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FLAT notes

Formal Languages And Automata Theory (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,

Hyderabad)

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UNIT - I
Introduction to Finite Automata: Structural Representations, Automata and Complexity, the Central Concepts of
Automata Theory – Alphabets, Strings, Languages, Problems.
Nondeterministic Finite Automata: Formal Definition, an application, Text Search, Finite Automata with Epsilon-
Transitions. Deterministic Finite Automata: Definition of DFA, How A DFA Process Strings, The language of DFA,
Conversion of NFA with €-transitions to NFA without €-transitions. Conversion of NFA to DFA, Moore and Melay
machines

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UNIT -1

Introduction of Finite Automata

Finite Automata(FA) is the simplest machine to recognize patterns. The finite automata or finite state machine is an abstract
machine that has five elements or tuples.

Ø An automaton with a finite number of states is called finite automaton or finite state machine.

Ø The block diagram of finite automaton consist of falling three major components ·

Input tape ·

Read/write head ·

Finite control

I] Input Tape:

 The input tape is divided into squares, each square contains a

single symbol from input alphabet ∑
 The end squares of each tape contain end markers ₵ at left end and
$ at right end.
 Absence of end markers indicates that tape is of infinite length.
 The left-to-right sequence of symbols between end markers is the

input string to be processed.

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II] Read/Write Head:

 The R/W head examines only one square at a time and can move
one square either to the left or the right.
 For further analysis, we restrict the movement of R/W head only
to the right side.

III] Finite State Control:

 The finite state control is responsible for controlling total

functioning of finite automata machine.
 It will decide the which input symbol is read next and where to
move either to the left or right.
 The input to the finite control will be usually
· Input symbol from input tape
· Present state of machine
 The output may be
· Movement of R/W head along the tape to the next square
or to null move
· The next state/new state of FSM

A Finite Automata consists of the following :

Q : Finite set of states.

Σ : set of Input Symbols.

q : Initial state.

F : set of Final States.

δ : Transition Function.

The Central
Concepts of Automata Theory – Alphabets, Strings, Languages, Problems.

Alphabet: A finite set of symbols. An alphabet is often denoted by sigma(∑), yet can be given any name.

A={a, b, c, d,...z} Says A is an alphabet that represent English letters.

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B = {0, 1} Says B is an alphabet of two symbols, 0 and 1.

C = {a, b, c} Says C is an alphabet of three symbols, a, b and c.

D={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} Says D is an alphabet represent digits

Powers of an alphabet: If Σ is an alphabet, then Σ 0 = ε, no matter what the alphabet Σ is. In other words ε is the
only string of length 0.

If Σ = {a, b, c} then Σ1 = {a, b, c}, Σ2 = {aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb, cc}, Σ3 = {aaa, aab, aac, aba, abb, abc, aca,
acb, acc, baa, bab, bac, bba,bbb, bbc, bca, bcb, bcc, caa, cab, cac, cba, cbb, cbc, cca, ccb, ccc}

The set of all strings over an alphabet Σ is conventionally denoted by Σ*. For instance {0, 1}* = {ε, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10,
11, 000,… }. Another way is Σ* = Σ0 ᴜ Σ 1 ᴜ Σ 2 ᴜ …

The set of nonempty strings of an alphabet Σ is denoted as Σ+. And the two appropriate equivalences are :Σ+ = Σ1
ᴜΣ 2 ᴜΣ 3 ᴜ … Σ* = Σ+ ᴜ {ε}

String over an alphabet is a finite sequence of symbols from the alphabet, usually written

next to one another and not separated by commas.

If Σ1 = {0, 1} then 01001 is a string over the alphabet Σ1.

If Σ2 = {a, b, c,…, z} then abracadabra is a string over Σ2.

If w is a string over Σ then the length of w is written as |w| which is the number of

symbols that it contains.

The string of length zero is called the empty string. It is written as ε(Epsilon).

The empty string plays the role of 0 in a number system. If w has length n then we

can write w =w1, w2, …, ws where each wi Є Σ.

The reverse of w written as w

is the string obtained by writing b in the opposite

order (i.e. wn, wn-1, … , w1).

Operations on strings:

Concatenation of strings

The concatenation of two strings is the string formed by writing the first, followed
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by the second, with no intervening space. Concatenation of strings is denoted by ◦.

That is, if w and x are strings, then wx is the concatenation of these two strings.

Example:

The concatenation of dog and house is doghouse.

Let x=0100101 and y= 1111 then x ◦ y=01001011111

String Reversal

Reversing a string means writing the string backwards.

It is denoted by wR

Example:

Reverse of the string abcd is dcba.

If w= wR , then that string is called palindrome.

Substring

A substring is a part of a string.

Example:

If abcd is string then possible substrings are ε,a,b,c,d,ab,bc,cd,abc,bcd are proper

substrings for the given string

A prefix of a string is any number of leading symbols of that string.

A suffix of a string is any number of trailing symbols.

Example:

String abc has prefixes ε, a, ab, and abc; its suffixes are ε, c, bc, and abc.

A prefix or suffix of a string, other than the string itself, is called a proper prefix or

suffix.

A language is a set of strings.

o A set of strings all of which are chosen from Σ*, where Σ is a particular alphabet, is called

language.

o Examples:

 The language of all strings consisting of n 0’s followed by n 1’s for some n≥0; {
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ε, 01, 0011, 000111, . . . }.

 The set of strings of 0’s and 1’s with an equal number of each : {ε, 01, 10, 0011,

0101, 1001, . . .}

 The set of binary values whose value is prime: {10, 11, 101, 111, 1011,. . .}
 Σ* is a language for any alphabet Σ.
 ɸ the empty language is a language over any alphabet.
 {ε} the language consisting of only the empty string, is also a language over

any alphabet.

Operations on languages:

Union

If L1 and L2 are two languages over an alphabet ∑.Then the union of L1 and L2

is denoted by L1 U L2.

Example:

L1={0,01,011} and L2={001},then L1 U L2={0,01,011,001}

Intersection

If L1 and L2 are two languages over an alphabet ∑.Then the intersection of L1

and L2 is denoted by L1 ∩ L2.

Example:

L1= {0, 01,011} and L2= {01}, then L1 ∩ L2= {01}

Complementation

L is a language over an alphabet ∑, then the complement of L denoted by L¯ ,is

the language consisting of those strings that are not in L over the alphabet.

Example:

If ∑={a,b} and L={a,b,aa} then L¯= ∑* - L={ ε,a,b,aa,bb,ab.........}-

{a,b,aa}={ε,bb,ab,ba.........}

Concatenation

Concatenation of two languages L1 and L2 is the language L1 o L2 ,each element

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of which is a string formed by combining one string of L1 with another string of

L2.

Example:

L1={bc,bcc,cc} and L2={cc,ccc},then L1oL2={bccc,bcccc,bcccccc,cccc,ccccc}

Reversal

If L is language, then LR

is obtained by reversing the corresponding string in L. This

operation is similar to the reversal of a string.

LR ={wR | w ∈ L}

Example:

If L= {0, 011, 0111}, then LR = {0, 110, 1110}

Kleene Closure

The Kleene closure (or just closure) of L, denoted L*, is the set and the positive closure

of L, denoted L+

, is the set

L * = U Li

i=0
∞

L + = U Li

i=1
That is, L* denotes words constructed by concatenating any number of words from L.

L+ is the same, but the case of zero words, whose "concatenation" is defined to be ε, is

excluded. Note that L+ contains ε if and only if L does.

ACCEPTANCE OF STRINGS AND LANGUAGES:

ACCEPTABILITY OF STRING BY FINITE AUTOMATON

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 Def: A string x is accepted by a finite automaton M = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) if δ(q0, x) =q for some q Є F. This is
basically the acceptability of a string by the final state.
 Note: A final state is also called an accepting state.
 If A is the set of all strings that machine M accepts then we say that A is the language of machine M and
written as L(M) = A. we say that M recognizes A or M accepts A.


Representation of FA:

Finite automaton can be represented by using two ways

1. Transition Table

2. Transition Diagram

Transition Tables:

A transition table is a conventional tabular representation of a function like δ that takes two

arguments and returns a value.

The rows of the table correspond to the states and columns correspond to the inputs. The entry for the row
corresponding to state q and the column corresponding the input a is the state δ(q, a).

0 1
q0 q2 q0
*q1 q1 q1

q2 q2 q1

Transition Diagram:

A transition diagram for DFA A = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) is a graph defined as follows:

a) For each state in Q there is a node

b) For each state q in Q and each input symbol a in Σ, let δ(q, a) = p. then the transition diagram

has an arc from node q to node p labeled a. If there are several input symbols that cause

transitions from q to p then the transition diagram can have one arc labeled by the list of these

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symbols

c) There is an arrow into the start state q0, labeled start. This arrow does not originate at any

node.

d) Nodes corresponding to accepting state (those in F) are marked by a double circle. States not in

F have a single circle.

Example:

The following figure shows the transition diagram for the DFA that we designed in three states. There is a start arrow
entering the start state q0, and the one accepting state q1, is represented by double circle.

 Out of each state is one arc labeled 0 and one arc labeled 1, although the two arcs are combined into the one
with a double label in the case q1.


Types of Finite Automata

1. DFA(Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)�

In DFA, for each input symbol, one can determine the state to which the machine will move.

Hence, it is called Deterministic Automaton. As it has a finite number of states, the machine is called Deterministic Finite
Machine or Deterministic Finite Automaton.

