UNIT II (MODULE)

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
What is Geometric Design?
Geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the highway.

The emphasis of the geometric design is to address requirement of the driver and the
vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc.

The features normally considered are the:

Cross section elements

Sight distance consideration
Horizontal curvature
Gradients
Intersection

Importance of Geometric Design

The geometric design features are influenced by driver behavior and psychology,
vehicle characteristics, traffic characteristics such as speed and volume.
Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents and their severity.
The objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation
and maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a pavement, but has to be done
well in advance.

Design Controls and Criteria

Topography (slope of terrain)
Design speed
Traffic factors (Dimension of Vehicle, Driver Reaction)
Design hourly volume and capacity
Environmental and other factors
Highway Cross-section Elements
1. Pavement Surface Characteristics
i. Friction
Skid, Slip
Factors affecting friction or skid resistance:
Type of pavement
bituminous, concrete, gravel
Condition of pavement
wet, dry, hot
Type of tyre
old or new
Speed and load of the vehicle
The frictional force between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. IRC
suggests coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the
speed, and coefficient of later friction as 0.15.
ii. Unevenness
Unevenness (Bump Integrator measures unevenness)
Higher speed
Operation cost
Comfort
Safety
Unevenness index measured: cm/km
150 cm/km high speed highways
250 cm/km for speeds of 100 kmph
350 cm/km for speeds of 50 kmph - uncomfortable
iii. Light reflecting characteristics
iv. Drainage
2. Cross Slope or Camber
To prevent:
i. Entry of water into sub-grade
ii. Entry of water into bituminous pavement
 iii. Remove water as quickly as possible
Required camber depends on:
i. Type of pavement
ii. Amount of rainfall
Different Type of Slope:
Shape of cross slope

1. Parabolic

2. Straight line
3. Combination of straight and parabolic

Recommended values

Providing camber in field

Camber problem:
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district road of WBM
pavement, 3.8 m wide, and a state highway of bituminous concrete
pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be constructed. What should be the height of
the crown with respect to the edges in these two cases?
For WBM road = x
3.8

2
(3%)
3

100

For Bituminous= 7.0

2
x 2

100
(2%)
3. Width of Pavement or Carriageway
4. Kerbs
Low or Mountable Kerbs
Height = 10 cm provided at medians and channelization schemes and also
helps in longitudinal drainage.

Semi-barrier Type Kerbs

When the pedestrian traffic is high.
Height is 15 cm above the pavement edge.
Prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.

Barrier Type Kerbs

Designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
Height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic.

Submerged Kerbs
They are used in rural roads.
The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the pavement edge and
shoulders.
They provide lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.

5. Road Margins
Shoulders
Parking lanes
 Lay-byes
Bus bays
Frontage roads
Drive ways
Cycle roads
Sidewalk (footpath)
Guard rails
Embankments

6. Right of Way
Is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. Depends on width of
formation, height of embankment or depth of cut, sight distance, and future plans.

7. Typical Cross-section of Roads

Width of formation is sum carriageway, separators, shoulders. It is top in
embankment or the bottom width in cutting.
Typical Urban Cross-section

SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.

Three sight distance situations to be discussed:

Stopping sight distance (SSD)

Length of road required for safe stopping of moving vehicle
Overtaking or passing sight distance (OSD)
Safe sight distance for entering intersection
 Intermediate sight distance (2 times SSD)

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

SSD Depends on:

Feature of the road ahead

Height of the driver
Height of the object

This distance within which vehicle can be stopped depends on:

Perception / Reaction time of driver

Speed of vehicle – Efficiency of brakes
Frictional resistance between road and tires
Gradient of road
 Stopping Sight Distance = Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

Reaction Time depends on PIEV Theory

What is PIEV Theory?

Perception – time for sensations to be transmitted to brain.

Intellection – time for understanding the situation.
Emotion – time elapsed during emotional sensations.
Volition – time take for final decision.

Stopping Sight Distance = Reaction Distance (Lag) + Braking Distance

Reaction distance is calculated as:

dr = (tr)(V )

dr = 0.28(tr)(V )

where:
dr= break reaction distance
m; t = reaction time, seconds
r

V = initial speed, km/h

IRC recommends 2.5 seconds reaction time

Braking distance on a level roadway is calculated as:

2
V
db =
254f

where:
db= braking distance
m; V = initial speed, km/h

f = coefficient of friction (0.35 - 0.40)

2
V
SSD = 0.278(V )(t) +
254(f )

Stopping Sight at Slopes

 2
V
SSD = 0.278(V )(t) +
254(f ± 0.01n)

where:
n% = gradient
v = speed, kmph

t= reaction time, seconds

f = co-efficient of friction

PROBLEM SAMPLE:

Problem 1: Calculate SSD for V =50kmph for (a) twoway traffic in a two lane road (b)
two-way traffic in single lane road.

