Improving Seventh-Grader Online Learning Engagement Using Assessment

Feedback and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies

Ong-art Naiyapatana a & Puttisak Naewtong b*

a
Faculty of Education, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, 10110 Thailand
b
Samsennok School, Din Daeng District Office, Bangkok, 14000 Thailand

Abstract

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The global spread of COVID-19 necessitated a shift from classroom-based to online learning, resulting in
decreased student engagement at an inner-city school in Bangkok. This article explores the use of assessment feedback
and self-regulated learning strategies to enhance student engagement. The researchers employed a two-cycle action
research model, consisting of four stages: planning, action, observation, and reflection. The study was conducted over
four weeks with 35 seventh-grade students, using observations, semi-structured interviews, and content analysis during
each cycle. The findings revealed an increase in student participation, with more students consistently logging into
class and remaining engaged throughout. Additionally, students demonstrated the confidence to turn on their cameras
to greet peers and showed a greater commitment to learning. Peer support emerged as an important factor in their
studies. Teachers provided feedback through Google Classroom and e-Portfolios, promoting student autonomy, which

contexts.
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led to increased engagement and fostered desirable learning behaviors that may be applicable in other educational

Keywords: Student online learning engagement, Assessment for learning, Assessment as learning

* Corresponding Author
e-mail: [email protected]
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Introduction
In the early 2020s, the COVID-19 pandemic marked a significant shift in educational history, as schools
worldwide transitioned from traditional face-to-face classrooms to online learning. In Thailand, this transition was fully
adopted, with schools relying heavily on online platforms. According to a survey by the Organization for Economic
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Co-operation and Development (OECD), Thai teachers were generally better equipped with online tools compared to
their counterparts in other OECD countries. However, the survey revealed that many Thai students lacked access to
quiet learning spaces, digital devices, and stable internet connections (Reimers, 2020), indicating that they were not
fully prepared for online learning. Moreover, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration's mandate to control the spread
of COVID-19 led to an abrupt shift to online learning. This situation transformed the learning environment from
traditional square classrooms to global online platforms. In the first semester of the 2021 academic year, 35 secondary
school students enrolled in their first online science course. Despite having access to quiet spaces, digital devices, and
stable internet, these students were still distracted by activities outside the lesson. This aligns with interviews of public-
school teachers in Bangkok, who reported that students were not paying attention in class, showed minimal interaction,
kept their cameras off, or disengaged from the learning process altogether (Fakcharoenphol, 2020). Teachers observed
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a decline in communication, participation, persistence, and overall efficiency, suggesting that students were not
engaged in their learning. Academics argue that engagement is a crucial factor in reducing dropout rates (Farrell &
Brunton, 2020). Therefore, teachers must adopt strategies that foster student engagement, helping them stay focused
and harmoniously integrated into the learning process.

Today's assessment trends emphasize integrating assessment activities with learning to foster positive
student-teacher and student-student interactions in a supportive classroom environment (Darling-Hammond & Oakes,
2019). Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning aim to transform the teacher's role from judge to
facilitator, continuously supporting students’ learning (Earl, 2013; McMillan, 2018). Teachers provide feedback
tailored to students’ knowledge and skills, guiding them on how to improve. Students also evaluate themselves and
their peers using these assessment methods, which help monitor learning progress throughout the semester. Assessment
for Learning shapes learning, primarily driven by the teacher, while Assessment as Learning focuses on the learner's
active participation in self-assessment and skill development driven by the learner’s habits and abilities(Chappuis &
Stiggins, 2017).

One key strategy in Assessment for Learning is using teacher feedback to stimulate student enthusiasm and
promote self-development (DeLuca & Klinger, 2010). Additionally, incorporating technology in the assessment
process supports self-regulated learning, which can enhance individual and in learning community engagement and
lead to better academic outcomes (Finn & Zimmer, 2022). Self-regulated learning, involving self-control and
motivation, aligns with the goals of Assessment as Learning, aiming to develop students' cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor skills.
While feedback and self-regulated learning strategies are typically used independently in traditional
classrooms, this study seeks to integrate Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning techniques into online

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classroom activities to address student engagement issues. The researchers will use feedback and self-regulated learning
as key strategies to enhance student engagement in online learning environments.

Objective
This study aims to enhance student engagement in online learning through the use of feedback and self-
regulated learning strategies.

Conceptual framework
The researchers integrated Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning techniques into classroom
activities using feedback and self-regulated learning as strategies to address student engagement problems in online
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learning. An action research methodology was employed (see Figure 1).