2. NFA

NFA (Non-Deterministic finite automata)

o NFA stands for non-deterministic finite automata. It is easy to construct an NFA than DFA for a given regular
language.
o The finite automata are called NFA when there exist many paths for specific input from the current state to the next
state.
o Every NFA is not DFA, but each NFA can be translated into DFA.

o NFA is defined in the same way as DFA but with the following two exceptions, it contains multiple next states, and
it contains ε transition.
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Example:

In the following image, we can see that from state q0 for input a, there are two next states q1 and q2, similarly, from q0 for
input b, the next states are q0 and q1. Thus it is not fixed or determined that with a particular input where to go next. Hence
this FA is called non-deterministic finite automata.

Formal definition of NFA:

NFA also has five states same as DFA, but with different transition function, as shown follows:

δ: Q x ∑ →2Q

where,

1. Q: finite set of states

2. ∑: finite set of the input symbol
3. q0: initial state
4. F: final state
5. δ: Transition function

Graphical Representation of an NFA

An NFA can be represented by digraphs called state diagram. In which:

1. The state is represented by vertices.

2. The arc labeled with an input character show the transitions.
3. The initial state is marked with an arrow.
4. The final state is denoted by the double circle.

Example 1:
1. Q = {q0, q1, q2}
2. ∑ = {0, 1}
3. q0 = {q0}
4. F = {q2}
Solution:
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Transition diagram:

Transition Table:

Present State Next state for Input 0 Next State of Input 1

In the
→q0 q0, q1 q1

q1 q2 q0

*q2 q2 q1, q2

above diagram, we can see that when the current state is q0, on input 0, the next state will be q0 or q1, and on 1 input the
next state will be q1. When the current state is q1, on input 0 the next state will be q2 and on 1 input, the next state will be
q0. When the current state is q2, on 0 input the next state is q2, and on 1 input the next state will be q1 or q2.

Example 2:
NFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all strings with 01.

Solution:

Transition Table:

State Next state for Input 0 Next State of Input 1

q1 ε

ε q2

q2 q2

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Example 3:
NFA with ∑ = {0, 1} and accept all string of length atleast 2.

Solution:

Transition Table:

State Next state for Input 0 Next State of Input 1

q1 q1

q2 q2

ε ε

Example 4 : Design a NFA for the transition table as given below:

Present State 0 1

→q0 q0, q1 q0, q2

q1 q3 ε

q2 q2, q3 q3

→q3 q3 q3

Solution:

The transition diagram can be drawn by using the mapping function as given in the table.

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δ(q0, 0) = {q0, q1}

δ(q, 1) = {q0, q2}

Then, δ(q1, 0) = {q3}

Then, δ(q2, 0) = {q2, q3}

δ(q2, 1) = {q3}

Then, δ(q3, 0) = {q3}

δ(q3, 1) = {q3}

Finite Automata with Epsilon-Transitions.

We extend the class of NFAs by allowing instantaneous ε transitions –

 ε -NFAs add a convenient feature but (in a sense) they bring us nothing new. They do not extend the
class of languages that can be represented.
 Both NFAs and E-NFAs recognize exactly the same languages.
Epsilon (ε) - closure
Epsilon closure for a given state X is a set of states which can be reached from the states X with only (null) or E moves
including the state X itself.

Example

Consider the following figure of NFA with ε move −

The transition state table for the above NFA is as follows −

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State 0 1 epsilon

A B,C A B

B - B C

C C C -

For the above example, ε closure are as follows −

 E closure( A) : {A, B,C}

 E closure( B) :{B,C}
 E closure( C) : {C}

Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA):

In DFA, for each input symbol, one can determine the state to which the machine will move.

Hence, it is called Deterministic Automaton. As it has a finite number of states, the machine is

called Deterministic Finite Machine or Deterministic Finite Automaton.

Formal Definition of a DFA

A DFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −

Q is a finite set of states.

∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.

δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → Q

q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).

F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

Examples:

1. Design DFA over an alphabet {a,b} which accepts ab as substring

Step 1: Understand the language for which the DFA has to be designed and write the
language for the set of strings starting with minimum string that is accepted by FA.
L={ab,aab,aaababa,baab,............}
Step 2: Draw transition diagram for the minimum length string.

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Step 3 : Obtain the possible transitions to be made for each state on each input symbol.

Step 4: Tuple Representation:-

Q=finite set of states={q0,q1,q2 }
∑=finite set of input alphabet={a,b}
q0=initial state=q0
F=set of final states={q2}
Step 5: String Verification(*If required)
δ(q0,aabba)= δ(q1,abba)
= δ(q1,bba)
= δ(q2,ba)
= δ(q2,a)
= q2 --> Final state (accepted)

2. Construct a transition system which can accept strings over the alphabet {0,1} ending with 101(DFA)

3. Construct DFA which can accept strings over the alphabet {a,b} ending with b

4. Construct DFA which can accept strings over the alphabet {a,b} number of a’s divisible by 3

5. . Construct DFA which can accept strings over the alphabet {a,b} starting with a.

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6. Construct a transition system which can accept strings over the alphabet {a,b} starting with a ending with b

7. Design DFA that accepts all strings which starts with ‘a’ over the alphabet {a,b}

8. Design DFA that accepts all strings which contains ‘00’ as substring over the alphabet {0,1}

Tuple Representation:
M(Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where
Q= finite set of states={ q0,q1,q2}
∑=finite set of inputs={0,1}
δ=transition function maps
q0 =initial state=q0
F=set of final states={q2}
Language recognizers:
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A language recognizer is a device that accepts valid strings produced in a given language.
Finite state automata are formalized types of language recognizers.
The language accepted by Finite Automata M designated L(M) is the set {x | δ(q0,x) is in F}.
Applications of FA:
Used in Lexical analysis phase of a compiler to recognize tokens.
Used in text editors for string matching

Example:
Convert the following NFA with ε to NFA without ε.

Solutions: We will first obtain ε-closures of q0, q1 and q2 as follows:

1. ε-closure(q0) = {q0}
2. ε-closure(q1) = {q1, q2}
3. ε-closure(q2) = {q2}

Now the δ' transition on each input symbol is obtained as:

δ'(q0, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q0, ε),a))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q0),a))

= ε-closure(δ(q0, a))

= ε-closure(q1)

= {q1, q2}

δ'(q0, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q0, ε),b))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q0),b))

= ε-closure(δ(q0, b))

=Ф

Now the δ' transition on q1 is obtained as:

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δ'(q1, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q1, ε),a))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q1),a))

= ε-closure(δ(q1, q2), a)

= ε-closure(δ(q1, a) ∪ δ(q2, a))

= ε-closure(Ф ∪ Ф)

=Ф

δ'(q1, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q1, ε),b))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q1),b))

= ε-closure(δ(q1, q2), b)

= ε-closure(δ(q1, b) ∪ δ(q2, b))

= ε-closure(Ф ∪ q2)

= {q2}

The δ' transition on q2 is obtained as:

δ'(q2, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q2, ε),a))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q2),a))

= ε-closure(δ(q2, a))

= ε-closure(Ф)

=Ф

δ'(q2, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q2, ε),b))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q2),b))

= ε-closure(δ(q2, b))

= ε-closure(q2)

= {q2}

Now we will summarize all the computed δ' transitions:

δ'(q0, a) = {q0, q1}

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δ'(q0, b) = Ф

δ'(q1, a) = Ф

δ'(q1, b) = {q2}

δ'(q2, a) = Ф

δ'(q2, b) = {q2}

The transition table can be:

States a b

→q0 {q1, q2} Ф

*q1 Ф {q2}

*q2 Ф {q2}

State q1 and q2 become the final state as ε-closure of q1 and q2 contain the final state q2. The NFA can be shown by the
following transition diagram:

Conversion from NFA to DFA

In this section, we will discuss the method of converting NFA to its equivalent DFA. In NFA, when a specific input is given
to the current state, the machine goes to multiple states. It can have zero, one or more than one move on a given input
symbol. On the other hand, in DFA, when a specific input is given to the current state, the machine goes to only one state.
DFA has only one move on a given input symbol.

Let, M = (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) is an NFA which accepts the language L(M). There should be equivalent DFA denoted by M' =
(Q', ∑', q0', δ', F') such that L(M) = L(M').

Steps for converting NFA to DFA:

Step 1: Initially Q' = ϕ

Step 2: Add q0 of NFA to Q'. Then find the transitions from this start state.
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Step 3: In Q', find the possible set of states for each input symbol. If this set of states is not in Q', then add it to Q'.

Step 4: In DFA, the final state will be all the states which contain F(final states of NFA)

Example 1:
Convert the given NFA to DFA.

Solution: For the given transition diagram we will first construct the transition table.

State 0 1

→q0 q0 q1

q1 {q1, q2} q1

*q2 q2 {q1, q2}

Now we will obtain δ' transition for state q0.

1. δ'([q0], 0) = [q0]
2. δ'([q0], 1) = [q1]

The δ' transition for state q1 is obtained as:

δ'([q1], 0) = [q1, q2] (new state generated)

δ'([q1], 1) = [q1]

The δ' transition for state q2 is obtained as:

δ'([q2], 0) = [q2]

δ'([q2], 1) = [q1, q2]

Now we will obtain δ' transition on [q1, q2].

δ'([q1, q2], 0) = δ(q1, 0) ∪ δ(q2, 0)

= {q1, q2} ∪ {q2}

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= [q1, q2]

δ'([q1, q2], 1) = δ(q1, 1) ∪ δ(q2, 1)

= {q1} ∪ {q1, q2}

= {q1, q2}

= [q1, q2]

The state [q1, q2] is the final state as well because it contains a final state q2. The transition table for the constructed DFA
will be:

State 0 1

→[q0] [q0] [q1]

[q1] [q1, q2] [q1]

*[q2] [q2] [q1, q2]

*[q1, q2] [q1, q2] [q1, q2]

The Transition diagram will be:

The state q2 can be eliminated because q2 is an unreachable state.

