TOPIC: -

TEMPERATE CYCLONES: DEVELOPMENT,

WEATHER CONDITIONS AND DISTRIBUTION.

PAPER NAME: - ADVANCED CLIMATOLOGY

SUBJECT: - GEOGRAPHY
SEMESTER: - M.A –II
PAPER CODE: - (GEO-201)
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY,
DR. SHYMA PRASAD MUKHERJEE UNIVERSITY, RANCHI.
INTRODUCTION: -
We all experience different kinds of temperature, humidity, cloud cast sky related to weather
phenomena every day. Have you ever noticed that there are changes in pattern of weather events
in an annual cycle? Depending on where you live, there could be different reasons for that. You
have already studied about the planetary wind patterns and shifting of wind belts. You are also
well aware about the air masses and front formations. These atmospheric phenomena in the mid
latitudes create conditions for the developments of cyclonic conditions. Whenever they develop,
numerous changes are observed in a shorter span of time, say few days or a week. They are
termed as temperate cyclone or frontal cyclones. This module discusses about the development
of this cyclone, the associated weather and their distribution over the globe.

TEMPERATE CYCLONES: -
A temperate cyclone is referred as mid-latitude depressions, extra-tropical cyclones, frontal
depressions and wave cyclones. Temperate cyclones are active above mid-latitudinal region
between 35o to 65o latitudes in both hemispheres. The direction of movement is blow from west
to east and more pronounced in the winter seasons. It is in these latitude zones the polar and
tropical air masses meet and form fronts.

Most of these cyclones form at wavelike twist or perturbation on these fronts. On weather map,
cyclones are shown as a low pressure area enclosed by a number of isobars circular or elliptical
in shape. It is also referred as cyclone or depression. When these isobars take an elongated shape,
the pressure system is called as trough. These cyclones are mainly observed in Atlantic Ocean
and northwest Europe. These cyclones have characteristics to develop over both oceanic and land
surface. Much of the highly variable and cloudy weather come across in the temperate zone.
Since mid-latitude is an area of convergence of different air masses, it leads to the formation of
fronts as well as the cyclonic conditions are bound to happen.

FRONTS: -
Air masses have been dealt in Module 21 and you know it very well that the air masses develop
in specific regions over uniform physical properties (temperature, air pressure, humidity etc.).
They have similarity in terms of air pressure, horizontal temperature and moisture distribution.
Based on temperature characteristics, air masses are of two types – warm and cold. Both of the
air masses march forward and both of them converge. The convergence is known as fronts.

Chritchfield defined front as “sloping boundary surface between contrasting air masses”. Strahler
and Strahler have defined the front as “sharply defined boundary between itself and a
neighbouring air mass”. According to Oliver and Hidor front is “identified as a zone of transition
between airs of different properties”. In a very simple term, front is a narrow zone between two
air masses like a frontier when the armies of two countries come to fight each other.

As mentioned before, air masses are of two types – warm and cold, two types of fronts with
distinct characteristics are formed in the process of marching forward and getting interacted with
each other. Latter on the intermingling of the two gives birth to another one known as – occluded
front.

WARM FRONT: In the northern hemisphere, the warm front (Figure 4) develops to the
southeast; to the right side of the moving direction of warm air mass. In southern hemisphere, it
develops to the southeast; to the left side of the moving direction of warm air mass. The warm
front development is caused and modified due to the interaction of the air masses. On the warm
front, the effect of warm air mass is pronounced, and hence, it is named so.

COLD FRONT: In the northern hemisphere, the cold front (Figure 4) develops to the northwest;
to the right side of the moving direction of cold air mass. In southern hemisphere, it develops to
the southwest; to the left side of the moving direction of cold air mass. The development is
caused and modified due to the interaction of the air masses. On the cold front, the effect of cold
air mass is marked, and hence, it is named as cold front.

OCCLUDED FRONT: Occlusion means the blocking or sealing the existence and with respect
to fronts. It signifies the removal of the fronts from the ground. Occlusion of the fronts occurs
when the cold air mass occupies the ground space surrounding the hairpin turned clubbed warm
and cold
fronts. This type of fronts does exist but for short time. They remain on suspension in the sky. It
is termed as occluded front.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE: -

The most significant and lasting contribution to synoptic meteorology towards the end of World
War I was made by Norwegian meteorologists associated with ‘Bergen School of Meteorologist’
VilhelmBjerknes, his son J. Bjerknes and associates. They brought about major advances in
understanding the temperate cyclones. They focused on careful, systematic analysis of synoptic
weather maps and time cross-sections of weather systems. They identified and developed first
model for the life cycle of mid-latitude cyclones. Being associated with the development of an
occluded front, wherein the mid-latitude cyclone’s cold front overtakes its warm front. Their
investigations and researches resulted in explanation of Polar Front Theory of cyclones or simply
as Wave Theory.