Plan Student Online

Plan
Learning
Engagement
- behavioral
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1. Feedback
Reflect Act Reflect Act engagement
2. Self-Regulated - cognitive
Learning engagement
- emotional
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Observe Observe
engagement

Figure 1 A framework for developing student engagement in online learning

Literature review
Student Engagement in Online Learning
Engagement is a critical factor in online learning, playing a key role in reducing dropout rates, improving
academic achievement, and helping learners develop the skills needed for future employment. Despite its importance,
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student participation in online learning is generally lower than in face-to-face settings (Farrell & Brunton, 2020).
Engagement, in this context, refers to a learner's commitment to acquiring knowledge from various sources. It often
reflects positive motivation, where learners enjoy the process of learning and demonstrate a desire to continue acquiring
knowledge and applying it to their lives (Finn & Zimmer, 2022). Learning engagement is visible through learners'
performance in academic activities and behaviors that demonstrate their connection to and involvement in learning,
ultimately contributing to their success (Guo, 2018).

Several factors influence student engagement, including class size, student support, peer evaluation, case
study learning, and the use of interactive lessons (Hodgson et al., 2013). Interactivity, particularly among peers,
teachers, and course content, fosters enthusiasm and a collective learning experience that leads to higher-quality
instruction and improved outcomes (Martin & Bolliger, 2018). As online learning becomes more prevalent, researchers
like Ding et al. (2018), Deng et al. (2020), and Wang et al. (2022) have identified three components of student
engagement in online learning:
 Behavioral engagement involves students' active participation, such as attendance, asking questions,
completing assignments, and engaging in online discussions. Studies have shown a strong link between these behaviors
and positive learning outcomes, making them key predictors of grades and assessment scores (Darling-Aduana, 2019;
Nguyen, Cannata, & Miller, 2018; Wang et al., 2022).

Emotional engagement refers to learners' emotional responses to learning activities, including interest,
boredom, happiness, sadness, and anxiety. In an online setting, emotional engagement reflects learners' attitudes
towards their peers, teachers, and the learning environment. Positive emotional engagement enhances active learning
(Molinillo et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2022).
Cognitive engagement refers to learners' perceptions of themselves and learning includes motivation, effort,
and strategy use. It also means mastering difficult skills using self-regulating metacognitive strategies, such as planning,

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monitoring, and assessing a person's understanding of a topic or a task. Therefore, in the online learning context, cognitive
engagement refers to the learning efforts to acquire complex content or skills in the online learning process
(Shernoff, 2013; Wang et al., 2022).

Overall, student engagement in online learning is driven by behavioral, emotional, and cognitive factors.
These dimensions of engagement are evidenced by students’ participation in class, attention during lessons, and
persistence (Ding et al., 2018; Deng et al., 2020; Henrie et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2022). This study examines behavioral
engagement (e.g., persistence, attendance, and on- task behavior), cognitive engagement (e.g., perceived relevance,
strategy use and beliefs), and emotional engagement (e.g., enjoyment, enthusiasm, and satisfaction).
Assessment for Learning and Feedback
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Assessment for Learning (AfL) is a method of shaping learning that is used to indicate students’ understanding.
AfL aims to develop student meta-cognition, where students are aware of their cognition and also can control and evaluate
themselves as well as their group or class. To that end, the teacher's role is to support students by helping them develop
skills and awareness so that they can plan, follow up, evaluate, and improve themselves. AfL enables teachers to seek
additional feedback from students for improved teaching and student learning ( Bartlett, 2015; McMillan, 2018; Stanley
& Alig, 2014) . Engagement is an integral part of lesson plans that highlight learning methods as a “ key element” in
classrooms. Teachers who recognize the benefits of learner motivation must have essential skills that reflect their
professionalism. As a result, teachers primarily plan, assess, and use assessment information as feedback for remedial
action or to develop individuals or groups of learners to improve throughout the academic year (Wisniewski et al., 2020).
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The teacher is the one who is responsible for providing feedback to students as a method to empower them.
Feedback is an important and crucial part of Assessment for Learning because it provides information from
representatives, such as teachers and peers, about student performance (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Formative feedback
offers information about students' progress throughout the learning unit, promoting learning through instant or timely
constructive feedback from online teachers. This feedback can support assessment and teaching, close gaps in
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understanding, and motivate learners. A lack of feedback is one of the most frequently cited reasons for students
withdrawing from online courses or becoming “black-screen” students. Teachers often view feedback as a gift rather
than an interaction between instructors and learners. In various instructional settings, feedback has been a powerful
influence on learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
With the growing popularity of online learning, digital feedback is now more readily available than ever,
enabling learners and teachers to better understand how to offer feedback and identify opportunities for improvement.
Online feedback includes information from teachers or classmates received as written statements, audio files, videos,
pre-programmed auto-responses, live web conferencing, which learners can use to reflect on the effectiveness of the
curriculum and improve their performance. Hattie & Timperley’s (2007) Feedback Model is organized around three
steps—feed-up, feedback, and feedforward—highlights the effectiveness of feedback. Additionally, the researchers
expanded the concepts of online feedback at various levels: task-level emphasizes diagnosis and reasoning; process-level
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emphasizes development, reinforcement, connection, and promotion; self-level emphasizes motivation, time
management, communication, and seeking assistance; and emotional-level emphasizes mood (Wang et al., 2021).
Feedback strategy can be divided into two components: feedback content and feedback methods for sharing information
and opinions with students.
According to Hattie & Timperley’s (2007) Feedback Model, researchers applied feedback in an online learning
context by greeting students in real-time, using chat boxes and symbols. They assessed prior knowledge with quizzes,
tests, or online surveys, and then reported test results and provided feedback on study plans (feed-up). Teachers and
students collaboratively developed learning objectives, tasks, and assessment criteria. However, students did not
participate in monitoring each other’s tasks. During the teaching stage, teachers employed media and technology suitable
for online learning, encouraging students to explore (feedback). Despite this, students continued to fail to submit their
assignments on time, leading the teacher to provide incomplete feedback. Additionally, if students did not understand
their tasks, teachers could offer further advice on group work, assignments, and homework (feedforward).
Assessment as Learning and Self-regulated Learning,