Example 2:
Convert the given NFA to DFA.

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Solution: For the given transition diagram we will first construct the transition table.

State 0 1

→q0 {q0, q1} {q1}

*q1 ϕ {q0, q1}

Now we will obtain δ' transition for state q0.

δ'([q0], 0) = {q0, q1}

= [q0, q1] (new state generated)

δ'([q0], 1) = {q1} = [q1]

The δ' transition for state q1 is obtained as:

δ'([q1], 0) = ϕ

δ'([q1], 1) = [q0, q1]

Now we will obtain δ' transition on [q0, q1].

δ'([q0, q1], 0) = δ(q0, 0) ∪ δ(q1, 0)

= {q0, q1} ∪ ϕ

= {q0, q1}

= [q0, q1]

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Similarly,

δ'([q0, q1], 1) = δ(q0, 1) ∪ δ(q1, 1)

= {q1} ∪ {q0, q1}

= {q0, q1}

= [q0, q1]

As in the given NFA, q1 is a final state, then in DFA wherever, q1 exists that state becomes a final state. Hence in the DFA,
final states are [q1] and [q0, q1]. Therefore set of final states F = {[q1], [q0, q1]}.

The transition table for the constructed DFA will be:

State 0 1

→[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]

*[q1] ϕ [q0, q1]

*[q0, q1] [q0, q1] [q0, q1]

The Transition diagram will be:

Even we can change the name of the states of DFA.

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Suppose

A = [q0]

B = [q1]

C = [q0, q1]

With these new names the DFA will be as follows:

Moore Machine

Moore machine is a finite state machine in which the next state is decided by the current state and current input symbol.
The output symbol at a given time depends only on the present state of the machine. Moore machine can be described by 6
tuples (Q, q0, ∑, O, δ, λ) where,

1. Q: finite set of states

2. q0: initial state of machine
3. ∑: finite set of input symbols
4. O: output alphabet
5. δ: transition function where Q × ∑ → Q
6. λ: output function where Q → O

Example 1:
The state diagram for Moore Machine is

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Transition table for Moore Machine is:

In the above Moore machine, the output is represented with each input state separated by /. The output length for a Moore
machine is greater than input by 1.

Input: 010

Transition: δ (q0,0) => δ(q1,1) => δ(q1,0) => q2

Output: 1110(1 for q0, 1 for q1, again 1 for q1, 0 for q2)

Example 2:
Design a Moore machine to generate 1's complement of a given binary number.

Solution: To generate 1's complement of a given binary number the simple logic is that if the input is 0 then the output will
be 1 and if the input is 1 then the output will be 0. That means there are three states. One state is start state. The second
state is for taking 0's as input and produces output as 1. The third state is for taking 1's as input and producing output as 0.

Hence the Moore machine will be,

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For instance, take one binary number 1011 then

Input 1 0 1 1

State q0 q2 q1 q2 q2

Output 0 0 1 0 0

Thus we get 00100 as 1's complement of 1011, we can neglect the initial 0 and the output which we get is 0100 which is 1's
complement of 1011. The transaction table is as follows:

Thus Moore machine M = (Q, q0, ∑, O, δ, λ); where Q = {q0, q1, q2}, ∑ = {0, 1}, O = {0, 1}. the transition table shows
the δ and λ functions.

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Example 3:
Design a Moore machine for a binary input sequence such that if it has a substring 101, the machine output A, if the input
has substring 110, it outputs B otherwise it outputs C.

Solution: For designing such a machine, we will check two conditions, and those are 101 and 110. If we get 101, the output
will be A, and if we recognize 110, the output will be B. For other strings, the output will be C.

The partial diagram will be:

Now we will insert the possibilities of 0's and 1's for each state. Thus the Moore machine becomes:

Mealy Machine

A Mealy machine is a machine in which output symbol depends upon the present input symbol and present state of the
machine. In the Mealy machine, the output is represented with each input symbol for each state separated by /. The Mealy
machine can be described by 6 tuples (Q, q0, ∑, O, δ, λ') where

1. Q: finite set of states

2. q0: initial state of machine
3. ∑: finite set of input alphabet
4. O: output alphabet

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5. δ: transition function where Q × ∑ → Q

6. λ': output function where Q × ∑ →O
Example 1:
Design a Mealy machine for a binary input sequence such that if it has a substring 101, the machine output A, if the input
has substring 110, it outputs B otherwise it outputs C.

Solution: For designing such a machine, we will check two conditions, and those are 101 and 110. If we get 101, the output
will be A. If we recognize 110, the output will be B. For other strings the output will be C.

The partial diagram will be:

Now we will insert the possibilities of 0's and 1's for each state. Thus the Mealy machine becomes:

Example 2:
Design a mealy machine that scans sequence of input of 0 and 1 and generates output 'A' if the input string terminates in 00,
output 'B' if the string terminates in 11, and output 'C' otherwise.

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Solution: The mealy machine will be

UNIT -2

Regular Expressions: Finite Automata and Regular Expressions

o The language accepted by finite automata can be easily described by simple expressions called Regular
Expressions. It is the most effective way to represent any language.
o The languages accepted by some regular expression are referred to as Regular languages.

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o A regular expression can also be described as a sequence of pattern that defines a string.

Operations on Regular Language

The various operations on regular language are:

Union: If L and M are two regular languages then their union L U M is also a union.

1. 1. L U M = {s | s is in L or s is in M}

Intersection: If L and M are two regular languages then their intersection is also an intersection.

1. 1. L ⋂ M = {st | s is in L and t is in M}

Kleen closure: If L is a regular language then its Kleen closure L1* will also be a regular language.

1. 1. L* = Zero or more occurrence of language L.

Example 1:
Write the regular expression for the language accepting all combinations of a's, over the set ∑ = {a}

Solution:

All combinations of a's means a may be zero, single, double and so on. If a is appearing zero times, that means a null string.
That is we expect the set of {ε, a, aa, aaa, ....}. So we give a regular expression for this as:

1. R = a*
That is Kleen closure of a.

Example 2:
Write the regular expression for the language accepting all combinations of a's except the null string, over the set ∑ = {a}

Solution:

The regular expression has to be built for the language

1. L = {a, aa, aaa, ....}

This set indicates that there is no null string. So we can denote regular expression as:

R = a+

Example 3:
Write the regular expression for the language accepting all the string containing any number of a's and b's.

The regular expression will be:

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1. r.e. = (a + b)*

This will give the set as L = {ε, a, aa, b, bb, ab, ba, aba, bab, .....}, any combination of a and b.

The (a + b)* shows any combination with a and b even a null string.

Examples of Regular Expression

Example 1:
Write the regular expression for the language accepting all the string which are starting with 1 and ending with 0, over ∑ =
{0, 1}.

Solution:

In a regular expression, the first symbol should be 1, and the last symbol should be 0. The r.e. is as follows:

1. R = 1 (0+1)* 0
Example 2:
Write the regular expression for the language starting and ending with a and having any having any combination of b's in
between.

Solution:

The regular expression will be:

1. R = a b* b
Example 3:
Write the regular expression for the language starting with a but not having consecutive b's.

Solution: The regular expression has to be built for the language:

1. L = {a, aba, aab, aba, aaa, abab, .....}

The regular expression for the above language is:

1. R = {a + ab}*
Example 4:
Write the regular expression for the language accepting all the string in which any number of a's is followed by any number
of b's is followed by any number of c's.

Solution: As we know, any number of a's means a* any number of b's means b*, any number of c's means c*. Since as
given in problem statement, b's appear after a's and c's appear after b's. So the regular expression could be:

1. R = a* b* c*
Example 5:
Write the regular expression for the language over ∑ = {0} having even length of the string.
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Solution:

The regular expression has to be built for the language:

1. L = {ε, 00, 0000, 000000, ......}

The regular expression for the above language is:

1. R = (00)*
Example 6:
Write the regular expression for the language having a string which should have atleast one 0 and alteast one 1.

Solution:

The regular expression will be:

1. R = [(0 + 1)* 0 (0 + 1)* 1 (0 + 1)*] + [(0 + 1)* 1 (0 + 1)* 0 (0 + 1)*]

Example 7:
Describe the language denoted by following regular expression

1. r.e. = (b* (aaa)* b*)*

Solution:

age can be predicted from the regular expression by finding the meaning of it. We will first split the
pression as:

combination of b's) (aaa)* (any combination of b's)

anguage consists of the string in which a's appear triples, there is no restriction on the number of b's}

8:
regular expression for the language L over ∑ = {0, 1} such that all the string do not contain the substring

uage is as follows:

= {ε, 0, 1, 00, 11, 10, 100, .....}

r expression for the above language is as follows:

= (1* 0*)
9:
regular expression for the language containing the string over {0, 1} in which there are at least two
es of 1's between any two occurrences of 1's between any two occurrences of 0's.

At least two 1's between two occurrences of 0's can be denoted by (0111*0)*.

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if there is no occurrence of 0's, then any number of 1's are also allowed. Hence the r.e. for required
s:

= (1 + (0111*0))*
10:
egular expression for the language containing the string in which every 0 is immediately followed by 11.

r expectation will be:

= (011 + 1)*

Algebraic Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Algebraic Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx.

1. Associativity Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Associativity Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx.

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C and A.(B.C) = (A.B).C.

2. Commutativity for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Commutativity for Regular Expressions RegEx.

A + B = B + A. However, A.B 6= B.A in general.

3. Identity for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Identity for Regular Expressions RegEx.

∅ + A = A + ∅ = A and ε.A = A.ε = A

4. Annihilator for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Annihilator for Regular Expressions RegEx.

∅.A = A.∅ = ∅

5. Distributivity for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Distributivity for Regular Expressions RegEx.

Left distributivity: A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C.