The origin and development temperate cyclone is best explained by the Norwegian model. It is
very popularly known as polar front theory.

POLAR FRONT THEORY: -

According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air
masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed. It creates a surface of discontinuity
between two air masses. Such conditions occur between sub-tropical highs and sub-polar lows.
The cold air is denser and heavier as the intermolecular space of the cold air is smaller. It always
occupies the lower ground space. Due to this reason, warm sub-tropical air is pushed up. There is
interaction between the two air masses depending upon their nature in terms of temperature and
moisture conditions. This interaction of cold and warm air masses creates instability and a low
pressure is created at the junction particularly in the center of interactions. The center of
interaction is that zone where the warm and cold fronts are differentiated. Latter on this point
develops as the eye of cyclone.

The formation of wave is indicative of thermal contrast. The two air masses start encroaching the
domain of each other. In northern hemisphere the warm air mass moves northward, as westerlies.
The cold air mass moves southward as easterlies. Since it is the case of northern hemisphere,
winds are bending to the right direction as per the Ferrel’s law. In this process, both westerlies
and easterlies are deflected to the right from their designated direction. Therefore, along the front
creation in the northern hemisphere, eastern part of the front is dominated by the warm air mass.
On the contrary, to the western side, the dominance of the cold air mass is prominent. The
reverse is the case if we take the example of southern hemisphere. The successive development
of the mid-latitude cyclone may be explained through following stages:

 Stage I: Stationary/ Beginning

 Stage II: Beginning of Young Adult
  Stage III: Mature
 Stage IV: Occlusion
 Stage V: Dissipation

STAGE I: STATIONARY/ BEGINNING: -

The cold air mass and warm air mass tend to converge along an axis as shown in Figure 1. The
sequential development of temperate cyclone can be seen from Figure 2A to 2E on a three
dimensional configuration. In this situation, both of the air masses are almost stable and are in
contact with each other. It is also known as the stationary stage of front formation. Though the
difference in temperature, moisture and pressure remains marked between two air masses, still it
is not that great to create instability at a bigger scale. With passage of time, and with interaction
between them particularly in the fringe margin of the contact zone, there starts some push by
warm air mass to the eastern side and to the western side, the impacts of cold air mass is
distinctly visible. At the latter phase of stage, the straight and flat formed front (Figure 1) is
turned by the advancing air masses of their influence (Figure 2B and clearly visible in Figure 3).
After this the second stage of the beginning of young adult starts.

Fig. 1: Convergence of Warm and Cold Air Masses

STAGE II: BEGINNING OF YOUNG ADULT: -

By the end of first stage, the frontiers of two air masses are conspicuously different. First, where
the greater impact of warm air is observed, it is warm front and it lays to the eastern part in
northern hemisphere. The impact of cold air mass is very significantly seen in the western part in
the northern hemisphere. To the north and north-west, the area occupied by cold air mass is
known as cold sector (Figure 2B and clearly visible in Figure 3). Opposite to it, i.e. south and
south-east, the area is dominated by warm air mass and hence, it is known as warm sector. It is
all happening under the general principles of the winds associated with Coriolis Effect and
Ferrel’s law. A mirror image situation is applicable in the case of southern hemisphere.

Fig. 2: Different Stages of the Development of Temperate Cyclone

 Fig. 3: Initial Stage Low formation at the Warm-Cold Front Junction

The warm front has more instability because impact of more moisture found with it. Contrary to
this, along the cold front, the stability is relative greater as cold air mass has less moisture.
Previously, you have already read about the instability in the air. You also know that addition or
availability of more and more moisture causes the air to be more and more unstable. At the
junction of the two fronts – warm and cold, the instability is greater. The cold air mass tries to
push the warm air mass and in this process the junction becomes more and more sharp. The
warm sector starts shrinking and the turn of the bend become more sharp (Figure 4). Since the
warm air mass is lighter in density and therefore is pushed up on the cold air mass. Rising warm
air, with moisture, cools down under the influence of cold air as well as increasing height. The
condensation is evident. After the precipitation, latent heat is released and further low pressure is
created over the junction of the two fronts. It is the beginning situation of the tropical cyclone
formation. Since the cyclonic condition is already initiated by the end of this stage, that is why
this stage is known as beginning of young stage of temperate cyclone.
 Fig. 4: Increasing Impact of Cold Air Mass and Shrinking Cold Sector

