parallel beams
of light rays, it is also called diverging mirror.

Focal Length: The focal length of a spherical mirror is the distance between its pole
and principal focus. It is denoted by the letter ‘f’.

Relation between Radius of curvature and focal length of a spherical mirror

The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature.
R
f 
2
In other words, for spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is
found to be equal to twice the focal length.
R = 2f

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RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL MIRRORS

The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal
focus in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in
case of a convex mirror.

2. A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is
directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in

the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is
reflected back along the same path. The light rays come back along the same path
because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting
surface.

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4. A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the
mirror), on the concave mirror or a convex mirror , is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence
(point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE MIRROR

The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object in
front of the mirror. There are six positions of the object:
Case–1: Object is in between P and F
When an object is placed between the pole(P) and focus(F) of a concave mirror, the
image formed is
(i) behind the mirror
(ii) virtual and erect and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified)

Case–2: Object is at the focus(F).

When an object is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) at infinity
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) highly magnified (or highly enlarged)

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Case–3: Object is in between focus(F) and centre of curvature(C)
When an object is placed between the focus(F) and centre of curvature(C) of a
concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) beyond the centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified)

Case–4: Object is at the centre of curvature(C)

When an object is placed at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, the image
formed is
(i) at the centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) same size as the object

Case–5: Object is beyond the centre of curvature(C)

When an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, the
image formed is
(i) between the focus and centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

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Case–6: Object is at infinity.
When an object is placed at infinity of a concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) between the focus and centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished)

USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

1. Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles

headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light.
2. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
3. The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
4. Concave mirrors are used as doctor’s head mirrors to focus light coming from a
lamp on to the body parts of a patient to be examined by the doctor.
5. Concave dishes are used in TV dish antennas to receive TV signals from the
distant communications satellite.
6. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX MIRROR

The type of image formed by a convex mirror depends on the position of object in
front of the mirror. There are six positions of the object:
Case–1: Object is placed between P and infinity
When an object is placed between pole and infinity in front of a convex mirror, the
image formed is
(i) between the pole and focus
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

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Case–2: Object is at infinity.
When an object is placed at infinity of a convex mirror, the image formed is
(i) behind the mirror at focus
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished)

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind
him/her to facilitate safe driving. Convex mirrors are preferred because they always
give an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they
are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area
than would be possible with a plane mirror.

MIRROR FORMULA

In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object
distance (u). The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image
distance (v). The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal
length (f). There is a relationship between these three quantities given by the mirror
formula which is expressed as
1 1 1
 
f v u

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MAGNIFICATION

Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the
image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size. It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by
the letter m. If h1 is the height of the object and h2 is the height of the image, then the
magnification m produced by a spherical mirror is given by

height of the image h2

m m
height of the object h1

The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It
can be expressed as:
h v
m 2 
h1 u
Points to be remembered:

 The height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually placed
above the principal axis.
 The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images. However,
it is to be taken as negative for real images.
 When the image is real, it is inverted so h2 is negative which results m is –ve. A
negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real.
 When the image is virtual, it is erect so h2 is positive which results m is +ve. A
positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.

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SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

The following sign convention is used for measuring various distances in the ray
diagrams of spherical mirrors:

1. Object is always placed to the left of mirror

2. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive and the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
4. Distances measured above the principal axis are positive and that measured below the
principal axis are negative.

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REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another
obliquely, is called refraction of light. In other words, the bending of light when it
goes from one medium to another obliquely is called refraction of light. The refraction
takes place when light enters from air to water (see below figure).

The speed of light is different in different substances. The refraction of light is due to
the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to another. Thus, when
light goes from one medium to another, its speed changes. And this change in speed
of light causes the refraction of light.

MEDIUM
A transparent substance in which light travels is known as a medium. Medium can be
divided into two types:
1. Optically rarer medium: A medium in which the speed of light is more is known
as optically rarer medium (or less dense medium)
2. Optically denser medium: A medium in which the speed of light is less is known
as optically rarer medium (or more dense medium)
Glass is an optically denser medium than air and water.

RULES OF REFRACTION :
Rule-1 : When a light ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the light
ray bends towards the normal.