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Right distributivity: (B + C).A = B.A + C.A.

Idempotent A + A = A.

6. Closure Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the Closure Laws for Regular Expressions RegEx.

(A*)* = A*, ∅* = ε, ε* = ε, A+ = AA* = A*A, and A* = A + + ε.

7. DeMorgan Type Law for Regular Expressions RegEx

Let us see the DeMorgan Type Law for Regular Expressions RegEx.

(L + B)* = (L*B*)*

Conversion of Finite Automata to Regular Expressions.

The conversion of a finite automaton to a regular expression is done through the state elimination method.

State elimination method

The State elimination method follows the following general set of rules:

1. Add a new initial state (II). Make a null transition from the old initial state to the new initial state.

2. Add a new final state (FF). Make null transition(s) to the new final state.

3. Eliminate all states, except II and FF, in the given finite automaton. Perform the elimination of states by checking
the in-degrees and out-degrees of states and taking a cross product.

After steps 1 and 2, the II state will not have any inward transitions, and the state FF state will not have any outward
transitions.

Example

Let's consider the following finite automaton:

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Finite automaton

Step 1: Add an initial state

Add a new initial state, II. Make a null transition from state II to state q_0q0.

Adding state I

Step 2: Add a final state

Add a new final state, FF. Make a null transition from state q_3q3 to state FF.

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Step 3: State elimination

Perform the elimination of states other than II and FF.

Step 3.1

Eliminate state q_0q0.

Step 3.2

Eliminate state q_3q3. Concatenate transitions from state q_3q3 to state FF as per the basic rules of writing regular
expressions.

Eliminating q3

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Step 3.3

Eliminate q_1q1. Check for the in-degree and out-degree of state q_1q1. Write the regular expressions for the new
transitions acquired after removing state q_1q1.

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Step 3.4

Eliminate state q_2q2.

Step 3.5

Put it all together.

Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages

Theorem

Let L be a regular language. Then there exists a constant ‘c’ such that for every string w in L −

|w| ≥ c

We can break w into three strings, w = xyz, such that −

 |y| > 0
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 |xy| ≤ c
 For all k ≥ 0, the string xykz is also in L.
Applications of Pumping Lemma

Pumping Lemma is to be applied to show that certain languages are not regular. It should never be used to show a language
is regular.

 If L is regular, it satisfies Pumping Lemma.

 If L does not satisfy Pumping Lemma, it is non-regular.
Method to prove that a language L is not regular
 At first, we have to assume that L is regular.
 So, the pumping lemma should hold for L.
 Use the pumping lemma to obtain a contradiction −
o Select w such that |w| ≥ c
o Select y such that |y| ≥ 1
o Select x such that |xy| ≤ c
o Assign the remaining string to z.
o Select k such that the resulting string is not in L.
Hence L is not regular.

Problem

Prove that L = {aibi | i ≥ 0} is not regular.

Solution −

 At first, we assume that L is regular and n is the number of states.

 Let w = anbn. Thus |w| = 2n ≥ n.
 By pumping lemma, let w = xyz, where |xy| ≤ n.
 Let x = ap, y = aq, and z = arbn, where p + q + r = n, p ≠ 0, q ≠ 0, r ≠ 0. Thus |y| ≠ 0.
 Let k = 2. Then xy2z = apa2qarbn.
 Number of as = (p + 2q + r) = (p + q + r) + q = n + q
 Hence, xy2z = an+q bn. Since q ≠ 0, xy2z is not of the form anbn.
 Thus, xy2z is not in L. Hence L is not regular.

Closure Properties of Regular Languages:

Closure properties on regular languages are defined as certain operations on regular language which are guaranteed to
produce regular language. Closure refers to some operation on a language, resulting in a new language that is of same
“type” as originally operated on i.e., regular.

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Regular languages are closed under following operations.

Consider L and M are regular languages:

1. Kleen Closure
RS is a regular expression whose language is L, M. R* is a regular expression whose language is L*.

2. Positive closure:

RS is a regular expression whose language is L, M. is a regular expression whose language is

3. Complement:

The complement of a language L (with respect to an alphabet such that contains L) is –L. Since is

surely regular, the complement of a regular language is always regular.

4. Reverse Operator:

Given language L, is the set of strings whose reversal is in L.

Example: L = {0, 01, 100};

={0, 10, 001}.

Proof: Let E be a regular expression for L. We show how to reverse E, to provide a regular expression for .

5. Union:
Let L and M be the languages of regular expressions R and S, respectively.Then R+S is a regular expression whose
language is(L U M).
6. Intersection:
Let L and M be the languages of regular expressions R and S, respectively then it a regular expression whose language is
L intersection M.
proof: Let A and B be DFA’s whose languages are L and M, respectively. Construct C, the product automaton of A and B
make the final states of C be the pairs consisting of final states of both A and B.
7. Set Difference operator:
If L and M are regular languages, then so is L – M = strings in L but not M.
Proof: Let A and B be DFA’s whose languages are L and M, respectively. Construct C, the product automaton of A and B
make the final states of C be the pairs, where A-state is final but B-state is not.
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8. Homomorphism:
A homomorphism on an alphabet is a function that gives a string for each symbol in that alphabet. Example: h(0) = ab;

h(1) = . Extend to strings by h(a1…an) =h(a1)…h(an). Example: h(01010) = ababab.

If L is a regular language, and h is a homomorphism on its alphabet, then h(L)= {h(w) | w is in L} is also a
regular language.
Proof: Let E be a regular expression for L. Apply h to each symbol in E. Language of resulting R, E is h(L).

1. Inverse Homomorphism : Let h be a homomorphism and L a language whose alphabet is the output

language of h. (L) = {w | h(w) is in L}.

Note: There are few more properties like symmetric difference operator, prefix operator, substitution which are closed
under closure properties of regular language.

Decision Properties:
Approximately all the properties are decidable in case of finite automaton.
(i) Emptiness
(ii) Non-emptiness
(iii) Finiteness
(iv) Infiniteness
(v) Membership
(vi) Equality
These are explained as following below.

(i) Emptiness and Non-emptiness:

 Step-1: select the state that cannot be reached from the initial states & delete them (remove unreachable
states).
 Step 2: if the resulting machine contains at least one final states, so then the finite automata accepts the
non-empty language.
 Step 3: if the resulting machine is free from final state, then finite automata accepts empty language.
(ii) Finiteness and Infiniteness:
Step-1: select the state that cannot be reached from the initial state & delete them (remove unreachable states).

Step-2: select the state from which we cannot reach the final state & delete them (remove dead states).

Step-3: if the resulting machine contains loops or cycles then the finite automata accepts infinite language.

Step-4: if the resulting machine do not contain loops or cycles then the finite automata accepts infinite language.

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(iii) Membership:
Membership is a property to verify an arbitrary string is accepted by a finite automaton or not i.e. it is a member of the
language or not.
Let M is a finite automata that accepts some strings over an alphabet, and let ‘w’ be any string defined over the
alphabet, if there exist a transition path in M, which starts at initial state & ends in anyone of the final state, then
string ‘w’ is a member of M, otherwise ‘w’ is not a member of M.

(iv)Equality
Two finite state automata M1 & M2 is said to be equal if and only if, they accept the same language. Minimise the finite
state automata and the minimal DFA will be unique.

Equivalence and Minimization of Automata(Minimization of DFA)

Minimization of DFA means reducing the number of states from given FA. Thus, we get the FSM(finite state machine) with
redundant states after minimizing the FSM.

We have to follow the various steps to minimize the DFA. These are as follows:

Step 1: Remove all the states that are unreachable from the initial state via any set of the transition of DFA.

Step 2: Draw the transition table for all pair of states.

Step 3: Now split the transition table into two tables T1 and T2. T1 contains all final states, and T2 contains non-final
states.

Step 4: Find similar rows from T1 such that:

1. 1. δ (q, a) = p
2. 2. δ (r, a) = p

That means, find the two states which have the same value of a and b and remove one of them.

Step 5: Repeat step 3 until we find no similar rows available in the transition table T1.

Step 6: Repeat step 3 and step 4 for table T2 also.

Step 7: Now combine the reduced T1 and T2 tables. The combined transition table is the transition table of
minimized DFA.

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Example:

Solution:

Step 1: In the given DFA, q2 and q4 are the unreachable states so remove them.

Step 2: Draw the transition table for the rest of the states.

State 0 1

→q0 q1 q3

q1 q0 q3

*q3 q5 q5

*q5 q5 q5

Step 3: Now divide rows of transition table into two sets as:

1. One set contains those rows, which start from non-final states:

State 0 1

q0 q1 q3

q1 q0 q3

2. Another set contains those rows, which starts from final states.

State 0 1
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q3 q5 q5

q5 q5 q5

Step 4: Set 1 has no similar rows so set 1 will be the same.

Step 5: In set 2, row 1 and row 2 are similar since q3 and q5 transit to the same state on 0 and 1. So skip q5 and then
replace q5 by q3 in the rest.

State 0 1

q3 q3 q3

Step 6: Now combine set 1 and set 2 as:

State 0 1

→q0 q1 q3

q1 q0 q3

*q3 q3 q3

Now it is the transition table of minimized DFA.