(Hint: f=0.37, t=2.5)

Ans: (a)61.4 m (b) 122.8 m.

Problem 2: Find minimum sight distance to avoid head-on collision of two cars
approaching at 90 kmph and 60 kmph.

Given: t=2.5sec; f=0.7; brake efficiency of 50 percent in either case.

(Hint: brake efficiency reduces the coefficient of friction by 50%)

Ans: SD=153.6+82.2=235.8m
 Problem 3: Find SSD for a descending gradient of 2% for V=80kmph.

Ans: 132m

Problem 4: The available sight distance for a stretch of road with 6% downgrade is 100 m.
The design speed for the road is 80 km/h. Is the available sight distance adequate for
emergency stopping of vehicle? Discuss.

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Overtaking Sight Distance OSD is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of
a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite
direction.

Important factors:

Speeds of (1) overtaking vehicle (2) overtaken vehicle and (3) opposite vehicle.
Distance between overtaking and overtaken.
Skill and reaction time Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
Gradient
It is sum of three components:

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

4s
OSD = vbt + 2s + vb√ + vT
a

4s
T = √
a

s = 0.7vb + 6
It is sum of three components:

d1 = 0.278(Vb)(t)

d2 = 0.278(Vb)(T ) + 2s

d3 = 0.278(Vc)(T )

where:
s = (0.2(Vb) + 6), mts

(14)(4s) (4s
T = √ T = √
A a

s in meters
A in kmph/sec
Vb in kmph
Vc in kmph
a in m/sec 2

Min. length of overtaking = 3

OSD Desirable length = 5. OSD
PROBLEM SAMPLE:

Problem: Overtaking and overtaken vehicles are at 70 and 40 kmph respectively. find (i)
OSD (ii) min. and desirable length of overtaking zone (iii) show the sketch of overtaking
zone with location of sign posts (hint: a=0.99m/sec2)

Ans: (i) 278 m (ii) 834 m/1390m

Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)

Recommendation given by IRC only

Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)

CURVES
Horizontal Curves
• Superelevation
• Attainment of Superelevation
• Extra Widening
• Vertical Alignment

The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a reactive force acting
outward on a vehicle negotiating it.

Centrifugal force P in kg/m2 is given by:

2
Wv
P =
gR

where:
W = weight kg
v = speed in m/sec

g = acceleration due to gravity m/sec2

R = radius in meters

Centrifugal Ratio or Impact Factor:

2
P v
=
W gR

Superelevation
Analysis of Super-elevation
2
v
e + f =
gR

2
v
e + f =
127R

where:
e = rate of super elevation
f = coefficient of lateral friction 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle in m/sec

V = kmph
R = radius of the curve in m
g = 9.8m/sec2 .

Design of Super-elevation

For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering coefficient
of friction is safe
For slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation considering coefficient of
friction is safe.

IRC suggests following design procedure:

Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f , i.e e

2
(0.75v)
1 =
gR
 2
V
e1 =
225R

Step 2: If e ≤ 0.07, then e = e , else if e > 0.07 go to Step 3.

1 1 1

Step 3: Find f for the design speed and max e, i.e f

2 2
v v
1 1
= − e = − 0.07.
gR gR

2
v
f1 = − 0.07
127R

If f < 0.15, then the maximum e = 0.07 is safe for the design speed, else go to
1

Step 4.
Step 4: Find the allowable speed v for the maximum e = 0.07 and f = 0.15,
a

va = √ 0.22gR

V a = √ 27.94R

If v
a ≥ v then the design is adequate, otherwise use speed adopt control measures.

Attainment of Superelevation
Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:

rotating the outer edge about the crown

shifting the position of the crown

Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation:

rotation about the center line

rotation about the inner edge
Extra Widening
Off-tracking (rigidity of wheel base)
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a curved
section of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment.

