1.

Types and components of computer system

Hardware
− General term for physical components of a computer system
− Two types of hardware: internal hardware and external hardware
− Eg. Keyboard, mouse, camera, mother board, printer
Internal computer hardware
Mother board:

− allows the processor and other computer hardware to function and communicate with each
other.
− act as a kind of 'hub' which other computer devices connect to.

Random access memory (RAM):

− internal chip where data is temporarily stored when running applications

− contents are lost when power to the computer is turned off,
− stores the data, files or part of the operating system currently in use.

Read-only memory (ROM)

− store information that needs to be permanent.

− information stored on the ROM chip is not lost even when power is turned off to the
computer.

Central processing unit (CPU)/processor

- Have two units: arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)

Graphics card

− allows the computer to send graphical information to a video display device

− usually connects to the motherboard

Sound card

− provides a computer with the ability to produce sounds

Internal hard disk drive/ solid-state drive (HDD/SSD)

− Backing storages

Network interface card (NIC)

− component that allows a computer or any other device

− can be wired or wireless
Software
− programs that control the computer system and process data

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 − two types of software: application software and system software
Applications software
− provides the services that the user requires to solve a given task.
− word processing
− spreadsheet
− database (management system)
− control and measurement software
− apps and applets
− video editing
− graphics editing
− audio editing
− computer-aided design (CAD)
System software
− Programs that allow the hardware to run properly and allow the user to communicate with
the computer
− Compiler: translate high level language to machine level language
− Linkers: one or more object files produced by a compiler and combines them into a single
program that can be run on a computer
− Device driver: enables one or more hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s
operating system.
− Operating systems (OS): software running in the background of a computer system
− Make user-friendly
− Utilities: software that has been designed to carry out specific tasks on a computer
− Eg. Antivirus, screensaver
Analogue and digital data
− Computers can only understand data which is in a binary format
− If analogue data is being sent to a computer, analogue to digital converter (ADC)
− the digital output from the computer, digital to analogue converter (DAC).

CPU
− part of the computer that interprets and executes the commands from the computer
hardware and software
− CPU is now referred to as a microprocessor.
− Control unit (CU): decodes and executes the instruction
− arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): carries out calculations and makes logical decisions

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Internal memory

Input/Output device

Backing storage
− internal hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD).
− backing storage is not directly addressable
− larger storage and less expensive per byte
− can be internal or external

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operating systems
− Special software that allows users to communicate with computer systems
− general tasks for a typical operating system include:
− control of the operation of the input, output and backing storage devices
− supervising the loading, running and storage of applications programs
− dealing with errors that occur in application programs
− maintaining security of the whole computer system
− maintaining a computer log (which details computer usage)
− allowing communication between user and the computer system (user interface)
User interfaces
− command line interface (CLI)
− graphical user interface (GUI)
− dialogue-based user interface
− gesture-based user interface.
Command line interface (CLI)
− requires a user to type in instructions
− has to learn a number of commands just to carry out basic operations
− advantage of a CLI is that the user is in direct communication with the computer
− for professionals
Graphical user interface (GUI)
− allows the user to interact with a computer using pictures or symbols
− Simply selecting the icon would automatically execute all the commands
− For end user

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Dialogue-based user interfaces
− use the human voice to give commands to a computer system
Gesture-based interfaces
− rely on human interaction by the moving of hands, head or even the feet
− This type of interface uses techniques known as computer vision and image processing.

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Desktop computers
− made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse and processor unit
− mainly used in office,l business work, educational purpose, gaming
Advantages of desktop computer
− spare parts cause lower cost
− easier and less expensive to upgrade
− less likely to be damaged or stolen
− more stable internet connection
Disadvantages of desktop computer
− not portable
− more complicated setting up
Mobile computers
− laptop computers
− smartphones
− tablets
− phablets.
Laptop (or notebook)
− Key features
− Light weight
− Low power consumption
− Low heat output

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Advantages of laptops
− Portable
− Less room on desk
− Full advantage of WIFI features
− Can link to multimedia system
Disadvantages of laptops
− Limited battery life
− Can be easily stolen
− Keyboard and pointing device may be awkward to use
− Not always possible to upgrade
Smartphones
− Contain operation system
− Key features
− Lower weight and longer battery life
− Front and back camera
− Can use Bluetooth
− Contain sensors
− Anti-glare display
Advantages of smartphones
− Small in size and light weight
− Can be used internet and phone call.
− Reasonable battery life
− Contain sensors
Disadvantages of smartphones
− Small font to read
− Slower typing
− Web browsing can drain the battery
− Not all websites’ features can be accessed by smartphone
− Can be easily stolen
Tablets
− work in a similar way to a smartphone
− have virtual keyboard
Advantages of tablets
− Fast to switch on
− Fully portable
− Easy touch screen technology
− Can use several apps as standard
Disadvantages of tablets
− Limited memory
− Expensive
− Touch screen is error prone
− Can’t support all file formats

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Phablet
− hybrid between a tablet and a smartphone
− have much larger screens than a smartphone but are smaller than a tablet
Main use of smartphones, tablets and phablets
− entertainment
− gaming
− internet use
− GPS
− Calendar
− Messaging
− Education
Artificial intelligence
− machine or application which carries out a task that requires some degree of intelligence.
− duplicates human tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving skills
Negative impact of AI
− could lead to human job loss
− loss of skill
− inability to carry out tasks done by robots

Extended reality
− real and virtual combined environments

examples
− augmented reality (AR)
− virtual reality (VR)
− mixed reality (MR).
Augmented reality (AR)
− allow the user to experience the relationship between digital and real world
− the user can experience the AR world through special goggles
− the user is not isolated from the real world and is still able to interact and see what is going
on in front of them
Virtual reality (VR)
− the ability to take the user out of the real-world environment into a virtual environment
− the user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
− users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360° view of the
virtual world

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 2. Input and output devices
Keyboard
− Most common method of data entry
− Frequent use of keyboard can caused repetitive strain injury (RSI)
− Ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this problem
Advantages
− Fast and well-known method
− Easy for use
− Easy for verification
Disadvantages
− Difficult for people with limited arm,wrist movement
− Slow method compared to DDE
− Takes up desk space
Numeric keypads
− used to enter numbers only
− used in Automatic teller machines (ATMs) and Point of sale terminals (POS)
Advantages of numeric keypads
− Faster than standard keyboards
− Small keypads are easier to carry around
Disadvantages of numeric keypads
− Small keys made input difficult
− order of the numbers on the keypad is not intuitive
Pointing devices
Mouse
− The user controls the position of a pointer on the screen by moving the mouse around
Uses of a mouse
− Opening software
− Grouping files
− Image editing
− Controlling the pointer
Advantages of a mouse
− Fast and quick method
− Doesn’t take up much space on desk
Disadvantages of a mouse
− Easy to damage
− Difficult for people with limited wrist movement
− Difficult to use if no flat surface readily available

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Touchpad
− used as a pointing device in many laptop computers
− pointer is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad
− same function as a mouse
Advantages of a touchpad
− No need for separated mouse
− Fast and quick method
Tracker ball
− similar to a mouse, except that a ball is on the top or the side of the device
− easier to use for people with limited hand/wrist movement
Uses of a tracker ball
− Industrial control
− Luxury car
− People with RSI
Advantages of a tracker ball
− Easier to use than a mouse
− More accurate positioning of the pointer on screen
− more robust
Disadvantages of a tracker ball
− Need training before use
− Not supplied with computer
Remote control
− used for the operation of other devices using infrared signals
Uses of a remote control
− Television
− Multimedia control
− industrial applications to remotely control processes
Advantages of a remote control
− operated from any reasonable distance
Disadvantages of a remote control
− Difficult to use if the operator has limited hand/wrist movement.
− It is easier to block the signal
Joystick
− similar functions to a mouse and a tracker ball
Uses of a joystick
− Used in video/computer games.
− Used in simulators
Advantages of a joystick
− Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen.
− Control is more realistic for some applications

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Disadvantages of a joystick
− More difficult to control the on-screen pointe
Driving wheel
− input device that is similar to a joystick
− Uses of a driving wheel
− Used in video games
− Used in stimulators
Advantages of a driving wheel
− Easier than keyboard or joystick
− More realistic driving experience
Disadvantages of a driving wheel
− Movements in the steering can be too sensitive
− Expensive to purchase and complex to install
Touch screens (as an input device)
− user can choose an option by simply touching a button/icon on the screen
Uses of touch screens
− ATMs
− POSs
− Public information system
− Mobile phones/ tablets
− Computer-based training (CBT)
− Self-service
Advantages of touch screens
− Easy method to choose options
− Fast entry than keyboard or mouse
− User-friendly
− Can expand the screen if needed.
Disadvantages of touch screens
− Limited input options
− RSI
− Screen can get dirty with constant touching
Scanners
− used to enter information from hard copy
− most common type is the flatbed scanner
− produce computer-readable images
Uses of scanners
− Scan documents
− Scan photographs
− Scan ancient books for protection
− Scan in barcodes at POS terminals

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Advantages of scanners
− Images can be stored for editing at a later date.
− It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs
Disadvantages of scanners
− Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is
− Can be slow at scanning
Digital cameras
− replaced traditional film-based cameras
− The images are stored on a memory card (solid-state memory) and can be transferred to a
computer
− Can be transfer to the computer by: connecting camera using USB port, directly reading the
memory card, using wireless data transfer
Uses of digital cameras
− Used as a data-capture device
− Taking photos
Advantages of digital cameras
− Easier to produce better-quality photographs
− Faster and easier to upload photos
− No need to develop film and print out photographs
− Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.
Disadvantages of digital cameras
− Need to be computer literate to use the cameras properly
− There is some artistry lost because clever software now corrects errors in the photographs
− Images have to be compressed to reduce memory storage
Microphones
− built into the computer or are external devices connected through the USB port or using
Bluetooth connectivity
Uses of microphones
− Input speech
− Input voice recognition software
− used as a sensor to pick up sound
− use in VOIP
Advantages of microphones
− faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.
− It is possible to manipulate sound in real time using special software
− Used in voice activation system
Disadvantages of microphones
− Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.
− Voice-recognition software is not as accurate as typing in manually
Sensors
− device that inputs data to a computer; the data is a measurement of some physical quantity
that is continuously changing

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 − information from the sensors needs to be converted by using analogue to digital converter
(ADC)