Earl (2013) defined Assessment as Learning as a subset of Assessment for Learning. Assessment as Learning
(AaL) emphasizes the learner’s active role in the assessment process. Unlike AfL, which is primarily teacher-driven,
AaL encourages students to take ownership of their learning by engaging in self-assessment and reflection. This
approach fosters metacognitive skills, helping students plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, both individually and
in group settings (Keeley, 2016; Hawe & Dixon, 2017).

AaL is personal, ongoing, reflective, and self-initiated (Keeley, 2016; Hawe & Dixon, 2017). As a result, AaL
aids the management of one’ s learning ( self- regulated learning) , improves student confidence, and increases
responsibility and autonomy.

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Self-regulated learning
Self-regulated learning is a set of strategies that students use in their studies, involving a metacognitive
process that requires active participation before, during, and after academic work (Pintrich, 2004; Zimmerman, 2015).
According to Zimmerman's concept, self-regulated learning refers to a student's self-control and motivational processes
for goal-oriented learning. Pintrich’s conceptual framework builds on Zimmerman's idea, emphasizing that self-
regulated learning involves managing thoughts and motivation within the learning context. In light of the COVID-19
pandemic, researchers have proposed ways to empower students by adapting self-regulated learning strategies to online
learning practices. Hong et al. (2021) identified six components of self-regulated online learning: task strategy, mood
adjustment, self-evaluation, environmental structuring, time management, and help-seeking. They found that
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participants with high levels of academic procrastination exhibited low levels of self-regulated online learning, resulting
in a perception of online learning as ineffective.
Moreover, many scholars have provided guidelines and recommendations for fostering self-regulated online
learning. For instance, in Assessment as Learning, teachers can encourage students to keep a record of their learning,
conduct self-assessments individually or in groups based on specific criteria, and reflect on ways to improve. They can
also create concept maps summarizing what they have learned from various sources (Gayton & McEwen, 2007; Martin
& Bolliger, 2018; Mega et al., 2014) to guide future learning and enhance performance.
The self-regulated online learning framework helps researchers set class objectives, prioritize learning
schedules and timelines, discuss expected outcomes of class activities, and define evaluation methods, while also
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motivating students to collaborate. Students monitor and regulate their own learning as well as their peers’, seek
knowledge, experiment, solve context-related problems, assess their abilities, and strive to improve. When they
encounter difficulties, students can seek help from classmates or the teacher, then work on a learning log. Thus, learning
engagement is fostered through feedback and self-regulated learning.
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Research Methodology
Context of the Study
This research was conducted in a school in Bangkok, which offers classes from early childhood through
secondary education. During the first semester of the 2021 academic year, in accordance with the Bangkok
Metropolitan Administration's order to control the spread of COVID-19 and reduce the risk of infection among students,
in-person classes were suspended as students were being vaccinated. Regarding online learning in Thailand, teachers
used various online conferencing platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Facebook Live, Line, or Google Meet,
depending on what the schools provided and the learners’ preferences.
The study group consisted of Seventh Grade students from a school in Bangkok studying diffusion and
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osmosis content during the first semester of the 2021 academic year. The group included one classroom with 35
students—14 males and 21 females. The researcher had already been teaching this class alongside another fellow
researcher, making the research team co-developers. The research focused on two subunits: diffusion and osmosis. All
students’ parents supported online learning by providing communication devices and a stable internet connection.
Participants and Design
The action research team consisted of three secondary science teachers (one female and two male) with
experience ranging from 10 to 23 years, as well as a university researcher. The teachers and researchers met once a
week. The 35 students, aged 12-13, were enrolled in their first online science course in secondary school. Among the
students were five who were ethnic or political refugees from Burma and Laos. Only students with access to online
learning tools such as smartphones, netbooks, or laptops, and who could connect to Google Meet, were selected.
Students without internet access or online learning devices were excluded from the study.
Online learning allows teachers to teach at any time and place convenient for them. Most learning processes
required enrollment in the classroom system. When developing self-regulated online learning engagement, most
academics referenced teacher feedback principles such as Feeding Up, Feeding Back, and Feeding Forward (Wang et
al., 2021), as well as self-regulated online learning practices, including task strategy, mood adjustment, self-evaluation,
environmental structuring, time management, and help-seeking (Hong et al., 2021).
The researchers studied different types of assessment and found that Assessment for Learning and
Assessment as Learning helped students stay more focused on the lesson. They believed these two assessment
techniques could be integrated, which inspired them to conduct this study. The research was designed to focus on
feedback (teacher-led role) and self-regulated learning (student-led role) to develop self-regulated online learning
engagement. The researchers integrated Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning techniques into a
teaching-based approach using three steps: warm-up, presentation and practice, and wrap-up (Table 1).
Method
The objective of this study was to develop online learning engagement using Assessment for Learning and

