Article

Modelling of Auxetic Woven Structures for

Composite Reinforcement
Shivangi Shukla 1 , Bijoya Kumar Behera 1 , Rajesh Kumar Mishra 2, * , Martin Tichý 2 , Viktor Kolář 2
and Miroslav Müller 2

1 Department of Textile & Fiber Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India;
[email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (B.K.B.)
2 Department of Material Science and Manufacturing Technology, Faculty of Engineering,
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic;
[email protected] (M.T.); [email protected] (V.K.); [email protected] (M.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The current research is focused on the design and development of auxetic woven structures.
Finite element analysis based on computational modeling and prediction of axial strain as well
as Poisson’s ratio was carried out. Further, an analytical model was used to calculate the same
parameters by a foldable zig-zag geometry. In the analytical model, Poisson’s ratio is based on the
crimp percentage, bending modulus, yarn spacing, and coefficient of friction. In this yarn, properties
and fabric parameters were also considered. Experimental samples were evaluated for the actual
performance of the defined auxetic material. Auxetic fabric was developed with foldable strips
created in a zig-zag way in the vertical (warp) direction. It is based on the principle that when
the fabric is stretched, the unfolding of the folds takes place, leading to an increase in transverse
dimensions. Both the analytical and computational models gave close predictions to the experimental
results. The fabric with foldable strips created in a zig-zag way in the vertical (warp) direction





 produced negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR), up to 8.7% of axial strain, and a maximum Poisson’s ratio
Citation: Shukla, S.; Behera, B.K.; of −0.41 produced at an axial strain of around 1%. The error percentage in the analytical model was
Mishra, R.K.; Tichý, M.; Kolář, V.; 37.14% for the experimental results. The computational results also predict the Poisson’s ratio with
Müller, M. Modelling of Auxetic an error percentage of 22.26%. Such predictions are useful for estimating the performance of auxetic
Woven Structures for Composite woven structures in composite reinforcement. The auxetic structure exhibits remarkable stress-strain
Reinforcement. Textiles 2022, 2, 1–15. behavior in the longitudinal as well as transverse directions. This performance is useful for energy
https://doi.org/10.3390/ absorption in composite reinforcement.
textiles2010001

Academic Editor: Stepan Lomov Keywords: auxetic woven structures; negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR); axial strain; finite element
modeling (FEM); equivalent stress; total deformation; analytical modeling
Received: 8 November 2021
Accepted: 24 December 2021
Published: 27 December 2021

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Auxetic structures belong to a class of extraordinary materials that become thicker in
published maps and institutional affil-
the perpendicular direction when it is stretched longitudinally. In other words, these mate-
iations.
rials exhibit negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR) and therefore show perceptible improvement
over conventional materials in toughness, resilience, shear resistance, and acoustic prop-
erties mainly due to their special structure and associated deformation mechanics [1–5].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Research has shown that the auxeticity of a structure depends on its geometrical arrange-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ment and the way it deforms under the action of external force. Zero Auxeticity describes
This article is an open access article the state when the material is stretched in the longitudinal direction and there is no change
distributed under the terms and in the transverse direction, that is, neither contraction nor expansion. In various studies in
conditions of the Creative Commons the literature, it has been reported that auxeticity can be introduced on all scales making
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// it scale-independent. Auxetics can be broadly categorized into two categories, natural
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and synthetic, based on their origin [6–13]. Certain natural auxetic materials have been
4.0/). reported like the cancellous bone in humans [14], cow teat skin, cat skin, and salamander

Textiles 2022, 2, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2010001 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/textiles