Mechanical widening
Psychological widening

We = Wm + Wps

2
nl V
We = +
2R 9.5√ (R)

where:
n = no. of lanes
l= length of wheel base
R = Radius of the curve, m

where:
2
V
R =
127(e + f )

Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines in a vertical plane) and
vertical curves

Specifies the elevation of points along a roadway

Provides a transition between two grades

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal

Gradients are divided into follow categories:

Ruling gradient (maximum or design gradient)

Limiting gradient (steeper than ruling)
Exceptional gradient (still steeper)
Minimum gradient (for drainage)
Summit curve (crest curves)

Valley curve (Sag curves)

Controlling factor: sight distance

Stopping sight distance should be provided as a minimum

Rate of change of grade should be kept within tolerable limits
Drainage of valley curve (sag curve) is important consideration, grades not less than
0.5% needed for drainage to outer edge of roadway

Stopping Sight Distance Summit Curve

H1 = 1.2 m (Height of driver’s view)
H2 = 0.15 m (Height of object)

Length of Summit Curve for SSD

 2
V
SSD = 0.278(V )(t) +
254f

When L > SSD

2
NS
L =
4.4

When L < SSD

4.4
L = 2S −
N

where:
S = SSD
N = deviation angle, algebraic difference in grades

Length of Summit Curve for OSD

When L > OSD

2
NS
L =
9.6

When L < OSD

9.6
L = 2S −
N

where:
S = OSD

N = deviation angle, algebraic difference in grades

Length of Valley Curve

Length of valley is designed for comfort and SSD.

Length of transition curve for comfort:

1
3
L = 0.38(N V ) 2
When L > SSD

2
NS
L =
(1.5 + 0.0.35S)

When L < SSD

(1.5 + 0.0.35S)
L = 2S −
N

where:
S = SSD
V =speed, kmph
N = deviation angle, algebraic difference in grades

PROBLEM SAMPLE:

Problem 1: A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients, +3.0 and
-5.0 percent. Design the length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design speed of 80
kmph. Assume other data.

Problem 2:An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A

summit curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an OSD of 470m.

Problem 3:A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an

ascending grade of 1 in 30. Design the length of valley curve to fullfil both comfort and
headlight sight distance requirements for a design speed 80 kmph.

TRANSITION CURVES
What is transition curve and when it is needed?

Transition curve is a curve in plan which is provided to change the horizontal alignment
from straight to circular curve gradually
It means the radius of transition curve varies between infinity to R or R to infinity.

Objectives for providing transition curves:

1. For the gradual introduction Centrifugal force

 2. To introduce super elevation gradually
3. To introduce extra widening gradually
4. To provide comfort for the driver that is to enable smooth vehicle operation on road
5. To enhance aesthetics of highways

Types of transition curves:

Spiral or clothoid
Cubic parabola
Lemniscate

IRC recommends Spiral or clothoid as the ideal transition curve due to following reasons:

1. It satisfies that rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant i.e., L

s. R =
constant.

where:
Ls = length of transition curve
R = radius of curve.

2. The calculation and field implementation of spiral curve is simple and easy.
3. It enhances aesthetics also.

The length of transition curve can be calculated by 3 conditions:

Highest of three values is adopted.

1. Based on rate of change of acceleration

3
V
Ls =
46.5CR

80
C =
(75 + V )

where:
Ls = in meters
C = m

sec
(C should be between 0.5 and 0.8)
2

V = kmph
R = radius of curvature in meters

2. Based on rate of change of super elevation and extra widening

If the pavement outer edge with respect to and inner edge, length of transition
curve is:
 Ls = (W + We)(e)(N )

If the pavement outer edge raised and inner edge is depressed with respect to
center of pavement then,

(W + We)(e)(N )
Ls =
2

where:
N = rate of introduction of super elevation

e = super-elevation
W = width of the pavement
We = extra widening

3. Based on IRC empirical formula

1. For plain and rolling terrain:

2
2.7V
Ls =
R

2. For mountainous and steep terrains:

2
V
Ls =
R

PROBLEM SAMPLE:

Problem 1: Calculate the length of transition curve and shift for V=65kmph, R=220 m, rate
of introduction of superelevation is 1 in 150, W+We=7.5 m. Pavement is raised with
respect to centerline.

(Hint: c=0.57)
Ans: Ls =47.1m; Ls =39m (e=0.07, pav. Rotated w.r.t centerline); Ls =51.9m; s=0.51m; Ls
1 2 3

=52m
 Problem 2: NH passing through rolling terrain of heavy rainfall area, R=500m. Design
length of Transition curve. (Hint: Heavy rainfall. Pavement surface rotated w.r.t to inner
edge. V=80kmph, W=7.0m, N=1 in 150).

Ans: c=0.52; Ls =42.3; Ls =63.7m (e=0.057, W

1 2 + We =7.45); Ls =34.6m; Ls=64m
3