Advantages of using sensors

− More accurate readings taken when compared to human operators.
− Readings are continuous
− Systems can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention
Disadvantages of using sensors
− Faulty sensors can give spurious results
− Most sensors are analogue; therefore, they require conversion using an ADC.
Light pens
− used with computers as an input device
− only work with CRT monitors
− allow light pens to operate with LCD monitors are still at the development stage.
Uses of light pens
− Selecting objects on CRT screens.
− Drawing on screen.
Disadvantages of light pens
− Problems with lag when drawing on screen.
− Only works with CRT monitors
− Not that accurate when drawing.
− Rather dated technology.
Direct data entry (DDE) devices
− used to input data into a computer without the need for very much, if any, human
interaction
Card readers
Magnetic stripe readers
− read information on the magnetic stripe
− contains useful information, such as: account number, sort code, expiry date

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Uses of magnetic stripe readers
− On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs
− EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer at point of sale) terminals
− Security devices to allow entry to buildings
Advantages of magnetic stripe readers
− Fast data entry
− Error free
− Secure
− Prevents access to restricted/secure area
− Not affected by oil, water
− No moving parts
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe readers
− Can get damaged with strong magnetic field
− Does not work at a distance
Contactless debit card readers
− allow customers to pay for items worth up to a certain amount of money without entering
their PIN
− have a small chip that emits radio waves embedded in them
Process of contactless debit card readers
− The shop assistant enters the amount for payment.
− The card reader informs the customer to present their contactless card.
− The customer holds their card close to the front of the card reader.
− The terminal display will indicate that the card has been read successfully.
Advantages of using contactless cards
− Faster transaction
− The contactless card system uses 128-bit encryption systems to protect the data.
− No typing error
− Retailers no longer have access to the customer’s credit/debit card information.
Disadvantages of using contactless cards:
− more expensive than normal credit/debit cards.
− Can take money twice if the customer uses it as a chip and PIN card
− Limited amount of money
Chip and PIN readers
− similar to smart card readers but are used at EFTPOS terminals
− has a slot into which the card is placed and the chip is read
− PIN is entered using the keypad
− small screen which gives instructions to the operator
− doesn’t use RFID
Uses of chip and PIN readers
− Payments by cards
Advantages of chip and PIN readers
− More secure system than contactless payments

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 − More robust than magnetic
Disadvantages of chip and PIN readers
− Can be shoulder surf
Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers
− use radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag from a distance
− RFID tag is made up of two components
− a microchip that stores and processes information
− an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information
− The tags can be passive or battery-powered. Passive tags use the reader’s radio wave energy
to relay back the information; battery-powered tags use a small embedded battery to power
the RFID.
− active tags have their own power supply, they can be read from up to 50 metres away.
− Passive tags are cheaper
Uses of RFID
− Live stock tracking
− Retail
− Admission passes
− Libraries
− Automobile
− Passports
Tracking of stock
− keep track of the whereabouts of every animal on a farm using active tags
− allow farmers to identify who owns an animal
− keep data about animal on tag
−
Advantages of RFID
− No contact necessary, tags can be read from distance
− Tags are much more difficult to forge than barcodes
− RFID tags can reduce the number of staff needed
− provides a very fast read rate
− Robust and reliable technology
− Bidirectional data transfer
− Can detect several cards at once (Bulk detection)
Disadvantages of RFID
− Tag collision
− Radio technology easy to jam
− Easy to hack
− easy to jam or interrupt
− More expensive
Optical mark recognition/reader (OMR)
− device which can read marks written in pen or pencil on a form
− responses are registered in the form of lines or shaded areas
− paper-based registers are often scanned in to a computer using OMR and store in database

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Uses of OMR devices
− Used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers
Advantages of OMR devices
− Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey
− No user input
− They are more accurate than OCR methods
Disadvantages of OMR devices
− The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks are correctly positioned to
gather accurate information.
− There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly
− only work with black pen or pencil
− Limited to the questions on the paper
− they have to be manually checked before being read (can be expensive and time consuming)
Optical character recognition/reader (OCR)
− device that converts the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form
Uses of OCR
− processing of passports and identity cards
− Converting hard copy documents into electronic form which can be stored on a computer.
− Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems in car parks.
Advantages of OCR
− It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.
− Because there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.
Disadvantages of OCR
− The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting.
− Still not a very accurate technique.

Barcode readers
− read information in the form of a bar code

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 − Handheld scanners or wands
− Uses of barcode systems
− Used in supermarkets and other shops
− Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan
Advantages of barcode systems
− Much faster than keying in data manually and fewer mistakes will be made.
− If used as a way of recording safety testing of components
− They allow automatic stock control.
− They are a tried and trusted technology
Disadvantages of barcode systems
− Expensive system
− Not fool proof
− Can be easily damaged
Quick response (QR) code scanners (readers)
− made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background
− QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels
− hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089 digits)
− allows internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code
− more and more data is added, the structure of the QR code becomes more complex.
Uses of QR
− advertising products
− giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number
− Wi-Fi authentication
− can be used to deliver augmented reality
− storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations
Process of QR
− Point the phone or tablet camera at the QR code.
− The apps will now process the image taken by the camera converting the squares into
readable data.
− The browser software on the mobile phone or tablet automatically reads the data generated
by the apps; it will also decode any web addresses contained within the QR code.
− The user will then be sent to a website automatically
Advantages of QR
− hold more information than barcodes
− There will be fewer errors than with barcodes (built in error checking system)
− It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
− Easier to read
− possible to encrypt QR codes
Disadvantages of QR codes
− More than one QR format is available.
− QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes (attagging)
Monitors (screens)

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CRT monitors
− Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors are the least expensive type of monitor
− Becoming rare
Uses of CRT monitors
− the screens are usually very large to enable complex diagrams to be created
− use with light pen
− only used for computer aid design (CAD)
Advantages of CRT monitors
− The screen can be clearly seen at a wider range of viewing angles
− Allow light pen
Disadvantages of CRT monitors
− Heavy
− Heat up easily and can cause fire
− Consume more power
− Have flicker screen
LED screens
− made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs)
− only red, green and blue
− can control brightness with current
− Many monitors and television screens are advertised as LED when in fact they are LCD
screens which are backlit using LEDs
LCD screens
− made up of tiny liquid crystals
− Modern LCD screens are backlit using light emitting diode (LED) technology and must not be
confused with pure LED screens
Why LED is used:
− Reached maximum brightness immediately
− Have whiter light
− produce a brighter light which improves the colour definition
− much thinner than screens using CCFL technology.
− Consume less power
Uses of LCD screens
− Main output in many computers
− offer touch-screen input
Advantages of LCD screens
− Low power consumption
− Light weight
− Sharp image resolution
− No screen flickers
− Produce low electromagnetic fields compared to CRT monitors.
Disadvantages of LCD screens
− Motion blur

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 − Lower contrast than CRT monitors
− Weak and stuck pixels
− The LCD panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the back light
Touch screen (as an output device)
− Uses of touch screens (acting as both input and output)
− Smartphone, tablet
− ATMs at banks
− Ticket collections
− Information spread
Advantages of touch screens
− Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
− Very easy method for choosing options.
− User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
− Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.
Disadvantages of touch screens
− Limited number of options available.
− Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output
− Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions,
− Dirty screen
Multimedia projectors
− receive signals that can be either analogue or digital
− The signal source is usually from a computer, television or DVD player
Uses of multimedia projectors
− Training presentations
− Advertising
− Home cinema
Advantages of multimedia projectors
− Many people can see easily
− Avoids the need for several networked computers
Disadvantages of multimedia projectors
− Images can sometimes be fuzzy.
− Expensive to buy.
− Setting up projectors can be a little difficult
Printers
Laser printers
− produce very high-quality hard copy output
− rely on large buffer memories where the data for the whole document is stored before pages
can be printed out
− use positively-charged toner (powdered ink)
Uses of laser printers
− Office environment
− Fast high-quality printing required

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Advantages of laser printers
− Fast printing for more pages
− They can handle very large print jobs.
− The quality is consistently high.
− Toner cartridges last for a long time
Disadvantages of laser printers
− Slow printing for fewer copies
− Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run
− Produce ozone and organic compound
Inkjet printers
− used to produce good-quality hard copies.
− do not have large buffer memories therefore printing is paused sometimes
− contain an ink cartridge or cartridges
Uses of inkjet printers
− Where low output volume is required
− If high-quality printing is required for single pages
− 3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to produce prototypes
Advantages of inkjet printers
− High-quality output.
− Cheaper to buy than laser printers
− Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.
− Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds
Disadvantages of inkjet printers
− Slow output if several copies are needed
− Cannot do large print jobs (ink run out quick)
− Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
− Can be expensive if used a lot
Dot matrix printers
− impact printer where a print head pressed against the inked ribbon
− slow, noisy and the output is not that good compared to inkjet and laser printers
− Uses of dot matrix printers
− used in noisy or dirty environments
− to produce carbon copies
− Still widely used in till receipts
Advantages of dot matrix printers
− Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
− Very cheap to run and maintain.
− Easy to use if continuous stationery is required
Disadvantages of dot matrix printers
− Slow poor printing
− Noisy
− Initial set up is expensive

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(Graph) plotters
− output device
− work very differently to printers
− use a pen, pencil or marker pen to draw multiple continuous lines
− produce vector graphic drawings and are often used in conjunction with CAD and CAM
Uses of plotters
− Producing architectural drawings.
− Producing engineering drawings.
− Drawing animation characters (cartoon characters).
Advantages of plotters
− Very high-quality output.
− Able to produce large, monochrome and colour drawings to a high accuracy.
− Able to print on a variety of materials
Disadvantages of plotters
− Very slow at printing.
− Expensive equipment (and software) to purchase initially
− Have a very large physical footprint compared to a printer.
3D printers
− primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.
− based on inkjet and laser printer technology and can produce solid objects that actually work
− solid object is built up layer by layer using materials such as powdered resin,
Uses of 3D printer
− Prosthetic limbs can be made to fit exactly on the injured body part.
− Making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery
− making wings and other areoplane parts using 3D technology
− Making parts for items no longer in production
create a solid object using 3D printers
− A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software
− Drawing is imported to software which can be understood by the 3D printer
− The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made.
− The solid object is built up layer by layer
− The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared
− the object has to be left to ‘cure’ for a few hours
Advantages of 3D printers
− Easier manufacturing
− Printing is cheaper
− Medical benefits are emerging
Disadvantages of 3D printers
− Easily be copyrighted
− All new technologies in the hands of the wrong people can lead to dangerous
− job losses if this technology takes over from some types of manufacturing

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Speakers
− output devices that produce sound
− The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) where it is
changed into an electric current.
− This is then passed through an amplifier
− This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into sound.