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Assessment as Learning. To achieve this, we employed an action research methodology. Action research is defined as
a problem-solving approach in which teachers take on the role of researchers to address and improve classroom issues
(Mills, 2018). In this research, we followed the action research spiral proposed by Kemmis et al. (2016) and utilized
two cycles of action research (Figure 2).

Table 1 Process in developing learning engagement using feedback and self-regulated learning strategies

Strategies
Steps

Warm-up
PT Feedback
(AfL: teacher-led role)
- Greeting and doing an ice-breaking activity:
chat-box or real-time conversation
(synchronous)
Self-regulated learning
(AaL: student-led role)
- Collaborating to determine the learning
direction, prioritize the content to be
studied, and establish the methods and
-Testing students’ prior knowledge by asking assessment criteria (synchronous and
questions in the chat box (asynchronous) asynchronous)
- Using the answers as a guideline in - Using the peer buddy method to
determining learning outcomes, content, motivate each other to study (synchronous
learning activities, and assessments and asynchronous)
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Presentation and - Using PowerPoint to explain content, -Collaborating to gather information,
practice showed YouTube clips, and demonstrated perform tasks (demonstration and
diffusion and osmosis experiments experiment), and critique each other’s
(synchronous and asynchronous) tasks (synchronous and asynchronous)
- Ask students frequently and assign tasks via -Using the peer buddy method to observe
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Google Classroom (synchronous and and control each other to study.

asynchronous) (synchronous and asynchronous)
- Assigning tasks using e-Portfolio
(asynchronous)
- Followed up and provided feedback on each
student's practice (asynchronous)
- Giving feedback (asynchronous)
Wrap-up - Using questions to summarize lessons - Seeking help from peers or teachers
(synchronous and asynchronous) when they could not find an answer
- Assessing the assignment (asynchronous) - Keeping learning logs during and after
- Providing feedback on tasks and processes class. (asynchronous)
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using text and symbols (synchronous and - Reflecting on their learning from their
asynchronous) portfolio (asynchronous)
- Creating learning notes to summarize the
lesson; mapping, diagrams, and
summaries (asynchronous)
 science teachers discuss problems,
cause analysis & solution.
Reflection;
teaching reflection, problem Plan; related materials study, online
examination, and online learning learning activity planning using self-
activity planning activity planning. directed learning and feedback strategies.

Act & Observe; diffusion learning unit,

learning behavior and engagement
observation, and online learning activity

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planning.

Replan Plan; teaching method adjustment based

Reflection; on current situation using self-directed
teaching reflection, development learning and feedback strategies.
result conclusion, and online learning
activity planning activity planning.

Act & Observe; osmosis learning unit,

learning behavior and engagement
observation, and online learning activity
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Figure 2 The Action Research Spiral based on Kemmis et al. (2016)

The researchers discussed the issue of student online learning engagement with the science teachers at the
school to propose a plan that integrated teacher feedback and self-regulated learning strategies into classroom activities.
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They then implemented the plan over two lessons: diffusion and osmosis. The researchers observed student online
learning engagement in three areas: behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. Group
discussions were held to identify difficulties and limitations in order to improve the procedure for the next cycle. The
researchers observed self-regulated online learning engagement in each cycle using the triangulation method to reduce
bias. They also counted the number of students enrolled online. Next, semi-structured follow-up interviews were
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conducted, and the data were analyzed using content analysis, with descriptive findings presented.

Implementing action research

Group discussions among the three teachers and interviews regarding the challenges of online learning
revealed the following insights from both teachers and students: (1) Teachers found it difficult to engage students online
as effectively as in face-to-face classes. When students did not understand or were unable to interact and receive
feedback during class, they disengaged. (2) Students struggled to concentrate, lacked motivation and self-regulation,
felt uncomfortable turning on their videos, and were unsure of what they needed to improve. (3) Unstable internet
connections, insufficient phone capacity, and inadequate equipment hindered students' ability to participate in online
learning. (4) Many students lived in congested areas that were unsuitable for online learning.
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The researchers focused on the difficulties faced by both teachers and students, with the primary challenge
being maintaining learning engagement. The research team agreed to embed assessment within the lessons to prevent
students from being overly aware of being assessed. This method had been used in face-to-face learning, but the team
adapted it for online learning. The researchers concluded that assessment can be effectively integrated into the online
teaching and learning process.
This research was conducted in two cycles to develop online learning engagement by incorporating
assessment techniques throughout the teaching process. The learning unit consisted of two sub-units: diffusion and
osmosis. Each cycle included the stages of planning, action, observation, and reflection.