STAGE III: MATURE: -

By the end of second stage, the low air pressure has already initiated at the junction of the two
fronts particularly due to condensation. That low pressure attracts air from the surrounding
region and a vertical updraft of the air is observed very significantly. In the third stage, the
intensification of the second stage is resulted. Due to intensification, the isobars become closer.
The pressure gradient becomes very sharp. Swiftly updraft of the air moves in a whirling
manner. The invasion of the cold air mass is greater. Warm sector becomes still smaller and
shrinks. More and more sharp turns of the two fronts are seen. That creates the real and advance
stage of temperate cyclone. Since the general patterns of the winds are westerlies, the temperate
cyclones are in a tendency to march towards eastern side. Therefore, wherever it strikes, it brings
changing weather conditions. By the end of this stage, the combinedfrontstarts lifted above and it
is the beginning of the diminishing strength of cyclone.
 Fig. 5: Initial Stage of Occlusion

STAGE IV: BEGINNING OF OCCLUSION: -

The literal meaning of occlusion is constriction or compression. The two distinctly formed fronts
are getting compressed because of their diffusion. By the end of third stage, both fronts were
coming closer and finally they culminate into merging together which we call the occluded front.
In occlusion stage, the cyclone starts declining as the low pressure gets weakened. The intensity
is lowered and the wind velocity is on decline. The convergence of the two fronts gets detached
from the ground and are still suspended in the sky (Figure 6). Ground level, in the beginning,
was occupied by the two different air masses but now after occlusion, it is the occupation of cold
air all through on the ground. Clubbed fronts are still hanging in the sky. Warm sector has been
shifted above the ground. Discontinuity is still there but in the sky and not on the ground.
 Fig. 6: Advance Stage of Occlusion

STAGE V: LATE OCCLUSION OR DISSIPATION: -

In the beginning stage of the occlusion, the temperate cyclone was still very dynamic and strong,
but by the end phase of occlusion it is substantially weakened. In the last stage of cyclone, more
and more areas are occupied by cold air mass. It happens so, because it is much dense/ heavy in
comparison to warm air. Warm air areas are completely governed by cold air. The pushed up
warm air cools down under the impact of cold air as well as by adiabatic cooling. By the end of
this stage, the low pressure is completely eliminated and the normal condition is reached. Even
the occluded front pushed up is completely removed. All these conditions are the characteristics
of the dissipation stage.

SUMMING UP OF DIFFERENT STAGES: -

All the stages discussed above develop in a sequential order – one after the other. Starting from
the simple convergence of two air masses to the modification depending upon the temperature,
moisture and air pressure conditions. The typical development of temperate cyclone over North
America is very clearly shown in Figure 7A and 7B. It is showing the direction of winds, front
formation, front modification in different stages, cyclone’s isobaric pressure variations. From the
development to dissipation stages, changes over a period of eight days, is quite clear and vivid
from the two figures.
 Fig. 7A: Idealized View of the Successive Stages of Temperate Cyclone

Fig. 7B: Idealized View of the Successive Stage of Temperature Cyclone.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES: -

LOCATION: Temperate cyclones exhibits wide variety of characteristics. They are formed
between to 35˚ to 65˚ north and south latitudes in the sub-polar frontal zone and this is a result of
interaction between cold polar mass and warm tropical air masses in the westerly wind belt. This
type of cyclone is more pronounced in northern hemisphere due to greater temperature contrast
created by land-water distribution. Climatologist suggest that, globally, mid-latitude cyclones
predominantly form in one of two locations: downwind of major mountain ranges and near the
eastern coastlines of continents.

FORMATION: The formation of temperate cyclone is predominantly controlled and dominated

by the formation of the fronts after coming into the contacts of two different air masses warm
and cold. Thermal contrast of the two types of air masses is the genesis for the development of
low pressure center and finally the creation of temperate/ extra-tropical cyclone. Their
occurrence is possible over large arrears characterized by land or water or at the joining places of
the two.

VELOCITY: The temperate cyclones are formed over a very large area. The development of
low pressure is not very intense. The isobars are relatively wide apart and therefore, the pressure
gradient is smaller and hence, the velocity is moderate around 30 to 40 km per hour.