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DFA Minimization using Myphill-Nerode Theorem

Algorithm
Input − DFA
Output − Minimized DFA
Step 1 − Draw a table for all pairs of states (Qi, Qj) not necessarily connected directly [All are
unmarked initially]
Step 2 − Consider every state pair (Qi, Qj) in the DFA where Qi ∈ F and Qj ∉ F or vice versa and
mark them. [Here F is the set of final states]
Step 3 − Repeat this step until we cannot mark anymore states −
If there is an unmarked pair (Qi, Qj), mark it if the pair {δ (Qi, A), δ (Qi, A)} is marked for some input
alphabet.
Step 4 − Combine all the unmarked pair (Qi, Qj) and make them a single state in the reduced DFA.

Example
Let us use Algorithm 2 to minimize the DFA shown below.

Step 1 − We draw a table for all pair of states.

a B C d e f

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Step 2 − We mark the state pairs.

a B C d e f

c ✔ ✔

d ✔ ✔

e ✔ ✔

f ✔ ✔ ✔

Step 3 − We will try to mark the state pairs, with green colored check mark, transitively. If we
input 1 to state ‘a’ and ‘f’, it will go to state ‘c’ and ‘f’ respectively. (c, f) is already marked, hence
we will mark pair (a, f). Now, we input 1 to state ‘b’ and ‘f’; it will go to state ‘d’ and ‘f’
respectively. (d, f) is already marked, hence we will mark pair (b, f).

a b C d e f

c ✔ ✔

d ✔ ✔

e ✔ ✔

f ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

After step 3, we have got state combinations {a, b} {c, d} {c, e} {d, e} that are unmarked.
We can recombine {c, d} {c, e} {d, e} into {c, d, e}
Hence we got two combined states as − {a, b} and {c, d, e}
So the final minimized DFA will contain three states {f}, {a, b} and {c, d, e}

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UNIT – 3

Context-Free Grammar (CFG)

CFG stands for context-free grammar. It is is a formal grammar which is used to generate all possible patterns of strings in
a given formal language. Context-free grammar G can be defined by four tuples as

G = (V, T, P, S)
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Where,

G is the grammar, which consists of a set of the production rule. It is used to generate the string of a language.

T is the final set of a terminal symbol. It is denoted by lower case letters.

V is the final set of a non-terminal symbol. It is denoted by capital letters.

P is a set of production rules, which is used for replacing non-terminals symbols(on the left side of the production) in a
string with other terminal or non-terminal symbols(on the right side of the production).

S is the start symbol which is used to derive the string. We can derive the string by repeatedly replacing a non-terminal by
the right-hand side of the production until all non-terminal have been replaced by terminal symbols.

Example 1:
Construct the CFG for the language having any number of a's over the set ∑= {a}.
Solution:
As we know the regular expression for the above language is

1. r.e. = a*
Production rule for the Regular expression is as follows:

1. S → aS rule 1
2. S → ε rule 2

Now if we want to derive a string "aaaaaa", we can start with start symbols.

1. S
2. aS
3. aaS rule 1
4. aaaS rule 1
5. aaaaS rule 1
6. aaaaaS rule 1
7. aaaaaaS rule 1
8. aaaaaaε rule 2
9. aaaaaa

The r.e. = a* can generate a set of string {ε, a, aa, aaa,.....}. We can have a null string because S is a start symbol and rule 2 gives S →
ε.

Example 2:
Construct a CFG for the regular expression (0+1)*
Solution:
The CFG can be given by,

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1. Production rule (P):

2. S → 0S | 1S
3. S → ε
The rules are in the combination of 0's and 1's with the start symbol. Since (0+1)* indicates {ε, 0, 1, 01, 10, 00, 11, ....}. In
this set, ε is a string, so in the rule, we can set the rule S → ε.

Example 3:
Construct a CFG for a language L = {wcwR | where w € (a, b)*}.
Solution:
The string that can be generated for a given language is {aacaa, bcb, abcba, bacab, abbcbba, ....}

The grammar could be:

1. S → aSa rule 1
2. S → bSb rule 2
3. S → c rule 3

Now if we want to derive a string "abbcbba", we can start with start symbols.

1. S → aSa
2. S → abSba from rule 2
3. S → abbSbba from rule 2
4. S → abbcbba from rule 3

Thus any of this kind of string can be derived from the given production rules.

Example 4:
Construct a CFG for the language L = anb2n where n>=1.

Solution:
The string that can be generated for a given language is {abb, aabbbb, aaabbbbbb....}.
The grammar could be:

1. S → aSbb | abb
Now if we want to derive a string "aabbbb", we can start with start symbols.

1. S → aSbb
2. S → aabbbb

Derivations Using a Grammar

Derivation is a sequence of production rules. It is used to get the input string through these
production rules. During parsing, we have to take two decisions. These are as follows:

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o We have to decide the non-terminal which is to be replaced.

o We have to decide the production rule by which the non-terminal will be replaced.

We have two options to decide which non-terminal to be placed with production rule.

1. Leftmost Derivation:
In the leftmost derivation, the input is scanned and replaced with the production rule from left to
right. So in leftmost derivation, we read the input string from left to right.

Example:
Production rules:

1. E = E + E
2. E = E - E
3. E = a | b
Input

1. a - b + a
The leftmost derivation is:

1. E = E + E
2. E = E - E + E
3. E = a - E + E
4. E = a - b + E
5. E = a - b + a
2. Rightmost Derivation:
In rightmost derivation, the input is scanned and replaced with the production rule from right to
left. So in rightmost derivation, we read the input string from right to left.

Example
Production rules:

1. E = E + E
2. E = E - E
3. E = a | b
Input

1. a - b + a
The rightmost derivation is:

1. E = E - E
2. E = E - E + E
3. E = E - E + a
4. E = E - b + a
5. E = a - b + a
When we use the leftmost derivation or rightmost derivation, we may get the same string. This
type of derivation does not affect on getting of a string.
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Examples of Derivation:
Example 1:
Derive the string "abb" for leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation using a CFG given by,

1. S → AB | ε
2. A → aB
3. B → Sb

Solution: Leftmost derivation:

Rightmost derivation:

Example 2:
Derive the string "aabbabba" for leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation using a CFG given
by,

1. S → aB | bA
2. A → a | aS | bAA
3. B → b | bS | aBB

Solution:

Leftmost derivation

1. S
2. aB S → aB
3. aaBB B → aBB
4. aabB B→b
5. aabbS B → bS
6. aabbaB S → aB
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7. aabbabS B → bS
8. aabbabbA S → bA
9. aabbabba A→a

Rightmost derivation:

1. S
2. aB S → aB
3. aaBB B → aBB
4. aaBbS B → bS
5. aaBbbA S → bA
6. aaBbba A→a
7. aabSbba B → bS
8. aabbAbba S → bA
9. aabbabba A→a

Example 3:
Derive the string "00101" for leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation using a CFG given by,

1. S → A1B
2. A → 0A | ε
3. B → 0B | 1B | ε

Solution: Leftmost derivation:

1. S
2. A1B
3. 0A1B
4. 00A1B
5. 001B
6. 0010B
7. 00101B
8. 00101
Rightmost derivation:

1. S
2. A1B
3. A10B
4. A101B
5. A101
6. 0A101
7. 00A101
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8. 00101

The Language of a Grammar

Language of Grammar is the set of all strings that can be generated from that grammar. If the language consists of
finite number of strings, then it is called as a Finite language. If the language consists of infinite number of strings, then it is
called as an Infinite language.

Example-01:

Consider a grammar G = (V , T , P , S) where-

V = { S }
T = { a , b }
 P = { S → aSbS , S → bSaS , S → ∈ }
S = { S }

This grammar generates the strings having equal number of a’s and b’s.

So, Language of this grammar is-

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L(G) = { ∈ , ab , ba , aabb , bbaa , abab , baba , …… }

 This language consists of infinite number of strings.

 Therefore, language of the grammar is infinite.

Example-02:
Consider a grammar G = (V , T , P , S) where-

V = { S , A, B , C }
T = { a , b , c }
 P = { S → ABC , A → a , B → b , C → c }
S = { S }

This grammar generates only one string “abc”.

So, Language of this grammar is-

L(G) = { abc }

Sentential Forms

Let G = (V, T, P, S) be a CFG, and α ∈ (V ∪T) * .

If S ∗ ⇒ α we say that α is a sentential form. If S ⇒ lm α we say that α is a left-sentential form, and

if S ⇒ rm α we say that α is a right-sentential form

Note: L(G) is those sentential forms that are in T ∗ .

Parse tree
o Parse tree is the graphical representation of symbol. The symbol can be terminal or non-
terminal.
o In parsing, the string is derived using the start symbol. The root of the parse tree is that
start symbol.
o It is the graphical representation of symbol that can be terminals or non-terminals.
o Parse tree follows the precedence of operators. The deepest sub-tree traversed first. So, the
operator in the parent node has less precedence over the operator in the sub-tree.

The parse tree follows these points:

o All leaf nodes have to be terminals.
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o All interior nodes have to be non-terminals.

o In-order traversal gives original input string.

Example1 :
Production rules:

1. S= S + S | S * TS
2. S = a|b|c
Input:
a * b + c

Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

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Step 4:

Step 5:

Example 2 :

Let us take an example of Grammar (Production Rules).

S -> sAB
A -> a
B -> b
The input string is “sab”, then the Parse Tree is:

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Example-3: Let us take another example of Grammar (Production Rules).

S -> AB
A -> c/aA
B -> d/bB
The input string is “acbd”, then the Parse Tree is as follows:

Uses of Parse Tree:

 It helps in making syntax analysis by reflecting the syntax of the input language.
 It uses an in-memory representation of the input with a structure that conforms to the
grammar.
 The advantages of using parse trees rather than semantic actions: you’ll make multiple
passes over the info without having to re-parse the input.

Application of Context Free Grammar.