Trustworthiness
The researchers used two methods to ensure trustworthiness: triangulation involving multiple data sources
and member checking (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The details are as follows: (1) Triangulation was achieved by collecting
data from various sources, including observations, post-teaching notes, student reflection diaries, and interviews. These
multiple data sources helped to confirm any behavioral changes observed in the students. (2) Member checking
involved taking the summarized data back to the students to confirm its accuracy. This method ensured that the
researchers’ interpretations aligned with the students' realities, providing a clearer confirmation of the findings

Results
1. Cycle One: Diffusion lessons (two weeks)
Planning
During the planning stage, the researchers developed the instruments used in the research and outlined the
course of action as follows. The research instruments included:
(1) A learning plan that integrated Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning techniques into a three-step
teaching approach: warm-up, presentation and practice, and wrap-up. Experts evaluated the appropriateness of these

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learning activities.
(2) A self-regulated online learning engagement observation tool developed based on academic concepts and adapted
for online learning (Ding et al., 2018; Deng et al., 2020). This tool assessed three components: behavioral engagement
(attendance, persistence, on-task behavior), cognitive engagement (perceived relevance, beliefs, strategy), and
emotional engagement (enjoyment, enthusiasm, satisfaction). Experts confirmed its face validity with a Rater
Agreement Index of 0.72.
(3) Structured interviews for teachers, using open-ended questions to explore issues encountered while organizing
activities and students' learning behaviors during the study. Experts reviewed the language and appropriateness of the
questions.
This stage took two weeks (three hours per week). The learning unit on diffusion consisted of four hours, divided into
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three subunits: basic concepts of diffusion (1 hour), diffusion in plant cells (2 hours), and plant stomata (1 hour).
Action: The researchers shared online class links with the students via LINE Groups, instructing them to join
the meetings on Google Meet. Once students joined, the teacher greeted them and sent stickers to create a welcoming
atmosphere. The teacher then introduced themselves, shared learning expectations, rated the students' overall online
learning engagement, and recommended appropriate learning strategies. The researchers observed the online classes
once a week to monitor the teachers' feedback and students’ self-regulation. The lessons on diffusion were divided into
three sections: one hour for the first section, two hours for the second, and one hour for the third. An observation form
was used to record student characteristics during each session. The researchers worked with two groups of stakeholders:
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students and teachers.

Observation
The Student Engagement in Online Learning observation focused on three areas:
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- Behavioral Engagement:
1. Persistence: 23 students connected to the online classes, 10 of whom turned on their cameras,
while the rest left theirs off. Ten students consistently attended, and eight were punctual. Most used smartphones to
attend class.
2. Attendance: Students did not initially express opinions during class, with some using unrelated
programs or browsing websites. However, they gradually participated in discussions, commented, took notes, and
began setting learning goals.
3. On-task Behavior: Students hesitated to ask questions out of fear of judgment, slowing down the
submission of complex assignments (such as mind mapping, demonstrations, and experiments). However, they
managed to submit takeaways from Google and YouTube lessons on time. Eventually, students became more
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comfortable asking questions in real time and via chat.

- Cognitive Engagement:
1. Perceived Relevance: Students were aware of the COVID-19 situation, prepared necessary tools,
and chose quiet settings when available, often turning off their cameras when in noisy environments.
2. Strategies: Initially, students failed to plan for online classes or prioritize tasks. Later, some
began organizing their studies by taking notes, creating mind maps, and seeking additional resources online.
3. Beliefs: Students viewed online learning as comparable to face-to-face learning, appreciating the
freedom to study from anywhere without school uniforms. They valued the autonomy to seek resources, such as peers,
teachers, and the Internet. They used simple software like Microsoft Word and PowerPoint but lacked peer feedback
on assignments submitted via Google Classroom.
- Emotional Engagement:
 1. Enjoyment: Some students enjoyed searching for online resources and working on group
projects, but others engaged in non-school-related activities. Some avoided turning on their videos during follow-up
sessions.
2. Enthusiasm: Students showed limited interest in online classes, leading to longer explanations
and lower participation. They often missed deadlines and engaged in non-class activities like gaming and browsing.
3. Satisfaction: Students were uncomfortable being on camera and disliked feeling constantly
watched. Some faced issues with internet connectivity, and others shared devices with siblings, leading to poor
communication and missed work.
During this first cycle, students expressed discomfort about sharing personal information, such as their home
environment, and turned off their videos. Few attended classes on time, and many lacked confidences in approaching
teachers or managing online learning.