Uses of speakers
− Used in all phones and built in to most computers.
− Outputs sound from multimedia presentations.
− Helps visually impaired people
− Plays downloaded sound files.
Advantages of speakers
− Sounds amplified through speakers can be much louder than the original
− Everyone in a large room can hear
− It can create a good atmosphere when making a presentation
− They can help visually impaired people as discussed.
− Very simple technology.
Disadvantages of speakers
− Speaker output can be disturbing to others
− High quality sound can be expensive
− Speakers can take up a lot of desk space.
Actuators
− Necessary for control devices
− a mechanical or electromechanical device such as a relay, solenoid or motor
Uses of actuators
− They are used to control motors, pumps, switches, buzzers and so on.
− They allow a computer to control physical devices that normally require analogue inputs
Advantages of actuators
− They allow remote operation of many devices
− They are relatively inexpensive devices.
Disadvantages of actuators
− They are an additional device in the system that could go wrong.
− Because they are usually analogue devices, computer signals need to converted using a DAC
to enable computer control

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3. Storage devices and media
Magnetic media
− magnetized to represent a binary 1-value and demagnetized to represent a binary 0-value.
− allows a huge amount of data to be stored
Magnetic tape drives
− thin strip of plastic which is coated in a magnetic layer (iron oxide)
− read from or written to by a read/write head in a magnetic tape storage device
− Data is read from the tape using serial access
− useless in real-time or online applications
− best suited to offline or batch processing
Uses of magnetic tape
− large industrial or university computers
− Used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need to be stored
− Used in long-term archiving of data
Advantages of magnetic tapes
− less expensive (per byte) than the equivalent hard disk drive
− very robust technology (stable)
− a huge data storage capacity
− data transfer rate is actually fast
Disadvantages of magnetic tape
− slow data access times
− a slow way of updating data, and can also introduce errors
− They are affected by magnetic fields
Hard disk drives (HDD)
− most common methods used to store data on a computer
− stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the hard disks
− Data on an HDD can be read using direct access
Effect of Latency
− the time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate around to the read/write
head
− messages such as: ‘Please wait’ or, at its worst, ‘not responding’.

Uses of fixed hard disk drives

− To store the operating system, systems software and working data/files.
− Storing applications software.
− Used in real-time systems
− Used in file servers for computer networks

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Advantages of fixed hard disk drives
− They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
− They have very large memory capacities
Disadvantages of fixed hard disk drives
− They can be fairly easily damaged
− They have many moving parts which can affect their overall reliability.
− Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state drives
Portable hard disk drives
− can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports.
− used as a backup device or another way of transferring files between computers
Uses of portable hard disk drives
− They can be used as backup systems to prevent loss of data.
− They can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.
Advantages of portable hard disk drives
− The data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.
− They have a large memory capacity.
− They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.
Disadvantages of portable hard disk drives
− can be easily damaged if the user accidentally drops it or does not correctly shut down the drive
after use.
− Data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard drives.
Optical media and optical storage devices
CD/DVD optical disks
− described as optical media and are read from or written to by optical storage devices
− can be internal or external
− CD use lasers with a wavelength of 780 nanometers
− rely on the optical properties of laser light, which is used to read data and to write data on the
surface of the disk.
designated as:
− ‘R’ (write once only),
− ‘RW’ (can be written to or read from many times)
− ‘ROM’ (read-only).
− The data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track
− A red laser is used to read and write the data and converted to binary
DVD
− DVD technology has double-layering which increases the storage capacity.
− More data can be stored in DVD than CD
− use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometer (shorter laser light, more capacity)

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Uses of CD-R and DVD-R
− Home records of music and films
− Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another computer.
Advantages of CD-R and DVD-R
− Cheaper than read-write discs
− Once written, acts like ROM
Disadvantages of CD-R and DVD-R
− Can only be recorded once
− Cannot be played on all players
Uses of CD-RW/DVD-RW
− Record television programs
− Used in CCTV systems.
− Can be used as a backup device for files and data
Advantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
− Can be written over many times
− Can use different file formats each time
− Not as wasteful as R formats
Disadvantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
− Expensive
− Accidently overwrite data
Uses of CD-rom/DVD-rom
− permanent method of data storage
− store music files and to store software, computer games and reference software
− much larger storage and is used to store films
advantages of CD-rom/DVD-rom
− less expensive than hard disk drive system
disadvantages of CD-rom/DVD-rom
− The data transfer rate/data access time is slower than for hard disks.
Blu-ray discs
− Optical storage media
− read from or written to using a Blu ray optical storage device
− blue laser to carry out read-write operation
− pits and lands can be much smaller;
− stores data 5 times more
− automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent piracy and copyright
infringement
− can be single layered or double layered

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Uses of Blu-ray discs
− Data storage
− Home videos
− Storing movies
− Camcorders
Advantages of Blu-ray discs
− large storage capacity, therefore ideal for storing high-definition movie
− fast data transfer rate
− data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.
− Comes with encryption
− automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording–
− access websites and download subtitles
− edit or re-order programs recorded on the disc
Disadvantages of Blu-ray discs
− Expensive
− Encryption problems
Solid-state technology
− Solid-state technology removes latency because all the data is retrieved at the same rate
− does not rely on magnetic properties and they have no moving parts
− Devices that use solid-state technology are often referred to as flash memories or flash drives
Uses of SSDs
− rapidly taking over from HDDs as the main type of backing storage
− enabled laptop computers to become thinner and much lighter
Advantages of SSDs
− more reliable
− lighter
− less power consumption
− much cooler than HDDs
− no moving parts
− data transfer rate and data access time is faster than HDD
disadvantages of SSDs
− SSD endurance for only 3 years
− longevity of the technology
Pen drives
− Portable devices that use SSD technology
− connect to the computer through a USB port
− any device that uses solid-state technology can be referred to as a flash drive
− pen drive (memory stick) is a flash drive with a USB connector

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Uses of memory sticks/pen drives
− Transporting files between computers or using as a backing store.
− Use as dongle
advantages of memory sticks/pen drives
− portable
− use as back up devices
− robust
− Does not need additional software to work on most computers.
− They are not affected by magnetic fields
disadvantages of memory sticks/pen drives
− is not “read only” therefore cannot protect data loss
− Easy to lose
− Incorrect removal could harm the data in the memory stick
Memory cards
− makes use of solid-state technology
− come in various memory sizes
SD cards (secure digital card)
− very small card with a very high-capacity memory
− primarily used in portable devices such as digital video recorders, digital cameras, audio players,
smartphones and tablets.
XD cards (extreme digital card)
− type of removable memory card designed for use in digital cameras
− can be written to or read from the camera (allow read directly from computer)
CFast card (compact fast card)
− developed to allow solid state technology to be used in a very small portable device.
− no moving mechanical parts and does not need a battery to retain data
− used as removable memory for higher-end digital photo and video cameras
Uses of memory cards
− Storing photos
− Mobile phone card memories
− Backing storage for computer device
Advantages of memory cards
− Compact
− Durable
− Hold large amount of data
− Digital devices can read and write memory cards
Disadvantages of memory cards
− Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to hard disk drives.
− Lower capacity than hard disk

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 − More likely to lost/damage
− Not all computers come with memory card readers built in

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4 . Networks and the effects of using them
Network interface card (NIC)
− allow a device to connect to a network
− turn binary data into electrical signal that allows access to the network
− integrated into the motherboard on most modern computers
− each NIC has a unique MAC at the manufacturing stage
− uniquely identifies that device
Media access control (MAC) address
− a number which uniquely identifies a device when it is connected to a network
− If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also change
− Also known as physical address
− useful when trying to identify network faults because they never change
Internet protocol (IP) addresses
− IP address is given when a computer connected to the internet
− Assigned to the computer by internet service provider
− necessary to supply an IP address because it shows the location of device
− rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data communicating through the
internet
− IP address changes each time you log in at different locations
Data packets
− Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets
− The data sent are splitted up into small packets and transmitted separately
Data packets contain header of
− the sender’s IP address
− the receiver’s IP address
− the sequence/identity number of the packet
− the packet size
− how many data packets make up the whole message
− All the information in the data packet headers allows the data packets to be reassembled in
their correct order
Hubs
− hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them
− hubs can form a LAN hub will take a data packet received at one of its ports and broadcast it
to every device connected to it (local area network)
− hub will take a data packet received at one of its ports and broadcast it to every device
connected to it
− use data packet
− have unnecessary traffics
− not very secure
Switches
− Intelligent version of hubs
− stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the network
− contain look up table

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 − more secure than hubs
− do not waste bandwidth
− uses data packet
Bridges
− devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol
− to form one single LAN
− bridges cannot communicate with other external networks
Routers
− used to route data packets from one network to another network, based on IP addresses
− contain routing table (store on router’s RAM)
− used to join LAN to the internet
How router works
− When data packet is received, router inspects the IP address and determines whether the
data packet is meant for its own network or for another
− for its own network, then the data packet is routed to the local switch or hub
− or else, it will be transmitted to the different router

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

− wireless communication between devices
− use electromagnetic radiation for data transmission
Bluetooth
− a band of 79 different frequencies
− with 2.45GHz
− automatically detect and connect to each other but do not interfere with other devices
− Bluetooth picked random channel to pair, if the channel is being used, Bluetooth will choose
another channel.
− the devices constantly change the channels they are using spread-spectrum frequency
hopping to reduce the risk of interference
− uses key encryption to create a secure WPAN

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Bluetooth is useful
− transferring data between two or more devices close together
− speed of data transmission is not critical
− for low-bandwidth applications
WIFI
− Have frequency of 2.4-5 GHz
− offers much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth
− the access point (Ap) can be connected up to 100m away

Cloud computing (storage)

− data storage where data is stored on remote servers in many different location
− The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair (data
redundancy)
Three cloud storage system
− Public cloud
− Private cloud (behind fire wall)
− Hybrid cloud
Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
− Can access any time, any where on any device with internet connection
− No need to carry external storage device
− provides the user with remote backup of data
− offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!).
− ideal for collaboration purposes
Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
− Problem accessing with slow internet connection
− Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download
− failure of the cloud storage company may loss all the backup data
Network types
− local area network (LAN)
− wireless local area network (WLAN)

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 − wide area network (WAN).
Local area network (LAN)
− Usually within one building
− consist of a number of computers and devices connected to hubs or switches
− One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to connect to internet
Advantages of LAN
− allow the sharing of resources such as hardware and software
− easy communication between users of the LAN
− use a network administrator that ensures security and use of the LAN is constantly
monitored
Disadvantages of LAN
− easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
− queues for shared resources
− slower access to external networks
− no use if the main server breaks down
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
− no wires or cables but similar to LAN
− use radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.