 Parsers
 Yacc Parsers – Generator
 Markup Languages
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 XML & Document – Type def

Ambiguity in Grammars and Languages

A grammar is said to be ambiguous if there exists more than one leftmost derivation or more than
one rightmost derivation or more than one parse tree for the given input string. If the grammar is
not ambiguous, then it is called unambiguous.

If the grammar has ambiguity, then it is not good for compiler construction. No method can
automatically detect and remove the ambiguity, but we can remove ambiguity by re-writing the
whole grammar without ambiguity.

Example 1:
Let us consider a grammar G with the production rule

1. E → I
2. E → E + E
3. E → E * E
4. E → (E)
5. I → ε | 0 | 1 | 2 | ... | 9

Solution:

For the string "3 * 2 + 5", the above grammar can generate two parse trees by leftmost
derivation:

Since there are two parse trees for a single string "3 * 2 + 5", the grammar G is ambiguous.

Example 2:
Check whether the given grammar G is ambiguous or not.

1. E → E + E
2. E → E - E
3. E → id
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Solution:

From the above grammar String "id + id - id" can be derived in 2 ways:
First Leftmost derivation

1. E → E + E
2. → id + E
3. → id + E - E
4. → id + id - E
5. → id + id- id
Second Leftmost derivation

1. E → E - E
2. →E+E-E
3. → id + E - E
4. → id + id - E
5. → id + id - id
Since there are two leftmost derivation for a single string "id + id - id", the grammar G is
ambiguous.

Example 3:
Check whether the given grammar G is ambiguous or not.

1. S → aSb | SS
2. S → ε
Solution:
For the string "aabb" the above grammar can generate two parse trees

Since there are two parse trees for a single string "aabb", the grammar G is ambiguous.

Example 4:
Check whether the given grammar G is ambiguous or not.

1. A → AA
2. A → (A)
3. A → a
Solution:
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For the string "a(a)aa" the above grammar can generate two parse trees:

Since there are two parse trees for a single string "a(a)aa", the grammar G is ambiguous.

Unambiguous Grammar
A grammar can be unambiguous if the grammar does not contain ambiguity that means if it does
not contain more than one leftmost derivation or more than one rightmost derivation or more than
one parse tree for the given input string.

To convert ambiguous grammar to unambiguous grammar, we will apply the following rules:

1. If the left associative operators (+, -, *, /) are used in the production rule, then apply left
recursion in the production rule. Left recursion means that the leftmost symbol on the right side is
the same as the non-terminal on the left side. For example,

1. X → Xa

2. If the right associative operates(^) is used in the production rule then apply right recursion in
the production rule. Right recursion means that the rightmost symbol on the left side is the same
as the non-terminal on the right side. For example,

1. X → aX

Example 1:
Consider a grammar G is given as follows:

1. S → AB | aaB
2. A → a | Aa
3. B → b
Determine whether the grammar G is ambiguous or not. If G is ambiguous, construct an unambiguous grammar equivalent
to G.

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Solution:
Let us derive the string "aab"

As there are two different parse tree for deriving the same string, the given grammar is ambiguous.
Unambiguous grammar will be:

1. S → AB
2. A → Aa | a
3. B → b
Example 2:
Show that the given grammar is ambiguous. Also, find an equivalent unambiguous grammar.

1. S → ABA
2. A → aA | ε
3. B → bB | ε
Solution:
The given grammar is ambiguous because we can derive two different parse tree for string aa.

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The unambiguous grammar is:

1. S → aXY | bYZ | ε
2. Z → aZ | a
3. X → aXY | a | ε
4. Y → bYZ | b | ε
Example 3:
Show that the given grammar is ambiguous. Also, find an equivalent unambiguous grammar.

1. E → E + E
2. E → E * E
3. E → id
Solution:
Let us derive the string "id + id * id"

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As there are two different parse tree for deriving the same string, the given grammar is
ambiguous.
Unambiguous grammar will be:

1. E → E + T
2. E → T
3. T → T * F
4. T → F
5. F → id
Example 4:
Check that the given grammar is ambiguous or not. Also, find an equivalent unambiguous
grammar.

1. S → S + S
2. S → S * S
3. S → S ^ S
4. S → a

Solution:

The given grammar is ambiguous because the derivation of string aab can be represented by the
following string:

Unambiguous grammar will be:

1. S → S + A |
2. A → A * B | B
3. B → C ^ B | C
4. C → a

Pushdown Automata(PDA)
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o Pushdown automata is a way to implement a CFG in the same way we design DFA for a
regular grammar. A DFA can remember a finite amount of information, but a PDA can
remember an infinite amount of information.
o Pushdown automata is simply an NFA augmented with an "external stack memory". The
addition of stack is used to provide a last-in-first-out memory management capability to
Pushdown automata. Pushdown automata can store an unbounded amount of information
on the stack. It can access a limited amount of information on the stack. A PDA can push an
element onto the top of the stack and pop off an element from the top of the stack. To read
an element into the stack, the top elements must be popped off and are lost.
o A PDA is more powerful than FA. Any language which can be acceptable by FA can also be
acceptable by PDA. PDA also accepts a class of language which even cannot be accepted by
FA. Thus PDA is much more superior to FA.

PDA Components:
Input tape: The input tape is divided in many cells or symbols. The input head is read-only and
may only move from left to right, one symbol at a time.
Finite control: The finite control has some pointer which points the current symbol which is to be
read.
Stack: The stack is a structure in which we can push and remove the items from one end only. It
has an infinite size. In PDA, the stack is used to store the items temporarily.

Formal definition of PDA:

The PDA can be defined as a collection of 7 components:

Q: the finite set of states

∑: the input set
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Γ: a stack symbol which can be pushed and popped from the stack
q0: the initial state
Z: a start symbol which is in Γ.
F: a set of final states
δ: mapping function which is used for moving from current state to next state.

Instantaneous Description (ID)

ID is an informal notation of how a PDA computes an input string and make a decision that string
is accepted or rejected.
An instantaneous description is a triple (q, w, α) where:
q describes the current state.
w describes the remaining input.
α describes the stack contents, top at the left.

Turnstile Notation:
⊢ sign describes the turnstile notation and represents one move.

⊢* sign describes a sequence of moves.

For example,

(p, b, T) ⊢ (q, w, α)

In the above example, while taking a transition from state p to q, the input symbol 'b' is consumed, and
the top of the stack 'T' is represented by a new string α.

Example 1:
Design a PDA for accepting a language {anb2n | n>=1}.
Solution: In this language, n number of a's should be followed by 2n number of b's. Hence, we
will apply a very simple logic, and that is if we read single 'a', we will push two a's onto the stack.
As soon as we read 'b' then for every single 'b' only one 'a' should get popped from the stack.
The ID can be constructed as follows:

δ(q0, a, Z) = (q0, aaZ)

δ(q0, a, a) = (q0, aaa)
Now when we read b, we will change the state from q0 to q1 and start popping corresponding 'a'.
Hence,

δ(q0, b, a) = (q1, ε)
Thus this process of popping 'b' will be repeated unless all the symbols are read. Note that
popping action occurs in state q1 only.
δ(q1, b, a) = (q1, ε)
After reading all b's, all the corresponding a's should get popped. Hence when we read ε as input
symbol then there should be nothing in the stack. Hence the move will be:

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δ(q1, ε, Z) = (q2, ε)
Where
PDA = ({q0, q1, q2}, {a, b}, {a, Z}, δ, q0, Z, {q2})
We can summarize the ID as:

1. δ(q0, a, Z) = (q0, aaZ)

2. δ(q0, a, a) = (q0, aaa)
3. δ(q0, b, a) = (q1, ε)
4. δ(q1, b, a) = (q1, ε)
5. δ(q1, ε, Z) = (q2, ε)
Now we will simulate this PDA for the input string "aaabbbbbb".

1. δ(q0, aaabbbbbb, Z) ⊢ δ(q0, aabbbbbb, aaZ)

2. ⊢ δ(q0, abbbbbb, aaaaZ)
3. ⊢ δ(q0, bbbbbb, aaaaaaZ)
4. ⊢ δ(q1, bbbbb, aaaaaZ)
5. ⊢ δ(q1, bbbb, aaaaZ)
6. ⊢ δ(q1, bbb, aaaZ)
7. ⊢ δ(q1, bb, aaZ)
8. ⊢ δ(q1, b, aZ)
9. ⊢ δ(q1, ε, Z)
10. ⊢ δ(q2, ε)
11. ACCEPT

Example 2:
Design a PDA for accepting a language {0n1m0n | m, n>=1}.
Solution: In this PDA, n number of 0's are followed by any number of 1's followed n number of
0's. Hence the logic for design of such PDA will be as follows:
Push all 0's onto the stack on encountering first 0's. Then if we read 1, just do nothing. Then read
0, and on each read of 0, pop one 0 from the stack.
For instance:

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This scenario can be written in the ID form as:

1. δ(q0, 0, Z) = δ(q0, 0Z)

2. δ(q0, 0, 0) = δ(q0, 00)
3. δ(q0, 1, 0) = δ(q1, 0)
4. δ(q0, 1, 0) = δ(q1, 0)
5. δ(q1, 0, 0) = δ(q1, ε)
6. δ(q0, ε, Z) = δ(q2, Z) (ACCEPT state)
Now we will simulate this PDA for the input string "0011100".