FREQUENCY: Since the temperate cyclones are formed due to front formation, they are
occurring throughout the year. Therefore, they are not confined to any particular season but are
slightly their frequency is less during summer in comparison to winter.

AREAL COVERAGE: The temperate cyclones develop over a very large areas occupying
more than 1500 or even sometime more than 2000 km in diameter. Its vertical dimension’s reach
up to tropopause limit.

AIR PRESSURE: As mentioned before, the pressure gradient in temperate cyclone is gentle
as the isobars are widespread. Hence, the intensity of the winds in this type of cyclones are
moderate. Generally, the isobaric difference varies between 10 to 15 mb.

DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT: Since, the temperate cyclones are developed in the mid-
latitudes areas where the westerlies are prominently blowing, the direction is, in general, from
west to east. Due to Coriolis effects, the direction is not straight from west to east but follow the
path from southwest to northeast in northern hemisphere. In southern hemisphere, it is from
northwest to southeast direction. Therefore, they move from mid-latitude areas to high latitude
areas. The direction of the tracks of this type of cyclone is governed by the surface roughness
and the characteristics of the areas from where they pass. In general, it is curvilinear direction
that they follow. With the passage of the cyclonic tracks, they get reduced, fronts weakened and
finally they dissipate.

WEATHER CONDITIONS IN A TEMPERATE CYCLONE: -

WEATHER WITH WARM FRONT: March forward of temperate cyclone is marked by

arrival of warm front first towards the cold prevailing areas. Increase in temperature is observed
very clearly. Since the warm air, in general, has greater amount of water vapour, the
condensation is evident and more rainfall/ snowfall is recorded. The temperate cyclone is slow in
its velocity, therefore,
prolonged moderate precipitation is the prime characteristics. As long as the warm sector
prevails over the areas, the warmth continues.

WEATHER WITH COLD FRONT: With the passage of the warm sector eastward further is
marked by arrival of cold front. Cold front arrival is associated with lowering of the temperature
because of the prominence of cold air mass. Since this front is again the combination of the two
air masses, here the warm air effect is less and that leads to less amount of water vapour
concentration. Cooling is of warm air also causes the condensation. Therefore, the precipitation
is less in comparison to the warm front passage. Generally, cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus
and stratus clouds are seen. Therefore, hallow around the sun and moon becomes a very distinct
feature in temperate cyclone. The central part of is known as the eye of cyclone. It is relatively
cool and calm. The sky is clear and up-draft of the air is observed.

PRECIPITATION: The precipitation is dependent upon the availability of water vapour and
prevailing temperature conditions. Therefore, the type of precipitation varies from rainfall to
hailstorms. Though the hailstorms are not a very regular feature and sometimes associated with
thunderstorms. It occurs less frequently but the rainfall, sleet and snowfall is very common. As
mentioned before, the temperate cyclone is huge in size in terms of areal expanses, its passage
also takes longer duration, the precipitation occurs for a longer duration. The weather associated
with both fronts and their movements have been summarized very briefly in Table 1.

Table 1: Weather Associated with the Passage of both Fronts

Elements In Advance At the time of Passage In the Rear

WARM
FRONT
Pressure Steady fall Fall arrested Little change or slow fall
Wind Backing and increasing Veer and decrease Steady direction
Temperature Steady or slow rise Rise Little change
Dew point Rise in precipitation Rise Steady
Relative Rise in precipitation May rise further if Little change, may be
humidity already not saturated saturated
Cloud Cirrus, nimbostratus, Low nimbostratus and Stratus or stratocumulus
cirrostratus in succession; stratus persist, sometimes cirrus
stratus and cumulus below
altocumulus and nimbostratus
Weather Continuous rain or snow Precipitation almost Dry or intermittent slight
stops precipitation
Visibility Good except in rain or snow Poor, often mist or fog Usually moderate or poor,
mist or fog may persist
COLD
FRONT
Pressure Fall Sudden rise Rise continues more slowly
Wind Backing, increasing Sudden veer, perhaps Fairly steady
squall
Temperature Steady but fall in pre- frontal Sudden fall Little change, variable in
 precipitation showers
Dew point Little change Sudden fall Little change, variable in
showers
Relative May rise in pre-frontal Remains high in Rapid fall in rain or snow,
humidity precipitation precipitation ceases
Cloud Stratus, altocumulus, Cumulonimbus, stratus, Stratocumulus, altocumulus,
stratocumulus cumulus cumulus
Weather Some rain, perhaps with Heavy rain or snow, Heavy rain or snow for short
thunder perhaps with thunder time followed by shower
Visibility Moderate to poor, perhaps Temporarily low, latter Very good
fog improves
Source: K Siddhartha: Physical Geography (2016), p571-572.