Wide area networks (WANs)

− used where computers or networks are situated a long distance from each other
geographically

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 − number of LANs are joined together using a router, then they can form a WAN
− A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems
− End system – the connection ended
− Intermediate system – connection continued
Passwords
Uses when
− when accessing your email account
− when carrying out online banking
− accessing social networking sites.
− Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of another user
illegally or accidentally.
Strong passwords should contain:
− at least one capital letter
− at least one numerical value
− at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).
Zero login and biometrics
− login to computer systems without the need to type in a password
Zero login essentially relies on
− biometrics
− behavioral patterns.
− Behavioral patterns include:
− how you walk, your typing speed, your normal location, how you swipe the screen, and so on
− Biometrics includes:
− fingerprints recognition, face recognition and voice recognition
Magnetic stripe cards
− The stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader
− Access will only be allowed if the scanned data matches data in a database
− Some ID cards also use a holographic image (hologram)(difficult to copy )
− Another form of security is to have a photographic image of the card user printed onto the
card surface
Advantages of magnetic stripe cards
− They are easy to use.
− It is not an expensive technology.
− Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
− The cards can be multi-purpose
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards
− The cards wear out with a lot of use.
− Less secure than biometric methods
− Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.
Smart cards
− A tag of (chip and antenna) can act as a smart contactless card
− Can be read from a distance
− Use of RFID technology

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Physical tokens
− a form of authentication in the form of a physical, solid object
− contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other authentication details are entered, then a
one-time password (OTP) is generated
disconnected physical token
− a separate device is used, requiring the user to key in data manually using a keypad
connected physical token
− transmits the generated one-time password directly to a computer through a USB
connection
− the user does not need to manually enter data
Electronic tokens
− software installed on a user’s device
− The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a minute
− user enters this OTP when prompted by the website, together with some other form of
authentication,
− both the server and smartphone have synchronized clocks, they will generate the same
numbers.
Anti-malware software
− loaded onto a computer and then run to allow all software and devices to be scanned for
viruses
− Running anti-virus software in the background on a computer will constantly check for virus
attacks
− needs to be kept up to date because new viruses are constantly being discovered.
− Full system checks need to be carried out once a week
Process of anti-malware software
− They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.
− Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a database of known viruses.
− They carry out heuristic checking
− Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine
− allows the virus to be automatically deleted,
− allows the user to make the decision about deletion (for false positive)
Electronic conferencing
− video conferencing
− audio conferencing
− web conferencing.
Video conferencing
− communication method that uses both video and sound
− a substitute for face-to-face conferences between a number of people
− carry out in real time with a form of network
− The basic hardware includes:
− webcams
− large monitors/television screens
− microphones
− speakers.

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 − It is important for one person to be the main contact in each conference room to make sure
each delegate is able to be heard

Advantages of using video conferencing

− hold conferences at short notice
− easier to access important documents
− Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs
− No need to travel to unsafe places in the world
− It is better for the environment
− It connects people in an organization who might be otherwise left out
Disadvantages of using video conferencing
− time lag in responses/delays when talking
− Images can jerk
− very expensive to set up in the first place
− different time zone
− Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time consuming.
− demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the ‘perks’ of their job is international travel
− rely on good internet connection
Audio conferencing
− meetings held between people using audio (sound) equipment
− can be done over the standard telephone network
Audio conferencing procedures
− The organizer of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone company
− Personal pin for organizer
− participant’s PIN for participant
− the organizer dials the conference phone number and, once they are connected, keys in their
personal PIN
− The participants then call the same conference number with participant’s PIN to join in
− Without this PIN, it would be impossible to join the phone conference.
− It is also possible to hold an audio conference using a computer, as long as a microphone and
speakers are connected

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 − use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). It is also possible to connect an internet
telephone,
For VOIP, require equipment
− a computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)
− external microphone and/or speakers
− an internet phone
− a standard phone.
− The only problem with audio conferencing is the drop of sound quality
Web conferencing
− often referred to as a webinar or webcasts
− uses the internet to permit conferencing to take place
− carried out in real time
− allows:
− business meetings to discuss new ideas
− presentations
− online education or training.
− only requirement is a computer and a high-speed, stable internet connection.
− Can join from downloaded app or website
− Delegates can leave or join the conference as they wish
− organizer can decide on who can speak at any time using the control panel on their
computer
− Delegates can post comments using instant messaging for all delegates to see at any time
Main features of web conferencing:
− Include presentation
− Screen can be shared
− Draw on a white board
− transmit images or videos using the webcam
− share files by uploading
− s possible to chat verbally or by using instant messaging throughout the conference

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5. The Effect of using IT
Many common household devices are now fitted with microprocessors to control a large number of
their functions.
Labour-saving devices
− Washing machines
− Microwaves
− Ovens
− Dishwashers
− Fridge
− Freezers
Other devices
− alarm clocks
− television sets
− central heating and air-conditioning systems
− home entertainment systems
− mobile phones and tablets.

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 -
Data security issues
− microprocessor-controlled device connected to the internet can lead to cybersecurity issues
− Monitoring and controlling transport
− Examples
− monitoring of traffic on motorways
− congestion zone monitoring
− automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
− automatic control of traffic lights
− air traffic control systems
− railway signalling systems.

-
Autonomous vehicles in transport
− Autonomous cars use sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors to carry out their
actions safely
− The sensors send signal to actuator to perform actions such as:
− change gear
− apply the brakes

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 − turn the steering wheel.

-
− main features of a control system on a pilotless aeroplane would include
− sensors to detect turbulence to ensure smooth flights
− an increase in self-testing of all circuits and systems
− sensors that would automatically detect depressurisation in the cabin, therefore allowing for
quick stabilisation of the aeroplane

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 − use of GPS for navigation and speed calculations
− use of actuators to control, for example, throttle, flaps (on the wings) and the rudder.

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 -

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6. ICT applications
attractive newsletter include
− Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page.
− Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts
− Decide on whether to use columns
− Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’!
− Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text.
− Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting
Websites
− requires a company to either develop their own website or pay another company to
advertise on their website
− easier and cheaper for individuals or small organisations to create and host their own
website

-
Multimedia presentations
− use animation, video and sound or music
− use animation, video and sound or music
− use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab the attention of the
audience
− built in hyperlink
− use of transition effects allows a presentation to display facts in a key or chronological order
− can be interactive
− more flexible
Disadvantages of multimedia presentations
− special equipment which can be expensive
− equipment could fail
− need to be internet access
− focus could be on medium instead of the message
− very easy to make a bad presentation
Media streaming
− users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the internet
− no need to actually download videos/ music

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 − continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server where the files are
stored
− data is transmitted and played in real time
− With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is interpreted by
the web browser
− Streaming require stable internet connection
− playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate at which data is received over
the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer
− Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing
− While the buffer is receiving data packets, send previous data to the streaming device for
smooth no gap streaming
− having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing the play back
e-publications
− available in an electronic format
− examples
− e-books
− digital magazines
− digital newspapers
− digital libraries
− publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it can be read
− have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to include media,
which would be impossible with the more traditional paper-based publications
− usually cheaper than their paper-based counterparts
Mobile communication
− communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large areas.
− Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it to connect to
the mobile phone cellular network
SMS (text) messaging
− allows a very quick way of communicating with another person by typing on a keyboard
− less expensive than phone calls
− predictive texting
− the other person does not need to be available
− messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-charge
phone calls
− Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline systems
− No need to look for phone booth
− calls on the move.
− Easy to keep in contact
Voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) and video calling
− most common forms of internet telephony
− method used to talk to people using the internet
− phone calls themselves are free all over the world
− main problems are usually sound quality and security (theft, virus and malwares)
− relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage

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Internet access
− Any mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband connection
or via the mobile phone network
− Software detects which type of device is connecting to a website, which then sends out the
web page optimized for that device
Computer modelling
− simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour of the
system
− model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations
Advantages of using models
− is less expensive than having to build the real thing
− safer to use the computer model
− allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance (nearly impossible to try out
some tasks in advance in real life because of the high risk involved or the remoteness)
− faster to use a computer model than do the real thing
Disadvantages of using models
− only as good as the programming or the data entered
− depends on the calculation and data
− sometimes computer modelling is also a very costly option
− People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive
− Examples where computer modelling is used include:
− personal finance
− bridge and building design
− flood water management
− traffic management
− weather forecasting
Computer modelling provides the following features
− zoom into images so that fine details can be seen.
− Can be rotated for different views
− allow any potential design flaws to be detected before any construction starts
− try out scenarios
Flood water management
− computer-based system rather than build a manual flood defense system
− sensors would give a much faster response
− computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions could potentially put
them at risk.
− Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements
− faster response to changing conditions
− Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modelling the flood area for
further improvement
Weather forecasting
− automatically gather data from the environment
− use a variety of sensors to measure:
− rainfall

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 − temperature
− wind speed
− wind direction
− barometric pressure (air pressure)
− Humidity
− data can then be input into a model which simulates weather patterns
− weather forecasters can predict the weather for the next few days or even longer
− have complex mathematical equations
− The model ‘learns’ from previous weather situations; improvements to how it predicts
weather are constantly made
Computer controlled systems
Robotics in manufacturing
− Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or linked to a
computer system
− each series of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm automatically.
− Each instruction will be carried out identically every time
− equipped with sensors so they can gather important information about their surroundings
and prevent them from doing ‘stupid things
Advantages in using robots
− work in environments harmful to human operators
− work non-stop (24/7)
− less expensive in the long term
− higher productivity
− built-in quality control
− greater consistency
− can do boring, repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do other more skilled work
− They can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors
Disadvantages in using robots
− difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks
− higher unemployment
− real risk of certain skills lost
− The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive
School management systems
advantages of biometrics compared to use of magnetic ID cards for attendance
− Fingerprints are unique, so it would be impossible for a student to sign in pretending to be
someone else
− ID cards could easily be lost
− ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields
− It is much easier to ‘clone’ ID cards
Disadvantages of biometrics compared to use of magnetic ID cards for attendance
− take a long time to collect the fingerprints for every student
− Initial set up is more expensive
− If a student cuts a finger, the fingerprint may not be identified by the system
− invasion-of-privacy issues

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Computer-aided learning
− use of computer-based systems to assist in the academic teaching of students
− does not replace the traditional teaching
− Students would use computers as part of their learning and complete online tests to monitor
their performance
advantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process
− Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace
− Allow virtual reality
− student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off
− possible to retake tests
− make learning more interactive
− use of multimedia
− make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked immediately by the
computer system
− can deliver microlearning
Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process
− cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment
− expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning environment
− Students can easily be distracted while online
− lead to the isolation of a student because they are spending their time on their own in front
of a computer screen
− CAL cannot answer unusual questions
Online booking systems
− rely on the ability to update files immediately
− online booking system can be used for :
− the travel industry
− for concerts (theatre and music events)
− for cinema tickets
− when booking sporting events
Advantages
− prevent double-booking.
− customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and whether or not their
booking has been successful
− can make bookings at any time of the day
− easier to browse the seating plans
− possible to ‘reserve’ a seat for a period of time
− Online booking allows the use of modern smartphone and tablet Apps technology
Disadvantages
− setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive
− require mobile device and stable internet connection
− more difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using online systems
− cannot book if the system broke down
− If the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly the booking you want
or can lead you to make mistakes

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 − Booking online does not allow you to build a personal relationship with a travel agent who
might offer free upgrades or special offers
The process of online booking
− The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats.
− If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this shows on
another screen on the web page.
− If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen.
− The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER AVAILABLE – this
stops anyone else from booking them.
− The customer then enters their personal details
− Payment method is then selected and payment made.
− The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name.
− The final details are again shown on the screen.
− An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which contains all their
booking details
− The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats are permanently
confirmed as no longer available.
Banking applications
− Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
− allow the customer to:
− withdraw cash
− deposit cash
− deposit cheques
− check the balance of their account
− see a mini bank statement
− pay a bill
− do a money transfer.