1. δ(q0, 0011100, Z) ⊢ δ(q0, 011100, 0Z)

2. ⊢ δ(q0, 11100, 00Z)
3. ⊢ δ(q0, 1100, 00Z)
4. ⊢ δ(q1, 100, 00Z)
5. ⊢ δ(q1, 00, 00Z)
6. ⊢ δ(q1, 0, 0Z)
7. ⊢ δ(q1, ε, Z)
8. ⊢ δ(q2, Z)
9. ACCEPT

Equivalence of PDA’s and CFG’s

The goal is to prove that the following three classes of the languages are all the same class.
1. The context-free languages (The language defined by CFG’s).
2. The languages that are accepted by empty stack by some PDA.
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3. The languages that are accepted by final state by some PDA. Grammar PDA by empty stack PDA by final state

Acceptance by final state, Acceptance by empty stack

A language can be accepted by Pushdown automata using two approaches:
1. Acceptance by Final State: The PDA is said to accept its input by the final state if it enters any final state in
zero or more moves after reading the entire input.
Let P =(Q, ∑, Γ, δ, q0, Z, F) be a PDA. The language acceptable by the final state can be defined as:

L(PDA) = {w | (q0, w, Z) ⊢* (p, ε, ε), q ∈ F}

2. Acceptance by Empty Stack: On reading the input string from the initial configuration for some
PDA, the stack of PDA gets empty.

Let P =(Q, ∑, Γ, δ, q0, Z, F) be a PDA. The language acceptable by empty stack can be defined as:
N(PDA) = {w | (q0, w, Z) ⊢* (p, ε, ε), q ∈ Q}

Equivalence of Acceptance by Final State and Empty Stack

o If L = N(P1) for some PDA P1, then there is a PDA P2 such that L = L(P2). That means the language
accepted by empty stack PDA will also be accepted by final state PDA.
o If there is a language L = L (P1) for some PDA P1 then there is a PDA P2 such that L = N(P2). That
means language accepted by final state PDA is also acceptable by empty stack PDA.

Example:
Construct a PDA that accepts the language L over {0, 1} by empty stack which accepts all the
string of 0's and 1's in which a number of 0's are twice of number of 1's.
Solution:
There are two parts for designing this PDA:

o If 1 comes before any 0's

If 0 comes before any 1's.

We are going to design the first part i.e. 1 comes before 0's. The logic is that read single 1 and
push two 1's onto the stack. Thereafter on reading two 0's, POP two 1's from the stack. The δ can
be

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1. δ(q0, 1, Z) = (q0, 11, Z) Here Z represents that stack is empty

2. δ(q0, 0, 1) = (q0, ε)
Now, consider the second part i.e. if 0 comes before 1's. The logic is that read first 0, push it onto
the stack and change state from q0 to q1. [Note that state q1 indicates that first 0 is read and still
second 0 has yet to read].
Being in q1, if 1 is encountered then POP 0. Being in q1, if 0 is read then simply read that second
0 and move ahead. The δ will be:

1. δ(q0, 0, Z) = (q1, 0Z)

2. δ(q1, 0, 0) = (q1, 0)
3. δ(q1, 0, Z) = (q0, ε) (indicate that one 0 and one 1 is already read, so simply read the s
econd 0)
4. δ(q1, 1, 0) = (q1, ε)
Now, summarize the complete PDA for given L is:

1. δ(q0, 1, Z) = (q0, 11Z)

2. δ(q0, 0, 1) = (q1, ε)
3. δ(q0, 0, Z) = (q1, 0Z)
4. δ(q1, 0, 0) = (q1, 0)
5. δ(q1, 0, Z) = (q0, ε)
6. δ(q0, ε, Z) = (q0, ε) ACCEPT state

Deterministic Pushdown Automata

The Deterministic Pushdown Automata is a variation of pushdown automata that accepts the
deterministic context-free languages.
A language L(A) is accepted by a deterministic pushdown automata if and only if there is a single
computation from the initial configuration until an accepting one for all strings belonging to L(A).
It is not as powerful as non-deterministic finite automata. That's why it is less in use and used only
where determinism is much easier to implement.
A PDA is said to be deterministic if its transition function δ(q,a,X) has at most one member for -
a ∈ Σ U {ε}

So, for a deterministic PDA, there is at most one transition possible in any combination of state,
input symbol and stack top.

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Formal Definition of Deterministic PDA

A Deterministic PDA is 5 tuple -

M = (Σ,Γ,Q,δ,q)

Σ - It is a finite set which does not contain a blank symbol,

Γ - a finite set of stack alphabet,
Q - set of states,
q - start state,
δ - a transition function, denoted as -
δ : Q × (Σ ∪ {□}) × Γ → Q × {N,R} × Γ∗

CFG to PDA Conversion

The first symbol on R.H.S. production must be a terminal symbol. The following steps are used to
obtain PDA from CFG is:

Step 1: Convert the given productions of CFG into GNF.

Step 2: The PDA will only have one state {q}.

Step 3: The initial symbol of CFG will be the initial symbol in the PDA.

Step 4: For non-terminal symbol, add the following rule:

δ(q, ε, A) = (q, α)
Where the production rule is A → α
Step 5: For each terminal symbols, add the following rule:

δ(q, a, a) = (q, ε) for every terminal symbol

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Example 1:
Convert the following grammar to a PDA that accepts the same language.

1. S → 0S1 | A
2. A → 1A0 | S | ε
Solution:
The CFG can be first simplified by eliminating unit productions:

1. S → 0S1 | 1S0 | ε
Now we will convert this CFG to GNF:

1. S → 0SX | 1SY | ε
2. X → 1
3. Y → 0
The PDA can be:
R1: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, 0SX) | (q, 1SY) | (q, ε)}
R2: δ(q, ε, X) = {(q, 1)}
R3: δ(q, ε, Y) = {(q, 0)}
R4: δ(q, 0, 0) = {(q, ε)}
R5: δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, ε)}

Example 2:
Construct PDA for the given CFG, and test whether 0104 is acceptable by this PDA.

1. S → 0BB
2. B → 0S | 1S | 0
Solution:
The PDA can be given as:

1. A = {(q), (0, 1), (S, B, 0, 1), δ, q, S, ?}

The production rule δ can be:
R1: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, 0BB)}
R2: δ(q, ε, B) = {(q, 0S) | (q, 1S) | (q, 0)}
R3: δ(q, 0, 0) = {(q, ε)}
R4: δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, ε)}
Testing 0104 i.e. 010000 against PDA:

1. δ(q, 010000, S) ⊢ δ(q, 010000, 0BB)

2. ⊢ δ(q, 10000, BB) R1
3. ⊢ δ(q, 10000,1SB) R3
4. ⊢ δ(q, 0000, SB) R2
5. ⊢ δ(q, 0000, 0BBB) R1
6. ⊢ δ(q, 000, BBB) R3
7. ⊢ δ(q, 000, 0BB) R2
8. ⊢ δ(q, 00, BB) R3
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9. ⊢ δ(q, 00, 0B) R2

10. ⊢ δ(q, 0, B) R3
11. ⊢ δ(q, 0, 0) R2
12. ⊢ δ(q, ε) R3
13. ACCEPT
4
Thus 010 is accepted by the PDA.

Example 3:
Draw a PDA for the CFG given below:

1. S → aSb
2. S → a | b | ε
Solution:

The PDA can be given as:

1. P = {(q), (a, b), (S, a, b, z0), δ, q, z0, q}

The mapping function δ will be:

R1: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, aSb)}

R2: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, a) | (q, b) | (q, ε)}
R3: δ(q, a, a) = {(q, ε)}
R4: δ(q, b, b) = {(q, ε)}
R5: δ(q, ε, z0) = {(q, ε)}

Simulation: Consider the string aaabb

1. δ(q, εaaabb, S) ⊢ δ(q, aaabb, aSb) R3

2. ⊢ δ(q, εaabb, Sb) R1
3. ⊢ δ(q, aabb, aSbb) R3
4. ⊢ δ(q, εabb, Sbb) R2
5. ⊢ δ(q, abb, abb) R3
6. UNIT 4

7. u
8. ⊢ δ(q, bb, bb) R4
9. ⊢ δ(q, b, b) R4
10. ⊢ δ(q, ε, z0) R5
11. ⊢ δ(q, ε)
12. ACCEPT

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Unit- 4

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UNIT – V
Types of Turing machine: Turing machines and halting
Undecidability: Undecidability, A Language that is Not Recursively Enumerable, An
Undecidable
Problem That is RE, Undecidable Problems about Turing Machines, Recursive languages,
Properties
of recursive languages, Post's Correspondence Problem, Modified Post Correspondence
problem,
Other Undecidable Problems, Counter machines.

Types of Turing Machine

1. Multiple track Turing Machine:
 A k-track Turing machine(for some k>0) has k-tracks and one R/W head that
reads and writes all of them one by one.
 A k-track Turing Machine can be simulated by a single track Turing machine
2. Two-way infinite Tape Turing Machine:
 Infinite tape of two-way infinite tape Turing machine is unbounded in both
directions left and right.
 Two-way infinite tape Turing machine can be simulated by one-way infinite
Turing machine(standard Turing machine).
3. Multi-tape Turing Machine:
 It has multiple tapes and is controlled by a single head.
 The Multi-tape Turing machine is different from k-track Turing machine but
expressive power is the same.
 Multi-tape Turing machine can be simulated by single-tape Turing machine.

4. Multi-tape Multi-head Turing Machine:

 The multi-tape Turing machine has multiple tapes and multiple heads
 Each tape is controlled by a separate head
 Multi-Tape Multi-head Turing machine can be simulated by a standard Turing
machine.

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5. Multi-dimensional Tape Turing Machine:

 It has multi-dimensional tape where the head can move in any direction that is
left, right, up or down.
 Multi dimensional tape Turing machine can be simulated by one-dimensional
Turing machine
6. Multi-head Turing Machine:
 A multi-head Turing machine contains two or more heads to read the symbols on
the same tape.
 In one step all the heads sense the scanned symbols and move or write
independently.
 Multi-head Turing machine can be simulated by a single head Turing machine.
7. Non-deterministic Turing Machine:
 A non-deterministic Turing machine has a single, one-way infinite tape.
 For a given state and input symbol has at least one choice to move (finite
number of choices for the next move), each choice has several choices of the
path that it might follow for a given input string.
 A non-deterministic Turing machine is equivalent to the deterministic Turing
machine.