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Rule-2 : When a light ray travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the light
ray bends away from the normal

LAWS OF REFRACTION
According to laws of refraction of light.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the
light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s
law of refraction.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
sin i
 constant . This constant value is called the refractive index of the second
sin r
medium with respect to the first.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to
the speed of light in the medium. It is represented by n.

speed of light in vacuum/air c

 Refractive index of a medium, n  
speed of light in medium v
Both c and v are in m/s
n2 v1
 Relative refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1 is 1n 2  
n1 v2
 Both v1, v2 are in m/s, n2, n1 have no units
1
 1n 
2 2
n1

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 Snell’s law of refraction: When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2, then
n sin i
1
n2  2 
n1 sin r
 an  real depth(x)
w
apparent depth(a)
Both x and y are in metre or in cm.
 Velocity of light in vacuum/air is c = 3 x 108 m/s.

TWO REFRACTIONS THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

On passing through a rectangular glass slab, a ray of light suffers two refractions, one
while going from air to glass and the other while going from glass to air. Light
emerges from rectangular slab in a direction parallel to that in which it entered the
glass slab. However the final emergent ray is slightly shifted sideways from the
direction of original incident ray by a distance x called lateral shift.

The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent
ray coming out of the glass slab is called lateral displacement of the emergent ray of
light. Lateral displacement depends mainly on three factors: angle of incidence,
thickness of glass slab and refractive index of glass slab. Actually lateral displacement
is directly proportional to (i) angle of incidence (ii) thickness of glass slab (iii)
refractive index of glass slab. Higher the values of these factors, greater will be the
lateral displacement. The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal is
called the angle of emergence.

CONDITION FOR NO REFRACTION

Refraction will not take place under the following two conditions:
1. When light is incident normally on a boundary.
A ray of light traveling in medium 1 falls normally. Therefore angle of incidence,
I = 00.

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 According to Snell’s law.
sin i n2

sin r n1
n n n
or sin r  1 sin i  1 sin 00  1  0  0
n2 n2 n2
or r  0

Thus, there is not deviation in the ray at the boundary. Hence, no refraction occurs
when light is incident normally on a boundary of two media.

2. When the refractive indices of two media are equal.

When refractive index of medium 1 is equal to refractive index of medium 2 i.e.
n1 = n2, then according to Snell’s law
sin i  n2  1
sin r n1
or sin i  sin r
or i  r
Hence no refraction occurs at the boundary that separates two media of equal
refractive indices.

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.

SPHERICAL LENSES
A lens is any transparent material (e.g. glass) of an appropriate shape that can
take parallel rays of incident light and either converge the rays to a point or diverge
the rays from a point.
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces
are spherical, forms a lens.
Some lenses will focus light rays to a single point. These lenses are called
converging or concave lenses. Other lenses spread out the light rays so that it looks
like they all come from the same point. These lenses are called diverging or convex
lenses. Lenses change the direction of light rays by refraction. They are designed so
that the image appears in a certain place or as a certain size. Lenses are used in
eyeglasses, cameras, microscopes, and telescopes.

CONVEX LENS
A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a double
convex lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to
the edges. Convex lens converges light rays. Hence it is called converging lens.

CONCAVE LENS

A double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards. It is

thicker at the edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge light rays and are called
diverging lenses. A double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.

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TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL LENS

Principal Axis: The principal axis is the line which runs horizontally straight through
the optical centre of the lens. It is also sometimes called the optic axis. In other words,
an imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of the curvature of a lens is
called its principal axis.

Optical Centre: The optical centre (O) of a convex lens is usually the centre point of
the lens. The direction of all light rays which pass through the optical centre remains
unchanged.

Centre of Curvature: A lens has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces
forms a part of a sphere. The centers of these spheres are called centres of curvature
of the lens. The centre of curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C.
Since there are two centre’s of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2.

Aperture: The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called
its aperture. Lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of curvature are
called thin lenses with small aperture.