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 −

−
depositing cheques at an ATM:
− The user is asked to insert their debit card and type in the PIN.
− A message will then appear asking the customer which service they require.
− The customer chooses to deposit a cheque.
− A drawer will then open and the customer inserts the cheque.
− The drawer will then close and an OCR device will read the cheque details including the
amount of money.
− The amount appears on the screen and the customer confirms the amount.
− The customer’s account is updated with the amount on the cheque
− A printed receipt of the cheque is then given to the customer.
− If they do not require another service, the card is returned to the customer

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advantages of using ATMs
− possible to withdraw cash at any time of day.
− Offer banking service without going to bank
− possible to access an account from anywhere in the world.
− Quicker service
Disadvantages of using ATMs
− places where theft can take place at night.
− Shoulder surfing and card cloning scams
− Some banks charge customers for using ATMs.
− Cash withdrawal limits are often imposed on customers
− Cannot do transaction if the card is faulty
− a loss of the personal touch
Electronic funds transfer (EFT)
− a system that allows money transfer instructions to be sent directly to a bank’s computer
system
− whole system relies on electronic transfer of money between accounts
− usually for paying for salary
Advantages of EFT
− very secure payment method.
− Quick payment method
− is less expensive than, for example, using cheques.
Disadvantages of EFT
− Once an amount has been transferred the bank cannot reverse a transaction
− The customer needs to have funds available immediately
− It cannot guarantee the recipient
Credit/debit card transactions
− equipped with a chip as well as a magnetic stripe – the chip contains key information
− designed to enhance security because it is better than relying only on a signature
how credit/debit transactions work:
− The PIN is entered using a keypad.
− The card is checked to see if it is valid
− The PIN is read from the chip on the card and is compared to the one just keyed in.
− If they are the same, then the transaction can proceed
− If different, the transaction is terminated.
− The restaurant’s bank contacts the customer’s bank.
− A check is made on whether they have enough funds
− If the card is not valid or there are not enough funds available, then the transaction is
terminated.
− If everything checks out OK then the transaction is authorised.
− An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant.
− The price of the meal is then deducted from the customer’s account.
− The same amount of money is then debited to the restaurant’s bank account.
− A receipt is produced as proof of purchase.

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 −
Cheques
− relatively expensive, slow and less secure way of making payments

−
Centralised clearing of cheques
− cheques are cleared using an image-based system that speeds up the cheque clearing
process considerably
− an electronic image is made of the cheque using OCR software. All of the bank details plus
the sum of money to be paid are read. ( out clearing)
− uses this electronic data to create a digital record of the money to be paid, the sort code on
the cheque and the account number on the cheque
− The cheque image and digital record are added to a file of other cheque images paid in that
day
− now sends all the files to a central facility
− The central facility processes the files by:
− breaks the file down into individual payment messages
− does a payment validation
− sends a ‘request to pay’ message (includes a copy of the cheque images as well as the
encoded information)
− receives a stream of ‘request to pay’ images and carries out the transactions. A ‘no pay’
decision will be made if the person paying has insufficient funds, if their account is blocked, if
the cheque has not been signed or if there is suspected fraud.
− this happens usually in less than 24 hours

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Computers in medicine
− 3D printers are now being used to print out prosthetics
Customized medicines
− 3D printing techniques now allow scientists to customize medicines to suit the individual.
− This is known as patient-centric medicine
− make fixed-dose combinations and allows for the optimum release of each medicine into the
body.
Expert systems
− developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a particular field
− uses of expert system
− prospecting for oil and minerals
− medical diagnosis
− strategy games (e.g. chess)
− tax and financial planning
− route scheduling for delivery vehicles
− identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds.
advantages of expert systems
− offer a high level of expertise and accuracy
− results are consistent
− ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts
− make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
− possible for an expert system to have multiple types of expertise
− offer a very fast response time
− give unbias report
− indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct
Disadvantages of expert systems
− User need considerable training
− The set-up and maintenance costs are very high.
− give very ‘cold’ responses which may not be appropriate in certain medical situations
− only as good as the information/facts entered into the system
− sometimes make dangerous solutions

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User interface
− the expert system interacts with a user
− allows interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input methods
− only ask yes/no questions based on previous response
Explanation system
− Explain the reasoning behind the conclusion
− The expert system will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to take ( show
propability statisics)
Inference engine
− main processing element of the expert system.
− acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base for information/data that matches
the queries
− responsible for gathering information from the user by asking a series of questions and
applying responses where necessary
− he problem-solving part of the expert system, which uses the rule base
Knowledge base
− a repository of facts.
− knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a number of expert resources
− a collection of objects and their attributes
Rules base
− a set of inference rules
− Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions( close to human
reasoning)
− usually involving a series of ‘IF’ statements
setting up an expert system
− gather information from human experts and written sources
− create the knowledge base based on the information collected
− A rules base needs to be created to draw conclusion
− The inference engine itself needs to be set up

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 − The user interface needs to be developed to allow the user and the expert system to
communicate
− Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested with possible outcomes and compare
the results
Computers in the retail industry
point-of-sale (pos) terminals
− a barcode reader to scan the barcode and retrieve the price of the article
− relays information back to the computer system allowing it to update its files
− barcode usually consists of four parts: a country code, manufacturer’s code, product code
and a check digit
− check digit is a form of validation which is used to make sure no errors occurred during the
reading of the barcode
− how barcodes and POS terminals are used in the automatic stock control system
− Each barcode is associated with a stock file which contains details
− The barcode on each item is scanned at the POS (key in if barcode cannot scan)
− The barcode is searched for on the stock file until a match is found
− The price of the item is then found and sent back to the POS together with a product
description
− The stock level for the item is found in the record and is reduced by one and new record is
updated to the database
− If the stock is at the minimum, computer will automatically reorder the stock
− Once, the order has been placed, the item will be flagged (preventing from re-order)
− When the goods arrived, the barcodes file will be updated
− When all the items have been scanned, the customer is given an itemised bill showing a list
(with prices) of everything they have bought
− The computer also updates the files containing the daily takings
Electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTpos)
Chip and pin
− Process of chip and pin:
− By entering the PIN, a customer is carrying out a security check
− The PIN and encrypted data from the chip is now sent to the customer’s bank
− If all security checks are OK, and the customer has sufficient funds, then an authorisation
code is sent back to the terminal and the funds are transferred to the supermarket’s bank
Advantages of chip and PIN cards
− more secure system than magnetic stripe cards
− quicker system than magnetic stripe cards and allows for contactless payments to be made
Disadvantages of chip and PIN cards
− The risk of fraud when typing in the PIN( shoulder surfing )
− Some countries don’t accept chips and pins
Near field communication (NFC) devices
− subset of RFID technology
− NFC devices can act as a receiver (passive) or a reader (active)
− no need to pair the two devices connecting.
− Electronic device is held very close to the NFC reader

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 − If payment is initiated, pass encrypted data back and forth to each other to enable the
payment to be made.
− This is very secure because encrypted data being shared changes every time a transaction
takes place
− Mobile phone manufacturers use tokenisation to improve security
− Use of tokenisation with mobile phones
− used when setting up a mobile wallet
− The details on the card are securely sent by the smartphone manufacturer/mobile wallet
company to the bank that issued the card
− bank replaces the details on the card with a series of randomly generated numbers (called
tokens)
− This random number is then the one used for transactions. This means that retailers or other
third parties involved in mobile wallet transactions never have access to real credit card
details
Peer to peer mode (used by smart phones)
− Exchange information between two smart phones
− Both devices switch between being active (when sending data) and being passive (when
receiving data)
» Read/write mode: –
− This is a one-way transmission of data.
− The passive device links up with another device and reads data from it.
− This is used, for example, when an active tag is sending out advertising data to other
devices.
Card emulation mode:
− function as a smart or contactless card
− allow cards to make payments
− often used as way of entering public transport systems
Internet banking and internet shopping
− more and more people are staying at home to buy goods and services
advantages of online shopping and banking
− no need to travel
− have access to worldwide market (can look for product cheaper)
− benefits for elderly people and disability
− can be done at any time on any day of the week
− spend more time doing other things
− less embarrassing to ask for bank loan
− no need to queues
− The shops and banks save money by not having as many staff working for them
− Reduces rental costs for sellers
Disadvantages of online shopping and banking
− possibility of isolation and lack of socialization
− lack of exercise and health risks
− Security issues are a major concern
− Need mobile device and internet connection
− Need to wait for goods to arrive

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 − Delivery charges
− May not be the same as the pictures
− Local independent retailers may lose out to huge multinational retail companie
− Easier to make errors with online banking and online shopping
Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking
− Companies can save costs because fewer staff need to be paid
− Companies do not require many physical stores
− potential customer base is increased to global
− costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to enable online shopping and
banking
− could lead to a drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to loss of customers
− decreases in robberies
− Banks also need to employ fewer security staff
Recognition systems
optical character recognition (oCR)
automated number plate recognition (ANPR) systems
− used to read the number plates on cars in a number of applications
− used in a car park to enable entry and exit to be automatically controlled by a computer
system
Advantages of ANPR
− automatically monitor average speed of vehicles over a stretch of road
− no need for car park employees
− faster system than having to check a ticket at the exit
− used to automatically control the entry and exit to a car park or private roads
− can be used as a security system;
− can be used to analyse driver behaviour for transport planning
− can be used in inner-city congestion charging systems
Disadvantages of ANPR
− lack of manned security car park surveillance can lead to other crimes
− could be invasion of privacy issues due to the recording of drivers’ number plates
− Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be recognised by the system
− only recognises the number plate and not the car could be number plate cloning
Process of ANPR
− sensor detects a vehicle and sends a signal to instruct a camera to capture an image of the
front of the vehicle
− algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number plate from the image taken by the
camera. This algorithm also takes into account the size of the number plate and any damage
or orientation
− The brightness and contrast of the number plate is first adjusted to read clearly
− Each character is then recognised using OCR software. The characters are converted into a
string of editable text by the software
− This text string is then stored on a database
− the car park barrier is raised and the motorist is issued with a ticket. The ticket shows the
date and time of entering the car park