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Reflection:
In this cycle, students were hesitant to ask questions, struggled to plan and prioritize assignments, and were
often disengaged, using devices for non-class activities. The research team revised their plans into two categories:
feedback (for teachers) and self-regulated learning (for students).
- Feedback Adjustments:
1. Synchronous Feedback: Real-time discussions, presentations, demonstrations, and feedback
focused on tasks and self-assessments rather than mistakes.
2. Asynchronous Feedback: Written or symbolic feedback on tasks and processes was provided
through Google Classroom and an e-portfolio.
- Self-Regulated Learning Adjustments:
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1. Environmental Structure: Students could choose whether to turn on their videos but were
required to keep learning records.
2. Mood Adjustment: Teachers encouraged self-introductions using quotes or mottos to foster
comfort.
3. Task Strategy: Students were paired with a "buddy" for communication and progress tracking.
4. Self-evaluation: Students and buddies collaborated to assess each other's learning and
supervision.
5. Time Management: Constant in-class communication helped ensure student presence.
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6. Seeking Assistance: Students could ask for help through chat during the lesson.

2. Cycle Two: Osmosis lessons (two weeks): The research team optimized the action plan from Cycle 1 by adjusting
the lesson plan. The emphasis focused on positive feedback to boost learning motivation, self-esteem, and perceived
self-efficacy. Peer support was also emphasized for monitoring, follow-ups, and collaboration.
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Planning:
The teaching steps included:

(1) Warm-up: The teacher greeted students and introduced learning guidelines. Students could choose to turn
their videos on or off, and they introduced themselves through chat or speech. Teachers provided feedback
on learning strategies. Students sought, made choices, and set goals for studying with their classmates.
(2) Presentation and Practice: Teachers used PowerPoint, YouTube videos, and demonstrations to present
lessons. Assignments were given through Google Classroom and e-portfolios Peers communicated shared
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information and tracked each other’s assignment progress. In online classrooms, there was constant
communication to ensure that everyone was engaged. Channels on which students could request assistance
were created, and teachers provided feedback on each student's practice via the channels.

(3) Wrap-up: Students sought help when needed, and teachers provided feedback both asynchronously (written
or symbolic) and synchronously (spoken or gestural). Students wrote learning notes to summarize the lesson.
Assignments were managed using Google Classroom and the e-portfolio program.

In this cycle, the lesson on osmosis was taught for four hours over two weeks. The first hour was spent on the
basic concept of osmosis, the next two hours were spent on osmosis experiments, and the last hour was used to
summarize. Learning tools such as LINE Group, Google Meet, PowerPoint, Google Classroom, and E- portfolio were
added. After the lesson, researchers conducted interviews with students about their behavior and what happened during
the online classes.
 Action: The procedure followed that of Cycle 1 but with adjustments in feedback and self-regulated
learning based on the student group’s context. Researchers observed and recorded student behavior during online
classes once a week.

Observation, the Student Online Learning Engagement observation yielded the following results. Behavioral
engagement, ( 1) Persistence: 35 students registered for online classes. 18 students in the online class turned on their
videos, while the rest turned them off. 24 students were consistent with their online class attendance, and 21 students
attended online classes on time. Most students use smartphones to attend class. (2) Attendance: students looked forward
to giving self-introductions in their unique way (with quotes and mottos,). They turned their videos and microphones on

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during the lesson or sent messages during learning activities to respond to the teacher's questions. They also participated
in discussions to define assignments and assessment criteria, adjusting them to their learning goals. (3) On-task behavior:
students could summarize the content of the lesson and complete time- sensitive tasks. They got along well with their
classmates and talked about their work both in and out of the classroom. They also created a Line group as a way to send
and receive documents (instead of emails).
Cognitive engagement, ( 1 ) Students recognized the severity of the COVID- 19 outbreak and behaved
appropriately in online learning. They gathered their class materials, tried to be in an appropriate setting for study, and
paid attention to the teacher on the screen even though some had complained about experiencing eye fatigue ( 2 )
Strategies: students planned to study with their buddies, spending most of their time in online classes taking notes and
researching` additional resources on the Internet. ( 3 ) Belief: students believed in their ability to study online using
programs or tools, and they believed that online learning is comparable to traditional learning. They also believed that
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teachers and others could access and provide feedback on any assignment submitted via Google Classroom or the e-
portfolio.
Emotional engagement, (1) Enjoyment: greetings from friends (mottos, quotes) created a positive atmosphere
in the classroom. Students enjoyed working with their classmates to review concepts. They also liked texting or video-
calling their classmates and teachers when working on assignments or reviewing homework. (2) Enthusiasm: students
were interested in attending classes and had logged into the online classroom to verify and introduce themselves (quotes,
mottos) . Students and buddies collaborated on activities and were motivated to work on assignments and deliver them
on time, improve them based on feedback from teachers, create works with graphics programs, and seek new knowledge
beyond the content of the lesson. Furthermore, some students assisted their friends in completing a learning activity. (3)
Satisfaction: students appreciated when teachers were approachable and offered tips on learning, workflow, and results.
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They also expressed concern towards their classmates by asking questions about each other's learning circumstances.
Furthermore, classmates provided follow- up work on time and participated in activities together throughout the lesson.
Students also used tools to build knowledge and set learning goals, workload, and assessment criteria to suit their ability
levels. Students were also able to relax during the learning activities.
Reflection, according to the findings of the observations, students showed positive improvements in online
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learning engagement such as increased attendance and persistence, self- confidence in their ability to set and achieve
educational goals, interactions with classmates in and out of the classroom ( synchronous and asynchronous) , learning
with friends ( buddies) and increased enjoyment in the classroom through the use of quotes or slogans during self-
introductions (Table 3).
In addition, the interviews with the students were consistent with the research observations. For example, the
students saw the importance of peer support in their studies, such as following up on time and helping each other in their
studies. At times, students who were concerned about their appearance or home conditions turned off the videos, the
students were engaged even though they did not appear in the class. In addition, students did extra research from other
learning sources.
The research team agreed that the second research cycle was more comprehensive, with the guidelines tailored
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to the context of instruction. Teachers used tools such as Google Classroom, e- portfolios, and LINE groups to provide
immediate feedback. They also used collaborative learning (buddies) to help monitor students’ behavior in class.