Undecidability

For an undecidable language, there is no Turing Machine which accepts the

language and makes a decision for every input string w (TM can make decision
for some input string though). A decision problem P is called “undecidable” if the
language L of all yes instances to P is not decidable. Undecidable languages are
not recursive languages, but sometimes, they may be recursively enumerable
languages.

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Example
 The halting problem of Turing machine
 The mortality problem
 The mortal matrix problem
 The Post correspondence problem, etc.

Undecidable Problems –
The problems for which we can’t construct an algorithm that can answer the problem
correctly in finite time are termed as Undecidable Problems. These problems may be
partially decidable but they will never be decidable. That is there will always be a condition
that will lead the Turing Machine into an infinite loop without providing an answer at all.
Examples
 Ambiguity of context-free languages: Given a context-free language, there is
no Turing machine which will always halt in finite amount of time and give
answer whether language is ambiguous or not.
 Equivalence of two context-free languages: Given two context-free languages,
there is no Turing machine which will always halt in finite amount of time and
give answer whether two context free languages are equal or not.
 Everything or completeness of CFG: Given a CFG and input alphabet,
whether CFG will generate all possible strings of input alphabet (∑*)is
undecidable.

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 Regularity of CFL, CSL, REC and REC: Given a CFL, CSL, REC or REC,
determining whether this language is regular is undecidable.
Note: Two popular undecidable problems are halting problem of TM
and PCP (Post Correspondence Problem).
Undecidable Problem about Turing Machine

In this section, we will discuss all the undecidable problems regarding turing machine. The
reduction is used to prove whether given language is desirable or not. In this section, we will
understand the concept of reduction first and then we will see an important theorem in this
regard.

Reduction
Reduction is a technique in which if a problem P1 is reduced to a problem P2 then any
solution of P2 solves P1. In general, if we have an algorithm to convert an instance of a
problem P1 to an instance of a problem P2 that have the same answer then it is called as P1
reduced P2. Hence if P1 is not recursive then P2 is also not recursive. Similarly, if P1 is not
recursively enumerable then P2 also is not recursively enumerable.

Theorem: if P1 is reduced to P2 then

1. If P1 is undecidable, then P2 is also undecidable.

2. If P1 is non-RE, then P2 is also non-RE.

Proof:

1. Consider an instance w of P1. Then construct an algorithm such that

the algorithm takes instance w as input and converts it into another
instance x of P2. Then apply that algorithm to check whether x is in
P2. If the algorithm answer 'yes' then that means x is in P2, similarly
we can also say that w is in P1. Since we have obtained P2 after
reduction of P1. Similarly if algorithm answer 'no' then x is not in P2,
that also means w is not in P1. This proves that if P1 is undecidable,
then P2 is also undecidable.

2. We assume that P1 is non-RE but P2 is RE. Now construct an

algorithm to reduce P1 to P2, but by this algorithm, P2 will be
recognized. That means there will be a Turing machine that says

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'yes' if the input is P1 but may or may not halt for the input which is
not in P2. As we know that one can convert an instance of w in P1 to
an instance x in P2. Then apply a TM to check whether x is in P2. If x
is accepted that also means w is accepted. This procedure describes
a TM whose language is P1 if w is in P1 then x is also in P2 and if w
is not in P1 then x is also not in P2. This proves that if P1 is non-RE
then P2 is also non-RE.

Recursive Language (REC)

A recursive language (subset of RE) can be decided by Turing machine which means it will
enter into final state for the strings of language and rejecting state for the strings which are
not part of the language. e.g.; L= {a nbncn|n>=1} is recursive because we can construct a
turing machine which will move to final state if the string is of the form a nbncn else move to
non-final state. So the TM will always halt in this case. REC languages are also called as
Turing decidable languages. The relationship between RE and REC languages can be
shown in Figure 1.

Properties of Recursive Languages

Closure property
 Union: If L1 and If L2 are two recursive languages, their union L1∪L2 will also
be recursive because if TM halts for L1 and halts for L2, it will also halt for
L1∪L2.

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 Concatenation: If L1 and If L2 are two recursive languages, their concatenation

L1.L2 will also be recursive. For Example:

L1= {anbncn|n>=0}
L2= {dmemfm|m>=0}
L3= L1.L2
= {anbncndm emfm|m>=0 and n>=0} is also recursive.
 L1 says n no. of a’s followed by n no. of b’s followed by n no. of c’s. L2 says m
no. of d’s followed by m no. of e’s followed by m no. of f’s. Their concatenation
first matches no. of a’s, b’s and c’s and then matches no. of d’s, e’s and f’s. So it
can be decided by TM.
 Kleene Closure: If L1is recursive, its kleene closure L1* will also be
recursive. For Example:
L1= {anbncn|n>=0}
L1*= { anbncn||n>=0}* is also recursive.
 Intersection and complement: If L1 and If L2 are two recursive languages,
their intersection L1 ∩ L2 will also be recursive. For Example:
L1= {anbncndm|n>=0 and m>=0}
L2= {anbncndn|n>=0 and m>=0}
L3=L1 ∩ L2
= { anbncndn |n>=0} will be recursive.

Post Correspondence Problem

The Post Correspondence Problem (PCP), introduced by Emil Post in 1946, is an undecidable
decision problem. The PCP problem over an alphabet ∑ is stated as follows −

Given the following two lists, M and N of non-empty strings over ∑ −

M = (x1, x2, x3,………, xn)

N = (y1, y2, y3,………, yn)

We can say that there is a Post Correspondence Solution, if for some i 1,i2,………… ik, where
1 ≤ ij ≤ n, the condition xi1 …….xik = yi1 …….yik satisfies.

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Example 1

Find whether the lists

M = (abb, aa, aaa) and N = (bba, aaa, aa)

have a Post Correspondence Solution?

Solution

x1 x2 x3

M Abb aa aaa

N Bba aaa aa

Here,

x2x1x3 = ‘aaabbaaa’

and y2y1y3 = ‘aaabbaaa’

We can see that

x2x1x3 = y2y1y3

Hence, the solution is i = 2, j = 1, and k = 3.

Example 2

Find whether the lists M = (ab, bab, bbaaa) and N = (a, ba, bab) have a Post
Correspondence Solution?

Solution

x1 x2 x3

M Ab Bab bbaaa

N A Ba bab

In this case, there is no solution because −

| x2x1x3 | ≠ | y2y1y3 | (Lengths are not same)

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Hence, it can be said that this Post Correspondence Problem is undecidable.

Post Correspondence Problem(PCP)

Let A and B be two non-empty list of strings over Σ.
A and B are given as below:
A={w1,w2,w3...wk}
B={v1,v2,v3...vk}
Then we can say ,there is a post correspondence between A and B is there is a
sequence of one or more integers i,j,k...m such that :
The string wi,wj,wk...wm is equal to vi,vj,vk...vm.

Modified Post Correspondence Problem(MPCP)

Let A and B be two non-empty list of strings over Σ. A and B are given as
below:
A={w1,w2,w3...wk}
B={v1,v2,v3...vk}

Then we can say ,there is a modified post correspondence between A and B is

there is a sequence of one or more integers i,j,k...m such that :
The string w1,wi,wj,wk...wm is equal to v1,vi,vj,vk...vm.

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Chomsky Hierarchy

Chomsky Hierarchy represents the class of languages that are accepted by the different
machine. The category of language in Chomsky's Hierarchy is as given below:

1. Type 0 known as Unrestricted Grammar.

2. Type 1 known as Context Sensitive Grammar.
3. Type 2 known as Context Free Grammar.
4. Type 3 Regular Grammar.

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This is a hierarchy. Therefore every language of type 3 is also of type 2, 1

and 0. Similarly, every language of type 2 is also of type 1 and type 0, etc.
Type 0 Grammar:
Type 0 grammar is known as Unrestricted grammar. There is no restriction on the grammar
rules of these types of languages. These languages can be efficiently modeled by Turing
machines.

For example:

1. bAa → aa
2. S → s

Type 1 Grammar:

Type 1 grammar is known as Context Sensitive Grammar. The context sensitive grammar is
used to represent context sensitive language. The context sensitive grammar follows the
following rules:

o The context sensitive grammar may have more than one symbol on the left hand side
of their production rules.
o The number of symbols on the left-hand side must not exceed the number of symbols
on the right-hand side.

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o The rule of the form A → ε is not allowed unless A is a start symbol. It does not occur
on the right-hand side of any rule.
o The Type 1 grammar should be Type 0. In type 1, Production is in the form of V → T

Where the count of symbol in V is less than or equal to T.

For example:

1. S → AT
2. T → xy
3. A → a

Type 2 Grammar:

Type 2 Grammar is known as Context Free Grammar. Context free languages are the
languages which can be represented by the context free grammar (CFG). Type 2 should be
type 1. The production rule is of the form

1. A → α

Where A is any single non-terminal and is any combination of terminals and non-terminals.

For example:

1. A → aBb
2. A → b
3. B → a

Type 3 Grammar:

Type 3 Grammar is known as Regular Grammar. Regular languages are those languages
which can be described using regular expressions. These languages can be modeled by NFA
or DFA.

Type 3 is most restricted form of grammar. The Type 3 grammar should be Type 2 and Type
1. Type 3 should be in the form of

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1. V → T*V / T*

For example:

1. A → xy

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