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 − When the motorist returns to the car park, they insert their ticket into a machine which
calculates the car park charges. The payment is registered on the database.
− If the number plate is recognized, the exit barrier is raised
Retina recognition
− Scan the unique pattern of blood vessels
− secure technology, but more expensive to implement
− special equipment is used to take an infrared photograph of the retina
− the subject must stay very still to identify
− slower to scan and verify
− only used in very specialised high-security settings
Iris recognition
− coloured part of the eye, surrounding the pupil.
− A digital camera is utilised which uses both visible and near infrared light
− The method produces a unique pattern of a person’s iris by taking overall eye features
− The system works with contact lenses and glasses, and for blind people
− Quick method
− Used in immigration control and bank security features
Satellites
Global positioning systems (GPS)
− used to determine the exact location of a number of modes of transport (satellite navigation
systems)
− Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these signals in satellites
− Satellites need very accurate timing in order to know their position relative to the Earth
advantages of GPS and satnav
− no need to use paper map
− It removes errors
− Estimate time of arrival
− possible to program in the fastest route
− give useful information such as location of petrol stations
Disadvantages of GPS and satnav
− Must always be up to date
− Unless the system is sophisticated, road closures due to accidents or roadworks, can cause
problems.
− Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
− Sometimes not accurate start point and end point
Geographic information systems (GIS)
− allows us to map, model, query and analyses large amounts of data according to their
location.
− performance of complex analytical calculations and then presentation of the results in the
form of maps, tables or graphics
− geographers, scientists and engineers are able to see the data in several different ways in
order to see patterns and relationships
uses of GIS
− protect animal life and plants in certain vulnerable areas

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 − Teachers can use GIS in their geography, science or engineering lessons
− Crime mapping
− used for route monitoring
− wildfire risks
− address public health issues
advantages of GIs
− allows geographical and thematic data of any kind to be combined
− allows the handling and exploration of huge amounts of data
− allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very different sources
Disadvantages of GIs
− learning curve on GIS software can be very long
− expensive
− require a lot of data input
− increasing the chances of errors)
− difficult to make GIS programs which are both fast and user-friendly
− requires very complex command language interfaces to work properly
Media communication systems
− method of delivering and receiving data/ information using telecommunications.
− Satellites contain antennas, transponders, propulsion
− Signals are converted to analogue, then beamed to the satellite from a satellite dish on the
Earth
− Signals are carried by microwaves and radiowaves
− The satellite usually ‘boosts’ the signal before sending it back
− used to transmit television, telephone and internet data around the world
advantages of media communication systems
− good global coverage
− cheaper, faster and safer than cables around the world
− have a very high bandwidth
− easy to expand the network
− Security in satellite transmission is very good due to the fact that data is coded and the
receiver requires decoding equipment to read the data
− easy to move stations on the ground from one place to another
Disadvantages of media communication systems
− time delay in receipt of the signals
− The signals received can be affected by bad weather
− Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
− If they are not in a fixed position relative to the Earth then they need to be monitored and
controlled on a regular basis to ensure they remain in the correct orbit

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7. The systems life cycles
Reasons for replacing a system
− The existing computer equipment is now obsolete
− Changes to laws or taxes requiring radical overhaul of software.
− More suitable hardware is now available to improve efficiency and reliability.
− There is a need to expand the company
System life cycle

−
Analyze the current system
− four methods used to research the current system
− observation
− questionnaires
− Interviews
− examination of existing documents
Observation
− involves watching personnel using the existing system to find out exactly how it works.
Advantages of observation
− obtains reliable data
− It is possible to get a better overall view of the system
− All inputs and outputs of the current system are seen
− Relatively inexpensive method
Disadvantages of observation
− uncomfortable being watched and may work in a different way (Hawthrone effect)
− If workers perform tasks that contravene standard procedures, they may not do this while
being watched
Interviews
− involves a one to-one question-and-answer session between the analyst and the user
Advantages of interviews
− gives the opportunity to motivate the interviewee into giving open and honest answers to
the analyst’s questions
− more feedback from the interviewee
− questions can be extended

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 − can watch body language and facial expressions
Disadvantages of interviews
− rather time-consuming exercise
− expensive to hire interviewers
− interviewee cannot remain anonymous
− Interviewee can give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear
− Interviewees may not be available at times to suit the analyst
Questionnaires
− distributing questionnaires to the workforce to find out the key system
Advantages of questionnaires
− can be answered fairly quickly
− inexpensive method
− individuals can remain anonymous if they want
− Allows for a quick analysis of the data
− Interviewees can fill in questionnaire in their own time
− Allows a greater number of people to take part
Disadvantages of questionnaires
− number of returned questionnaires can be low
− not possible to follow up questions
− No immediate way to clarify a vague answer to a question
− Users tend to exaggerate their responses as they are anonymous
− Not taken seriously
looking at the existing documents
− allows the analyst to see how existing files are kept
− allows the analyst to get some idea of the scale of the problem
Advantages of looking at existing documents
− allows information to be obtained which was not possible by any of the other methods
− analysts can see for themselves
Disadvantages of looking at existing documents
− very time-consuming exercise
− expensive method
User requirements
− User requirements are therefore written by the analyst for customers
− They are written in natural language with very few technical details or jargon
− The user requirements will also describe what the analyst thinks the customer does with
their system
Information requirements
− A systems analyst turns the information and user requirements into a functional
requirements specification
− Depends on who the customers, vendors, and employees are
Identify and justify hardware
− Identification and justification of which input devices and output devices are needed

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Identify and justify software
− Identify and justification of which application and system software are needed
− Storage requirement is also necessary for
− Size of storage and type of storage required
Data types

−
− Large field lengths for small characters are waste of speed,
Validation routines
− where data entered into a computer is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria
− automatic check carried out by the computer as part of its programming

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 −
Data capture forms
− They need to be designed very carefully to ensure that the format of the data matches
− Data capture forms will be either paper-based or electronic-based depending on the
application
Paper-based forms need to:
− have a heading to make the purpose of the form clear
− make it clear to the person filling in the form where they must place their answers » make
use of text boxes for easy input
− make use of character boxes
− make sure there is sufficient space to write answers
− make use of clear fonts and clear text colors
A computer-based data capture form
− use of text boxes to capture key data clearly » use of on-screen help
− use of drop-down/combo boxes where there are limited choices
− use of radio buttons
− automatic validation of data as it is entered
− control buttons
− double entry boxes
Development and testing
The need for testing
− needs to be fully tested to make sure it is robust when the system actually goes live

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 −
Test strategies
− Software is often developed in modular form
− This method broke down into smaller modules and test them separately to see if it functions
correctly
− Any problems resulting from the testing require the module to be modified and then tested
again.
− Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs to be tested as
a whole
− All of this may lead to a need to improve the input and output methods
− It is a very time-consuming process, but has to be as perfect as possible before the system
uses live data
The test plan should include
− a list of all the tests to be performed
− what data is to be used in the testing
− type of data testing
− what live data should be used
− expected outcomes and actual outcomes
normal data
− which is acceptable/valid and has an expected outcome
extreme data
− at the limits of acceptability/validity
abnormal data
− data outside the limits of acceptability/validity and should be rejected or cause an error
message
live data
− system must be tested with live data which has known outcomes
− System implementation
− Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully implement it
Direct changeover

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 − old system is stopped overnight and the new system introduced immediately
− if the new system fails because the old system is no longer available
− The benefits are immediate
− Staffs must be fully trained to use
− Costs are reduced
− There’s no double data
Parallel running
− the old and new systems are run side by side for a time before the new system takes over
altogether
− If this new system fails, the old system is still available as a backup
− possible to gradually train staff
− more expensive because more staffs are needed to run two systems
− It is also more time consuming than direct because data needs to be entered into two
systems
Pilot implementation
− new system is introduced into one branch or office of the company
− If the new system fails, only one part is affected; the remainder is unaffected
− possible to train staff in one area only, less costly than parallel because only one part of the
system is being used
Phased implementation
− only part of the new system is introduced
− If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the point of failure
− More expensive than direct because it is necessary to evaluate each phase before moving to
the next stage
− Time consuming
− It is possible to ensure the system works properly before expanding
Documentation
− a considerable amount of documentation also needs to be produced for:
− people who may need to modify or develop the system further at some later stage
− the end-user
Technical documentation
− designed to help programmers/analysts to make improvements to the system or
repair/maintain the system.
− Contains:
− Program coding
− Program language used
− Program flowcharts
− System flowcharts
− Minimum memory requirement
− Known ‘bugs’ in system
− Input formats
− Lists of variables used
− File structures
− Output formats
− validation rules

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User documentation
− designed to help users to learn how to use the software or system
− consist of:
− how to use the system
− error handling
− help lines
− FAQ
− Tutorials
− Glossary of items
Same features of technical documentation and User documentation
− purpose of the system/program/software » limitations of the system
− hardware requirements » software requirements
− sample runs
− meaning of error messages
− input formats
− output formats
evaluation
− Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation and carry out any
maintenance if necessary
− Can lead to a redesign of part of the system if there is strong evidence to suggest that
changes need be made
Evaluate a solution
− Compare the final solution with the original task requirements
− Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
− Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system
− Compare test results
− Compare performance
− Observe users performing set tasks
− Measure the time taken to complete tasks
− Interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works
− Give out questionnaires to gather responses
− Some results may lead to update of hardware and software

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8. Safety and Security
physical safety
− concerned with the dangers that could lead to serious injuries or even loss of life
Electrocution
Cause of electrocution
− Spilling liquids/drinks on electric equipment
− Exposed wires/damaged insulation
− Unsafe electrical equipment
− Unsafe electrics (for example, wall sockets) in the office
Prevention measures
− Do not allow drinks to be taken into the computer room
− Check all wires on a regular basis and renew wires if there is any sign of damaged insulation
− Ensure all equipment is checked by a qualified electrician on a regular basis
− Make use of an RCB (residual current breaker) to prevent electrocution
Fire hazard
Cause of fire hazard
− Overloaded wall sockets
− Overheating of computer equipment
− Exposed wires causing a short circuit
Prevention measures
− Increase the number of wall sockets and do not use too many extension blocks
− Do not cover the cooling vents on computer equipment
− Clean out dust accumulation in computers to prevent overheating
− Make sure all equipment is fully tested on a regular basis
− Ensure there is good room ventilation
− Use low-voltage equipment wherever possible
− Have fire extinguisher ready
Tripping hazard
− Trailing wires on the floor
− Damaged carpets and other flooring
− Use cable ducts to make the wires safe
− Cover exposed wires and hide wires under desks away from general thoroughfare
− Use wireless connectivity wherever possible
Personal injury
− Heavy equipment unstable or falling from desks
− Desks collapsing under weight
− Use desks strong enough to take the weight of the computer equipment
− Use large desks and tables so that hardware is not too close to the edge where it could fall
off