Table 3 Student Engagement in Online Learning observations between cycle one and cycle two

Student Engagement Observations of Cycle One Observations of Cycle Two

in Online Learning
Behavioral (1) 23 students logged into the class, 10 of ( 1) 35 students logged into the class, with
whom were constantly present but were 24 staying the entire time. Students had
disengaged and disinterested in the activity self- control in studying, did not turn off
or content throughout the lesson. their phone screens during class, and
( 2) Comments were not provided in the occasionally interacted with and asked
online classroom, but the content was questions to the teacher.
recorded for lesson review.
 ( 3) Some students were hesitant to ask (2) Students turned on their videos or used
questions because they were afraid of being their microphones to greet friends, join the
judged— some delayed submission of class, and set their own learning goals.
complex assignments. ( 3) Students summarized the lesson
content, completed time- sensitive tasks,
and created a Line group chat to accept
tasks from friends.
Cognitive ( 1) Students were aware of the severity of ( 1) Students were aware of the severity of
COVID- 19, learned, prepared equipment, COVID- 19, took appropriate online
and located the appropriate location. learning practices despite experiencing eye
( 2) Most students failed to plan and fatigue.
prioritize, but some had planned their ( 2) Students planned to study with their
studies. buddies and were committed to learning.

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( 3) Students believed that online learning ( 3) Students believed anyone can access
could replace traditional methods, but the and provide feedback through Google
feedback did not persuade them. Classroom and the e-portfolio.
Emotional ( 1) Some students enjoyed looking up ( 1) The online classroom was filled with
online resources, but many were engaged laughter during classroom greetings, and
in non-school-related activities. when students worked with buddies.
( 2) Students were disinterested in online ( 2) Students were interested in attending
classes, participation, and assignments. classes; logged in, collaborated, and
(3)Students were uncomfortable when they provided recommendations to their friends
saw their pictures on the screen. ( 3) Students were appreciative when
teachers were approachable and offered

Discussion
PT learning tips.

This study demonstrates that the Student Engagement in Online Learning development approach, using
feedback and self-regulated learning strategies, is effective in teaching lessons on diffusion and osmosis. While the
lesson content differed, the scope was similar, as both topics fall under the broader category of substance transport
processes. The research team did not separate research from teaching activities, which led to these processes running
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in parallel throughout the action research. The focus of this study is solely on the development of student engagement,
as the team did not assess science achievement due to the limitations of online environments, such as the inability to
conduct lab experiments, which affected students' science learning experiences.

Initially, the research team implemented strict guidelines and techniques that proved inappropriate for the
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context. Adjustments were made later to ensure the strategy was feasible, and the students reciprocated, showing
continuity in the action research cycle (planning, action, observation, and reflection). Ultimately, the team identified
best practice guidelines for Student Engagement in Online Learning. Feedback and self-regulated learning, integrated
as assessment techniques throughout the process, played a key role in positively impacting student engagement.
Assessment, as part of instructional management, is crucial for monitoring student progress and facilitating their
connection to the teaching and learning process (Keeley, 2016).

The study was conducted in a school located in Bangkok, Thailand, which benefits from reliable
communication equipment and a stable internet connection. While the guidelines are specific to this context, they can
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be adapted to other environments, especially those with similar access to communication tools and technology. These
strategies can be applied to both offline and hybrid formats, including managing workloads outside of classroom
activities, such as homework. Google Classroom and e-portfolios, used for assignment management in this study,
promote interaction and create an online learning community. Students appreciated these platforms as tools for
feedback and self-regulated learning. The use of forums, chats, group assignments, and peer assessments allowed
students to feel autonomous in their learning, fostering self-directed review of learning activities during their free time.
These platforms also enhanced social interaction, creating a sense of connectedness within the classroom community
(Martin & Bolliger, 2018; Mega et al., 2014). Teachers used questions to review and provide feedback on students'
tasks, learning processes, and self-regulation during both presentation and practice stages. This approach aligns with
research that highlights how assessments can stimulate enthusiasm for learning, resulting in the development of self-
study skills, rapport, and cooperative learning (DeLuca & Klinger, 2010).