Focus: The focus or focal point of the lens is the position on the principal axis where
all light rays that run parallel to the principal axis through the lens converge (come
together) at a point. Since light can pass through the lens either from right to left or
left to right, there is a focal point on each side of the lens (F1 and F2), at the same
distance from the optical centre in each direction. (Note: the plural form of the word
focus is foci.)

Focal Length: The focal length (f) is the distance between the optical centre and the
focal point.

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RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL LENSES

The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.

1. A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens, as
shown in below figure. In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from
the principal focus located on the same side of the lens, as shown in below figure

2. A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex
lens, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in below figure. A
ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens, after
refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in below
figure.

3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation. This is illustrated in below figure.

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FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS
The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of object in front
of the lens. There are six positions of the object:

Case–1: Object is in between optical centre(O) and focus (F1)

When the object is placed between optical centre(O) and focus(F1), the image formed
is (i) behind the object (on th left side of lens)
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) larger than the object (enlarged or magnified)

Case–2: Object is at the focus (F1)

When the object is placed at the focus(F1), the image formed is

(i) at infinity
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) highly enlarged

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Case–3: Object is in between F1 and 2F2

When the object is placed between F1 and 2F1 in front of a convex lens, the image
formed is
(i) beyond 2F2,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified).

Case–4: Object is at 2F1

When the object is placed at a distance 2f in front of convex lens, the image formed is
(i) at 2F2 on the other side of the lens,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) of the same size as the object.

Case–5: Object is at beyond 2F1

When the object is placed beyond 2F1 in front of the convex lens, the image formed is
(i) between F2 and 2F2 on the other side of the lens,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

Case–6: Object is at infinity

When the object is placed at the infinity, the image formed is
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 (i) at the focus F2.
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished or point sized)

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS

The type of image formed by a concave lens depends on the position of object in front
of the lens. There are two positions of the object:

Case–1: Object is at infinity

When the object is placed at the infinity, the image formed is
(i) at the focus F1.
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished or point sized)

Case–2: Object is in between optical centre(O) and infinity

When the object is placed in between optical centre(O) and infinity, the image formed
is (i) between optical centre(O) and focus F1.
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

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SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL LENSES
While using the lens formula we must make use of proper sign convention while
taking the values of object (u), image distance (v), focal length (f), object height (h)
and image height (h’). The sign conventions are as follows:
1. All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken
positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light
are taken negative.
4. Heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
positive.
5. Heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
negative.

Consequences of new Cartesian sign convention:

 The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
 Object distance u is always negative.
 The distance of real image is positive and that of virtual image is negative.
 The object height h is always positive. Height h' of virtual erect image is positive
and that of real inverted image is negative.
 The linear magnification, m = h'/h is positive for a virtual image and negative for
a real image.

LENS FORMULA
Lens formula gives the relationship between object distance (u), image-distance (v)
and the focal length (f ). The lens formula is expressed as
1 1 1
 
f v u
where ‘u’ is the distance of the object from the optical centre (O), ‘v’ is the distance
of the image from the optical centre (O) and ‘f’ is the distance of the principal focus
from the optical centre (O).

MAGNIFICATION
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined
as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object. It is represented by
the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h’ is the height of the image given by a
lens, then the magnification produced by the lens is given by,

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 Height of the Image h '
m 
Height of the object h
Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the
image-distance v. This relationship is given by
h' v
Magnification (m )  
h u

Points to be remembered
 If the magnification ‘m’ has a positive value, the image is virtual and erect. And if
the magnification ‘m’ has a negative value, the image will real and inverted.
 A convex lens can form virtual images as well as real images, therefore, the
magnification produced by a convex lens can be either positive or negative.
 A convex can form images which are smaller than the object, equal to the object
or bigger than the object, therefore magnification ‘m’ produced by a convex lens
can be less than 1, equal to 1 or more than 1.
 A concave lens, however, forms only virtual images, so the magnification
produced by a concave lens is always positive.
 A concave lens forms image which are always smaller than the object, so the
magnification ‘m’ produced by a concave lens is always less than 1.

POWER OF A LENS
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by
the letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
1
P
f
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is
expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres. Thus, 1 dioptre is the power
of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m–1. The power of a convex lens is
positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to

increase the magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P) of the
lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers P1, P2,
P3, … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…

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