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Data protection
− data protection act (DPA) is legislation designed to protect individuals and to prevent
incorrect or inaccurate data being stored.
principles of data protection acts
− Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.
− Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
− Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
− Data must be accurate.
− Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
− Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights.
− Data must be kept secure.
− Data must not be transferred to another country unless they also have adequate protection
Personal data
− refers to any data concerning a living person who can be identified from the data itself
Examples of personal data
− Name
− Address
− Email address
− Date of birth
− Banking details
sensitive (personal) data
− ethnicity or race
− political views
− membership of a political party
− membership of a trade union
− religion/philosophical beliefs
− sexual orientation/gender
− criminal record
− medical history
− biometric data.
E-Safety
Using the internet
− Trusted websites include https and/or the green padlock symbol
− Only purchase items from websites that offer secure, encrypted connection
− While using search engine, turn on the ‘safe search’
− Only use websites recommended by teachers, parents or from trusted sources
− Always remember to log out of sites when you have finished using them
Sending and receiving emails
− Only open emails or attachments from known sources.
− Make sure your internet service provider (ISP) has an effective email filtering
− Only reply to an email if you know the person who sent it
− Think carefully before replying to an email and never include personal data
− Never send photos of yourself
− Beware of phishing and pharming scams

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 − Take care when forwarding emails
− Avoid clicking on hyperlinks within emails because it could be part of a phishing scam.
− Remember, the unsubscribe link at the bottom of an email could itself be fraudulent
Social media
− Do not publicly post or give out personal information to people you do not know
− Do not send out photos of yourself to people you do not know
− Always make sure you use the privacy settings when posting photos of yourself on social
media sites
− Always maintain privacy settings to stop ‘non-friends’ from contacting you
− Avoid using, or forwarding messages containing, inappropriate language.
− Block or report anybody who acts suspiciously or uses inappropriate language
− Always use a nickname for gamming accounts
− Never arrange to meet anyone on your own, always tell an adult first and meet the person in
a public place
− Always respect people’s confidentiality
Online gaming
Risks of online gaming:
− Predators
− Cyberbullying
− use of webcams
− voice-masking technology
Hacking
− act of gaining unauthorised/ illegal access to a computer system
− can lead to identity theft or the misuse of personal information
− Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted on a user’s computer
− To protect yourself from getting hacked
− Use of firewalls
− Use of strong (frequently changed) passwords and user IDs
− Use of anti-hacking software
PHISHING
− creator sends out legitimate-looking emails to target users. As soon as the recipient clicks on
a link in the email or attachment, they are sent to a fake website or they are fooled into
giving personal data in replying to the email.
− The creator of the email can gain personal data, such as bank account data or credit card
numbers, from the user
− This can lead to fraud or identity theft
− Users should always be cautious when opening emails or attachments
− Use ISP to filter out spam mails
− Don’t click on executable attachments that end in .exe, .bat, .com or .php
Smishing
− short for ‘SMS phishing’
− uses the SMS system of mobile phones to send out fake text messages
− scams often contain a URL or telephone number embedded in the text message
− he texts message will appear to come from a legitimate source and will make a claim of
winning prices

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Vishing
− voicemail phishing
− another variation of phishing
− uses a voicemail message to trick the user into calling the telephone number contained in
the message
Pharming
− malicious code installed on a user’s computer or on a web server
− the code will redirect the user to a fake website without their knowledge
− doesn’t require user’s actions
− The creator of the malicious code can gain personal data such as credit/debit card details
from users when they visit the fake website;
− usually, the website appears to be that of a well-known and trusted company
− Pharming can lead to fraud or identity theft
− Some anti-spyware software can identify and remove pharming code from a user’s computer
− The user should always be alert and look out for clues that they are being redirected to
another website
Viruses and malware
− Malware is one of the biggest risks to the integrity and security of data on a computer
system

−
Viruses
− programs or program code that copies itself with the intention of deleting or corrupting files
and causing the computer to malfunction
− Viruses need an active host program on the target computer or an operating system that has
already been infected
It can cause:
− the computer to ‘crash’, stop functioning normally

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 − stop responding
− delete files or data on a computer
− The software can corrupt operating system files
− Viruses are often sent as email attachments, and reside on infected websites or on infected
software downloaded to the user’s computer.
To prevent:
− Install anti-virus software and update it regularly
− Don’t use software from unknown sources
− Be careful when opening emails or attachments from unknown senders
Worms
− type of stand-alone virus that can self-replicate
− spread to other computers and corrupt whole networks
− do not need an active host program to be opened in order to do any damage
− move through networks from installed applications
− worms replicate without targeting and infecting specific files on a computer
− Worms tend to be problematic because of their ability to spread throughout a network
without any action from an end-user
Trojan horse
− malicious program which is often disguised as some legitimate software
− A Trojan horse replaces all or part of the legitimate software with the intent of carrying out
some harm to the user’s computer system
− usually arrive as an email attachment or are downloaded from an infected website
− they could be transmitted via a fake anti-virus program that pops up on the user’s screen
claiming their computer is infected and action needs to be taken
− Trojan horse will give cyber criminals access to personal information on your computers
− Spyware (including key logging software) and ransomware are often installed on a user’s
computer via Trojan horse malware.
Key logging software
− form of spyware
− gathers information by monitoring a user’s keyboard activities carried out on their computer
− software stores keystrokes in a small file which is automatically emailed to the cybercriminal
responsible for the software
− Key loggers can be detected and removed by anti-spyware software
Adware
− a type of malware
− least dangerous
− it will attempt to flood an end-user with unwanted advertising
− hijack a browser and create its own default search requests
− Ad wares are hard to remove
Ransomware
− encrypt data on a user’s computer and ‘hold the data hostage
− The malware restricts access to the computer and encrypts all the data until a ransom is
paid.
− It may be installed on a user’s computer by way of a Trojan horse or through social
engineering

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 − The best way to avoid a catastrophe is to ensure regular backups of key files are kept and
therfore avoid having to pay a ransom

Shoulder surfing
− a form of data theft where criminals steal personal information from a victim when they are
using a cash dispensing machine
− watch you key in data
− when you are giving credit or debit card details over the phone
Card cloning
− copying of a credit or debit card which uses a magnetic stripe.
− Cloning of magnetic card employs an electronic device known as a skimmer.
− data is then copied to the magnetic stripe of a fake card. Even the security hologram can be
copied
− cloning of smart card is known as a shimmer
− the best way to check on this type of fraud is to do regular checks of your spending and
query any unusual activity
Protection of data
− Authentication is used to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted source
− Along with encryption it strengthens internet security
Biometric authentication
− relies on certain unique characteristics of human beings
Fingerprint scans
− Images of fingerprints are compared against previously scanned fingerprints stored in a
database
Face recognition
− Face recognition is used to identify somebody by their facial features
− Face recognition systems can be ‘fooled’ by wearing spectacles or by people changing their
hair style and color

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 −
digital certificates
− a pair of files stored on a user’s computer
− Each pair of files is divided into:
− a public key (which can be accessed by anyone)
− a private key (known to the computer user only).
− when sending an email, the message is made more secure by attaching a digital certificate
− the recipient can verify that it comes from a known or trusted source by viewing the public
key information
The digital certificate is made up of six parts:
− the sender’s email address
− the name of the digital certificate owner
− a serial number
− expiry date
− public key
− digital signature of certificate authority (CAs)
Secure sockets layer (SSL)
− a type of protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet
− When a user logs onto a website, SSL encrypts the data
− only the user’s computer and the web server are able to make sense of what is being
transmitted
− A user will know if SSL is being applied when they see https or the small padlock
− SSL certificates are small data files that digitally bind an encryption key to an organization’s
details
Examples of where SSL would be used:
− online banking and all online financial transactions
− when sending software out to a restricted list of users

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 − sending and receiving emails » using cloud storage facilities
− intranets and extranets
− within instant messaging
− when making use of a social networking site
Encryption
− used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked or accessed illegally
− encryption will not prevent hacking, it makes the data meaningless unless the recipient has
the necessary decryption tools
− uses a secret key that has the capability of altering the characters in a message. If this key is
applied to a message, its content is changed, which makes it unreadable unless the recipient
also has the same secret key (encryption key)
− When this secret key is applied to the encrypted message, it decodes it, allowing it to be
read.( decryption key)
− When a message undergoes encryption it is known as cypher script; the original message is
known as plain text
− encryption has many applications:
− Due to the risks of pharming, hacking or spyware
− Encryption of emails is also important

−
− Any data stored on the cloud should also be encrypted
Firewalls
− can be software or hardware
− gateway if hardware
− software firewall is a part of the operation system
− sits between the user’s computer and an external network
− filtering incoming and outgoing network traffic
− criteria can be set so that the firewall prevents access to certain undesirable sites
− it is possible for firewalls to help prevent viruses or hackers entering the user’s computer
− the user is warned if some software on their system is trying to access an external data
source
Two-factor authentication
− Authentication refers to the ability of a user to prove who they are

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 − Can be done with
− Passwords and pins
− Logged in devices
− Biometrics
− Two-factor authentication is a form of verification which requires two methods of
authentication to verify who a user is.
− user Ids and passwords
− used to restrict access to data or systems
− Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being relayed back to
anyone who put the spyware on your computer.
− Change passwords regularly
− Many systems ask for the password to be typed in twice when being created, as a verification
check
− To help protect the system, users are only allowed to type in their password a finite number
of times