The research involved two cycles of action research. Results from the first cycle were unclear, possibly due
to students' unfamiliarity with the communication tools and the online learning environment. Students were also
navigating the sudden shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted traditional classroom
dynamics. By the second cycle, engagement improved as students became more comfortable with the platform and
learning style. The teachers incorporated questions into all stages of learning activities, using both real-time
conversations and chat boxes to engage students. This approach helped students feel included in the classroom and
allowed teachers to monitor changes in student behavior. Feedback was delivered both synchronously and
asynchronously, with positive feedback given publicly and negative feedback provided privately. This approach
encouraged students to review and improve their thinking and follow up on their own or their peers’ learning progress
(Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). As a result, students were more motivated to learn, became curious, and effectively
applied their knowledge (Wisniewski et al., 2020).
Additionally, starting lessons with an introduction or greeting, such as a quote or slogan, unexpectedly
motivated students to stay engaged. This activity fostered humor and a relaxed classroom atmosphere, encouraging

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peer interaction. Peer support, as observed in this study, was effective in promoting engagement through goal setting,
learning design, and role switching, consistent with previous findings on the benefits of peer support in learning
engagement (Hodgson et al., 2013; Bartlett, 2015).

Conclusion
The research team opted for action research to find the right solution to address the lack of learning engagement
in online classrooms. Our Student Engagement in Online Learning research methodology simultaneously considers
techniques, methods, tools, feedback, and self-regulated learning, multiplying the chances of success when compared to
a methodology that relies on a single factor.
The research team discovered two factors that positively impact Student Engagement in Online Learning.
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Firstly, teachers were enthusiastic in the action research process because the research process included a brainstorming
session to exchange ideas, find ways to collaborate on the development of the students’ desired characteristics, and plan
teaching operations. Additionally, the reflection stage allowed all stakeholders to be aware of existing issues in the
classroom and they came together to aid in new and better methods or approaches, also known as “back to track”.
Secondly, both assessment techniques impacted student learning by diagnosing student learning problems, improving
learning strategies or student performance skills both individually and collectively ( AfL), and assessing students' roles
and self-directed learning habits, the level of responsibility, monitoring, and self-regulated learning (AaL).
Changes in this study were made possible by teachers adjusting their beliefs—learning to collaborate effectively with
colleagues—and their behaviors, such as staying attentive, focusing on classroom activities, and consistently following
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established processes.

However, the teacher's role in providing feedback is similar to that of a “learning stimulus.” Feedback has to be
provided at the right time without disrupting the student's learning rhythm to motivate learning. This gives students the
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freedom to learn, a relaxed and positive classroom atmosphere, a sense of responsibility for learning, and a service
mindset towards classmates to share knowledge and compassion. On the other hand, when used at the wrong time or
regardless of context, these techniques can be detrimental or undermine students' potential. Wrong timing and context
could cause the students to lose confidence, negatively perceive their ability, lack learning engagement, lack cooperation
on the assigned tasks, and eventually leave the online classroom.

Suggestions
1. This study provides an overview of the combined use of Assessment for Learning and Assessment as
Learning techniques. It is not possible to determine which assessment technique has more of a positive effect on the
development of Student Learning Engagement. This study focuses solely on the Student Online Learning Engagement
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development process, and therefore it does not consider academic achievement or any other competency that follows;
however, this may be an opportunity for further study.
2. Even though the current situation of the COVID-19 outbreak has softened and people are living their normal
lives, promoting Student Online Learning Engagement among students is always important. This approach method or
platform may be used in the context of combined learning, such as assigning workloads as homework and creating a
platform to assign workloads outside of class hours for various subjects, particularly in Bangkok schools with similar
contexts.

3. Feedback and self-regulated learning strategies are still the mainstays in developing and promoting Student
Online Learning Engagement. They can be used in the context or situation of organizing learning activities both online,
on-site, and hybrid.

Acknowledgment
 The researchers would like to express their appreciation to the National Institute of Educational Testing Service
(Public Organization) for the research fund for the year 2020 budget. This research is part of the research project entitled
“Developing a Scientific Competencies-Based Assessment System in the Digital Age for Primary 6 Students”. This
research has been approved by the Ethical Committee of Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand. The ethics document
number is SWUEC/E-181/2563.

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Article info
Received: 7 June 2023
Revised: 19 September 2024
Accepted: 25 September 2024
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Author
Naiyapatana & Naewtong

Email
[email protected]