Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological basis of

mental processes such as perception, consciousness, action,
memory, decision making, language, and selective attention.
Measuring brain activity associated with these mental processes is the
main purpose of cognitive neuroscience.

Cognitive neuroscience is thus a science of information processing

These questions are the foundational in the cognitive science:​

How is information acquired (sensation),​

Interpreted to confer meaning (perception and recognition), ​
Stored or modified (learning and memory), ​
Used to ruminate (thinking and consciousness), ​
To predict the future state of the environment and ​
The consequences of action (decision making), ​
To guide behavior (motor control), and ​
To communicate (language)

The distinction between software (the content of cognition) and

hardware (the physical stuff, for example, the brain) upon which
cognitive processes are implemented.​
​
Cognitive neuroscience is a sub division of modern neuroscience.​
​
Cognitive neuroscience is a functional neuroscience​
​ - particular structures and signals of the nervous system are of
interest inasmuch as they can be used to explain cognitive functions.

There being many levels of explanation in biological systems—ranging

from cellular and molecular events to complex behavior—a key
challenge of the field of cognitive neuroscience has been to identify
the relationships between different levels and the train of causality.

“cognitive neuroscience” was coined by George A. Miller—the

father of modern cognitive psychology

The emergence of interdisciplinary field of congnitive neuroscience

that we know today which lies squarely at the heart of twentieth
century neuroscience.​
​
Localization of function:​
​ - Is the localization of the material source of psychological
functions.

Perception:
-​ Reflects the ability to derive meaning from sensory experience in
the form of information about sturcture and casuality in the
perceiver’s environment and of the sort of necessary to guide
behaviour.

Sensation and perception diff:

Sensation - Encode the physical properties of the proximal sensory

stimulus ( The retinal image in case of vision)
Perception - Reflect the world that likely gave rise to te sensory
stimulus ( the visual scene)

Because the mapping between sensory and perceptual events is

never unique—multiple scenes can cause the same retinal
image—perception is necessarily an inference about the probable
causes of sensation.

Understanding the information represented by sensory neurons, which

has evolved over the past fifty years, is to measure the correlation
between a feature of the neuronal response (typically magnitude) and
some physical parameter of a sensory stimulus (such as the
wavelength of light or the orientation of a contour).

​
Forming a Decision to Act

The meaning of many sensations can be found solely in their symbolic

and experiencedependent mapping onto actions (e.g., green = go, red
= stop).
These mappings are commonly many-to-one or one-to-many (a
whistle and a green light can both be signals to “go”; conversely, a
whistle may be either a signal to “go” or a call to attention, depending
upon the context).

The selection of a particular action from those possible at any point in

time is thus a context-dependent transition between sensory
processing and motor control.

Because of the nonunique mappings, neurons involved in making

such decisions should be distinguishable from those
representing sensory events by a tendency to generalize across
specific features of the sensory signal.

Similarly, the representation of the neuronal decision should be

distinguishable from a motor control signal by generalization
across specific motor actions.
 In addition, the strength of the neuronal decision signal should
increase with duration of exposure to the sensory stimulus (integration
time), in parallel with increasing decision confidence on the part of the
observer.

Learning and Memory:

Memory serves as the linchpin that binds and shapes nearly every
aspect of information processing by brains, including perception,
decision making, motor control, emotion, and consciousness. Memory
also exists in various forms, which have been classified on the basis
of their relation to other cognitive functions, the degree to which they
are explicitly encoded and available for use in a broad range of
contexts, and their longevity.

Three current approaches (broadly defined and overlapping) to

memory are among the most promising for the future of cognitive
neuroscience:
1.​neuropsychological and neurophysiological studies of the
neuronal substrates of explicit memory in primates.
2.​ studies of the relationship between phenomena of synaptic
facilitation or depression and behavioral manifestations of
learning and memory.
3.​ molecular genetic studies that enable highly selective disruption
of cellular structures and events thought to be involved in
learning and memory.

Brain Substrates of Explicit Memory in Primates

The study of explicit memory in primates has evolved over time,
starting with early research by Karl Lashley, who used brain lesion
studies to understand memory functions.

A major breakthrough came in the 1950s when Brenda Milner

discovered that damage to the hippocampus severely affected human
memory formation. Following this, researchers like Mortimer Mishkin,
Stuart Zola, and Larry Squire used animal models to further pinpoint
how the temporal lobe helps consolidate memory.

In the 1970s, scientists like Charles Gross and Joaquin Fuster used
electrophysiological studies to examine how individual brain cells
contribute to memory. By studying primates performing memory tasks,
they identified neurons involved in remembering past stimuli. Later,
Robert Desimone and Patricia Goldman-Rakic provided strong
evidence that working memory relies on specific neurons in the
temporal and frontal lobes.

Today, these traditional methods are complemented by brain imaging

studies in humans, helping us better understand how memory works
in both animals and people.

Do Synaptic Changes Mediate Memory Formation?

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a key process in how the brain

strengthens connections between neurons, which is believed to be
essential for learning and memory.

Discovered in the 1970s, LTP occurs when neurons are repeatedly

activated together, leading to a lasting increase in the strength of their
connection. This process follows the principles of Donald Hebb, who
proposed that "neurons that fire together, wire together." LTP often
depends on the NMDA glutamate receptor, which helps regulate
synaptic strength.

Since LTP is commonly observed in brain areas involved in

memory—like the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral
cortex—scientists believe it plays a crucial role in how memories are
formed. Studying LTP has led to exciting new research on how
memory works at the neural level.

From Genes to Behavior: A Molecular Genetic Approach to Memory

Scientists have discovered that the NMDA receptor plays a crucial

role in long-term potentiation (LTP), which is believed to be
essential for memory formation. Based on this, researchers predicted
that removing NMDA receptors would disrupt memory.

To test this, genetic engineering techniques were used to "knock out"

NMDA receptors in mice. However, early experiments faced
challenges because the effects were not limited to specific brain
regions or developmental stages.

Recently, Matthew Wilson and Susumu Tonegawa overcame these

challenges by selectively removing NMDA receptors only in the CA1
region of the hippocampus after brain maturation. As expected, these
mice showed memory deficits in both behavioral and physiological
tests, supporting the idea that NMDA-mediated synaptic plasticity is
critical for memory.
Future research aims to refine these genetic techniques, allowing
scientists to selectively control specific neuron activity in different brain
regions and expand studies to other animals, like monkeys.

Language and the Brain

Language was one of the first cognitive functions to be studied from a

biological perspective. In the 19th century, researchers like Broca
discovered that damage to specific brain regions affected language
production and comprehension, revealing that the left hemisphere
plays a dominant role in language processing.

Modern research shows that different aspects of language rely on

specific brain structures:

●​ Phonology (sound patterns)

●​ Syntax (sentence structure)
●​ Lexicon (vocabulary)

Using neuroimaging techniques like ERPs, PET, and fMRI, scientists

have confirmed the role of traditional language areas (such as Broca’s
area and Wernicke’s area) and identified modality-neutral
regions—brain areas that activate for spoken, written, and even sign
language.

Studies show that language is primarily processed in the left

hemisphere if learned early in childhood, regardless of its form.
However, factors like age of acquisition and bilingualism can influence
how the brain organizes language functions.

Language disorders (e.g., dyslexia, developmental language

impairment) can arise due to disruptions in different cognitive skills
needed for understanding and using language.