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9. Audiences
Giving a presentation to an audience
− consider all of the following factors
− The age of the target group
− The experiences of the audience
− The expectation of the audience
Knowledge of the audience
− find out about the characteristics of your audience
− interviewing a cross section of the target group
− giving out questionnaires or online surveys to people in the target group
− analyzing this data and drawing conclusions about the audience
Key factors when writing the presentations include
− the language used
− the need for multimedia
− the length of the presentation
− the need for audience participation
− the examples used to illustrate certain points
language used
− No vulgarity or use of inappropriate language since this can easily offend people
− The use of technical terms should be reserved for an experienced or technical audience
Multimedia used
− Use of sound, video and animation but not overusing
− A young audience is more likely to respond to loud music and embedded video clips
− Complicated descriptions are often better explained using graphs and/or animations
Length of presentation
− Long presentations will only work if they are interesting and engage the audience
− A very young audience would quickly get bored and start to become restless
Interactive presentation
− Asking questions or getting the audience
− always be aware that not everyone wants to take part
Examples used
− When using examples to illustrate ideas, remember to be understanding
Audience characteristics
− age range
− income levels
− interests
− disabilities or impairments
Age range
− young children need to have animations, bright colours, large font size and sound
− Older users will be more interested in actual content
− a simple attractive colour scheme which is easy to navigate is very important

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Income
− Essential for marketing
− carefully consider the target audience income levels
Interests
− know the interests of our target audience
− need to include articles and offers which reflect their music preferences
Disabilities
− If the website is to be used by people who are visually impaired, then we need to use large
font size
needs of the audience
− It is necessary to hold the attention of the users
− attractive screen designs will attract users to the website
− Keeping interfaces clear and easy to use keeps people engaged
Young children
− Bright colours
− Animation and sounds
− More picture than text
− Large font and simple short words
− Include games where possible
− Must be an easy-to-use interface
Adults and older children
− Attractive display
− The content must be interesting
− Require a good mixture of text and images
− Careful to use appropriate language level
− Use bullet points to make the content easier to read
Older people
− Contrasting colours
− Larger font size
− Easy-to-use interface
− Make the display consistent from page to page
− Do not use too much technical language
Software copyright and piracy
− Software is protected by copyright laws in much the same way as music CDs, movies,
It is illegal to
− make a software copy and then sell it
− use software on a network or on multiple computers
− use coding from the copyright software in your own software
− rent out a software package without permission to do
− use the name of copyrighted software on other software without agreement
− Software piracy is the illegal copying of software

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Softwares are protected by:
− making the installer agree to licence agreement before the software continues to install.
− When software is being installed, the user may be asked to key in a unique reference number
or product key, which was supplied with the original copy of the software
− If supplied as a hard copy, the original software packaging often comes with a sticker
hologram
− Some software will only run if the CD, DVD or memory stick is actually in the drive
− Some software will only run if a dongle is plugged into one of the USB ports

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10. Communication
Legislation
Email laws
− A company or individual must have a clear way for recipients to ‘opt out’
− Companies must provide subscribers with a very clear way to unsubscribe from their listings
− It is important that emails are not sent out with false or misleading subject lines.
− Many countries don’t allow companies or organisations to harvest email addresses
Acceptable language
unacceptable content to be used
− obscene images
− language that is regarded as abusive
− racist
− use of illegal materials or messages.
Guidelines set by an employer
− any company that employs people publishes guidelines regarding use of emails and other
electronic communications
− guidelines
− Companies may specify which company devices are allowed to be used for sending
and receiving emails
− All employees should only assume they can use a company’s email system for
business use
− It must be made clear what email content is not permitted
− Staff need to be aware of the method and duration of storing emails
− Incoming emails should only be read by the recipient
Copyright and security of emails
− emails are subject to copyright laws
− Printing, copying or forwarding emails is generally not considered a breach of copyright
unless the sender has indicated clearly that the message is confidential or the subject of
copyright law
Security and password protection
− using strong passwords when logging on to your email account using strong passwords when
logging on to your email account
− changing passwords on a regular basis
− using spam filters to remove certain suspicious emails
− running anti-virus and anti-spam software at all times on your computer
− Passive attacks include the release of email material to other users without your consent
− active attacks involve the modification of your messages or even denial of service
netiquette
− short form of internet etiquette
− the need to respect other users’ views and display common courtesy when posting views in
online discussion groups or when sending out emails

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Rules of netiquette
− Do not be abusive
− Do not send spam
− Be clear and succinct with your message
− Always check your spelling and grammar
− Respect people's privacy and do not discuss or publish information that might embarrass
somebody
− Do not use CAPITAL LETTERS to highlight comments
− Do not plagiarise
− Do not use too many emoticons
Email groups
− easier for a user to send out multiple emails if the addresses are all grouped together under
a single name
− Companies and organisations can group people together for marketing purposes
− Companies use email groups to set up meetings
other email operations
− carbon copies (cc)
− blind carbon copy (bcc)
− forward
− attachments
Carbon copies (Cc)
− All recipients in a Cc list, can be seen by all other recipients
− The use of Cc is really just netiquette
Blind carbon copies (Bcc)
− Bcc address details are invisible to everyone receiving the email, apart from the Bcc recipient
− Bcc is often used as a security measure when using email groups (provide some additional
protection)
Forwarding of emails
− should be treated with great care
− Some ISPs have spam filters in place based on email volumes from just one address.
− Some internet service providers (ISPs) do not recognize the true source of emails
− could end up being blacklisted by your ISP
Attachments
− treat attachments with great caution
− could easily contain malicious attachments
− sending attachments that the ISP will have a limit on the size of file that can be sent
− to send larger files in emails
− file compression (zip files
− attach the cloud link
spam
− unsolicited email sent over the internet
− spam can contain viruses or be part of a phishing scam
− a cheap way of advertising to many people at the same time

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disadvantages of spam
− It uses up people’s time.
− It generally annoys people.
− It uses up valuable bandwidth on the internet
− It can have viruses attached or even be part of a phishing scam.
− It can clog up users’ inboxes.
Internet
− a worldwide collection of interconnected networks
− use of transmission protocols (TCP) and internet protocols (IP)
− users can send and receive emails
− allows online chatting
World Wide Web (WWW)
− only a part of the internet which users can access using web browser software
− a way of accessing information using the internet
− consists of a massive collection of web pages
− based on the hypertext transfer protocol (http)
− uniform resource locators (URLs) are used to specify the location of web pages
− web resources are accessed by web browsers
intranets
− internal restricted access network
− Many companies use an intranet as well as the internet
− sharing information within a single organisation or company
− not available to the general public
− Intranets reside behind a firewall
− Only available to internally to members of the company or external users with user id and
password
Reasons why intranet is used
− requires a password and user ID
− safer because there is less chance of external hacking or viruses
− easier to prevent external links
− Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their internal audience’s
needs. » It is easier to send out sensitive messages
− offer better bandwidth than the internet
extranets
− allow intranets to be extended outside the organization
− external users have control access to some information
Blogs
− Web logs
− personal internet journals
− updated on a regular basis by the author
− usually organised in reverse chronological order
− usually public (audience can only read)
− entries normally come from a single author

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Microblogs
− similar to blogs
− are most often used on social networking sites to make short, frequent posts
b-blog
− short for business blog
− which is used by businesses to promote themselves on the internet
Wikis
− web applications or websites that allow any user to create and edit their web pages using
any web browser
− wiki will support hyperlinks and uses a very simple syntax to create pages
− anyone can edit, delete or modify the content
− many authors can be involved in a wiki
− shows/keeps track of all entries
− can be easily edited using a web browser
− allows large documents to be seen by many people
Social networking sites
− building online communities of users who share the same interests and activities
− Each member is provided with free web space. » Each member can build their own private
and public profiles.
− possible to upload content such as text messages
− can write on each other’s wall
− Members are given free instant messaging and video chatting.
− Members have control over who can access their private or personal data
Forums
− moderated forum refers to an online discussion forum in which all the posts are checked by
an administrator before they are allowed to be posted
− moderator can not only prevent spam, but can also filter out any posts that are
inappropriate, rude or offensive,
− The internet is essentially a huge unmoderated forum. No one ‘owns’ the internet
internet service providers (iSP)
− company that provides users with access to the internet
− user have to pay monthly fee for the service
− When a user registers with an ISP, an account is set up and they are given login details that
include a user ID and password.
web browses
− usually refers as browsers
− software that allows a user to display a web page on their computer screen
− translate the HTML from websites and show the result of the translation
Most web browsers share the following features:
− They have a home page.
− They have the ability to store a user’s favourite websites/pages
− They keep a history of the websites visited by the use
− They allow users to navigate backwards and forwards through websites
− They have hyperlinks that allow users to navigate between web page

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URLs
− Web browsers use uniform resource locators (URLs) to access websites
− A URL is typed into a browser address bar
− Format: protocol://website address/path/filename
− protocol is usually either http or https
− website address:
− domain host (www)
− domain name (name of website)
− domain type (.com, .org, .co, .net, .gov)
− sometimes a country code (.uk, .us, .de, .in, .mu, .cn)
− path, which is a web page
− filename is the item on the web page.
− An error will occur if any part of the URL is incorrect
two ways of locating information from the internet
− type in the URL
− use a search engine
Use of search engines
− Search engines are useful if you do not know the URL of the website or if you want to find
some information but do not know where to look
− they look up the words entered in the search box in their database of web pages to find out
which of them match the search string or criteria
− more detailed search, more accurate result
Once the information is found it can then be saved or used as follows
− saved as a favourite and accessed when required
− added as a hyperlink in a document
− information from the web page can be copied and pasted the into another document
Advantages of using the internet to find information
− Information us up to date
− The internet has vast, almost limitless, amounts of information. » Searching for information
using a search engine is fast and easy.
− People can look for information in the comfort of their own home
− Free of charge
− Pages on the internet can have multimedia elements
Disadvantages of using the internet to find information
− The internet is not regulated
− Can obtain false information
− risk of accessing inappropriate websites
− too easy to be distracted when searching on the internet
− risk of information overload
− very easy to copy material from the internet
− Some research skills are lost
How to evaluate information found on the internet
− verify the legitimacy of who wrote the material posted on the website
− information come from a reliable source that can be verified

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 − grammatically correct and free of spelling mistakes
− compare with another source
− last updated history
− website look legitimate
Internet protocols
− Protocols are sets of rules agreed by the ‘sender’ and ‘recipient’ when data is being
transferred between devices.
Hypertext transfer protocol (HttP)
− set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring website data across the internet
− when SSL is applied it will change to https
File transfer protocol (FtP)
− network protocol used when transferring files from one computer to another computer over
the internet
Secure sockets layer (SSL)
− protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet.
− SSL is designed to work with communication protocols like HTTP and FTP.
− SSL certificate is a form of digital certificate which is used to authenticate a website
Internet risks
favour of internet control
− prevent illegal material being posted on websites
− Some form of control would prevent children and other vulnerable groups being subjected to
undesirable websites
− Some form of control would stop incorrect information being published on websites.
against internet controls
− Material published on websites is already available from other sources
− Expensive to police
− difficult to enforce rules and regulations ( different countries have different laws)
− policing the internet would go against freedom of speech

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