After the occupation of warm sector by the cold air masses, the normal condition prevails. It
shows clear sky, less air temperature. At this stage, a uniform condition is applicable to the air
mass. This uniformity is found in terms of temperature of the air and its pressure. Finally, it
becomes an air mass with distinctly uniform temperature, pressure and humidity. This is just like
the initial stage of the development of the temperate cyclone.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE: -

As discussed before that the temperate cyclones develop in the mid-latitude areas of the world.
This area is also known as extra-tropical (beyond tropical), therefore, extra-tropical cyclone or
temperate cyclone both represents the same thing. Temperate type of cyclones is primarily found
between 350 to 650 north and south latitudes. Their tracks are found to be even beyond 650 of
latitudes in both the hemispheres. The tracks of the temperate cyclones are shown in the Figure 8
by black arrows. From this figure, it is obvious that the direction of the cyclone and their tracks
follow the easterly direction which has already been mentioned before. In northern hemisphere,
it is from southwest to northeast direction whereas, in southern hemisphere, it is northwest to
southeast direction.

The occurrence and distribution of temperate cyclone show a very well defined zone over the
map of the world. Temperate cyclones are found almost all through the year with more or less
seasonal variations. But they are more frequent in winter season because greater temperature
contrast is seen during this time. Hence, winter is the ideal period for the formation of temperate
cyclones and their frequency is also greater at this time. There are three important zones for the
development of temperate cyclone in northern hemisphere.

ATLANTIC-ARCTIC FRONT AND CYCLONE: The north Atlantic is much warmer while
the Arctic air mass is very cold. When both of them are coming into contact with each other, the
strong temperature contrast is created and strong low pressure formation is resulted. It causes to
move the cyclone towards northeast direction and reaches to the Western Europe.
NORTH AMERICA-POLAR FRONT AND CYCLONE: The air mass of North America and
the north polar air mass convergence cause the cyclone to develop, particularly in the Great
Lakes region and move towards northeast direction (Figure 8).

MEDITERRANEAN FRONT AND CYCLONE: The third important area of the development
of temperate cyclones in northern hemisphere is the Mediterranean-Caspian front region. Huge
expanse of the continental areas to the north of Mediterranean-Caspian parts and relatively
warmer air mass over these seas create front. Along this front, the extra-tropical cyclone is
generated and moves in the general wind patterns of the region. The light shower in the winter
over north-western parts of India is caused by the western disturbances coming from this zone.

EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONE IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE: The southern

hemisphere does not have big landmass for creating temperature contrast, hence, there is no
specific regions of the development of extra-tropical cyclone. They are developed with lesser
intensity between 350 to 650 south latitudes and travel in south-easterly direction.

Fig; 8: Principal Areas of Temperate Cyclones

CONCLUSIONS: -

Temperate cyclones develop between 350 to 650 latitudes in both of the hemispheres. Poleward
parts of this limit are very cold while the equatorward limit is much warmer. Both of these
regions have different types of air masses. When these air masses come into contact with each
other, they form a front, a distinct boundary between the two. The intermingling and interactions
between them create disturbances leading to the tropical cyclone. This interaction is through the
fronts – warm and cold. Along the warm front, the prominence of warm air mass is dominated
while along the cold front, the prominence is of cold air mass.

The concept of this type of cyclone is explained by polar front theory popularly called
Norwegian model of tropical cyclone. The growth and development of this cyclone is explained
through successive five stages of beginning, adult, mature, occlusion and dissipation. The main
characteristics of temperate cyclones could very well be seen in terms of its location, formation,
velocity, frequency, air pressure and direction of its movement. Weather conditions associated
with warm fronts, cold fronts and precipitation is quite distinct. Apart from all these,
temperature, humidity, dew points, types of clouds and visibility are some of the other
parameters of associated weather during temperate cyclone.

The distributional pattern of temperate cyclone is very distinct particularly in northern

hemisphere. It happens because of the land water contrast and greater temperature variations. Its
frequency is more during winter season than the summer. Southern hemisphere has more water
body and the temperature contrast is relatively less and hence the extra-tropical cyclone is not
confined to a certain region or pocket. But in northern hemisphere, its major areas of
concentration are with Atlantic-Arctic belt, North America Great Lakes belt and Mediterranean-
Caspian belt.