Textiles 2022, 2 2

skin [15–17], iron pyrite mono crystal [18], zeolites [19,20], silicates, thermal graphite, rocks
with micro-cracks in the structure, arsenic with a single crystalline structure [21], cad-
mium [22], and alpha cristobalite silica crystal [23]. Auxetic material exhibits a wide range
of properties like resistance to shear, fracture, indentation, acoustic absorption, impact
energy absorption, etc. which makes it suitable for various applications like protective cloth-
ing equipment, automobiles [16], acoustic theatres [24,25], composites [26–28], etc. Some of
the auxetics cannot be used for heavy load-bearing applications, as they are porous [29,30]
but contradicting this statement, researchers have reported that nearly 70% of the cubic crys-
tals possess auxeticity [13]. It has been reported that Poisson’s ratio of isotropic materials is
independent of the direction of application of force, that is, the deformation of a material in
the direction of one axis will produce a deformation of the material along the other axis in
three dimensions, whereas, in the case of anisotropic material, the value of Poisson’s ratio
depends on the direction of extension and transverse deformation. There is a category of
materials called partial auxetic, that is, they exhibit auxeticity only in some directions [31].
In textiles, the production of auxetic materials is possible in the form of fiber, yarn, fabric,
and their composites [32]. Auxetic composites have attracted considerable attention in
recent years and have demonstrated a high potential of applications in different areas due
to their wonderful properties as compared to non-auxetic composites [33–40]. In fabric,
the auxetic structure can be produced by knitting, nonwoven, and weaving process [41].
Production of auxetic woven fabrics is possible in three ways; using auxetic yarn with con-
ventional weave design [42,43], using auxetic weave design with conventional yarn, and by
using the combination of auxetic yarn and auxetic weave design [44]. In conventional yarns,
different combinations of yarns in weft and warp yarns are used for developing auxetic
fabric. The benefit of using conventional yarns for making the auxetic fabric is that they
have high structural stability than auxetic fiber. When they have stretched, the tendency to
recover to their original structure is low due to the interlacement of warp and weft yarns.
Due to this, their fabrication and usage as yarn to produce fabric are challenging.
There are many ways by which auxetic composite formation can be performed from
the woven auxetic preforms. Researchers have used the hand lay-up method to the vacuum-
assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) process for the manufacturing of auxetic com-
posites [45,46]. The choice of matrix system is very crucial in the manufacturing of auxetic
composites, as in some cases, the matrix system can cause resistance to the movement
of the reinforcing structure, leading to a reduction in the NPR value of the composites.
Various matrix systems like epoxy, soft polyurethane, and silicone rubber have been used
in the past [26,27,47–49]. The auxetic reinforcement may be used in different forms varying
from fiber to fabric. Textile fibers can be transformed into a broad range of structures
such as yarns, fabrics, cloth, and composites by utilizing various textile manufacturing
technologies like spinning, weaving, knitting, braiding, and textile structural composite
processing. These manufacturing processes feature the grounds for satisfying the needs
of contemporary societies as they help to transform raw materials into finished products
incorporating organized and engineered structures. However, the specific properties of
these products can be achieved only by judicious use of the engineering design principle.
Modeling is an efficient way to represent a real-life engineering problem, and the result
obtained from modeling can be generally used for the construction and prediction of the
properties of the system or assembly. A model is also used to understand a complex system
with the help of simplifications and assumptions. Thus, for auxetic materials and structures,
modeling can be done by different methods.
In this research, both analytical and computational modeling methods are used to
predict the NPR value of woven fabric produced with the help of conventional yarns in
auxetic weave geometry. Fabric samples were produced, and their Poisson’s ratio was
determined to validate the predicted NPR values. The results are useful for predicting
the load-bearing capacity and energy absorption in a composite reinforced with auxetic
woven structures.
 ven structures.
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 3
2. Analytical Model
To develop the analytical model, a foldable zig-zag geometry as shown in Figure 1
Textiles 2022, 2 was considered
load-bearing for theand
capacity formation
energy of a woven in
absorption construction.
a compositeThe basic unit
reinforced cellauxetic
with design wo-
that
3
is to be geometrically analyzed is shown in Figure 2.
ven structures.

2. Analytical
2. Analytical Model
Model
To develop
To develop the
the analytical
analytical model,
model, aa foldable
foldable zig-zag
zig-zag geometry
geometry as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 11
was considered
was consideredfor
forthe
theformation
formationofofa awoven
wovenconstruction.
construction.The
Thebasic
basic unit
unit cell
cell design
design that
that is
is to be geometrically analyzed is shown in Figure 2.
to be geometrically analyzed is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Foldable strips in a zig-zag way along the warp.

The combination of plain weave and float is used to generate the desired auxetic de-
sign as shown in Figure 2. In this design, when the structure is pulled along the direction
of the warp, it tries to open the fold and expands the fabric in the transversal direction. It
is assumed that two different types of yarns are used in the weft with elasticity, El and Es,
Figure 1.
1. Foldable
Foldable strips
strips in
in aa zig-zag
and elasticity
Figure of warp yarnzig-zag way along
be Ep.way along the
the warp.
warp.

The combination of plain weave and float is used to generate the desired auxetic de-
sign as shown in Figure 2. In this design, when the structure is pulled along the direction
of the warp, it tries to open the fold and expands the fabric in the transversal direction. It
is assumed that two different types of yarns are used in the weft with elasticity, El and Es,
and elasticity of warp yarn be Ep.

Figure2.2.Unit
Figure Unitcell
cellof
ofauxetic
auxeticweave
weavedesign.
design.

The combination of plain weave and float is used to generate the desired auxetic
design as shown in Figure 2. In this design, when the structure is pulled along the direction
of the warp, it tries to open the fold and expands the fabric in the transversal direction. It
is assumed that two different types of yarns are used in the weft with elasticity, El and Es ,
Figure
and 2. Unit cell
elasticity of auxetic
of warp yarnweave
be Epdesign.
.
In the unit cell of the design, there are 18 warp and 17 weft yarns. Considering each
pick, there are two portions of different weave patterns, for example, the first weft is
interlaced with nine warp yarns in a plain weave pattern, and the rest is with 1-up-4-down
 Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

Textiles 2022, 2 4
In the unit cell of the design, there are 18 warp and 17 weft yarns. Considering each
pick, there are two portions of different weave patterns, for example, the first weft is in-
terlaced with nine warp yarns in a plain weave pattern, and the rest is with 1-up-4-down
twill The
twill (float). (float).
weftThe
hasweft
two has
yarnstwo yarns
that that are
are elastic andelastic
stifferand stiffer
yarn. Theyarn.
elasticThe elastic
yarn yarn will
will be
be responsible for the extension in the floating part initially. The pull-out force of yarn
responsible for the extension in the floating part initially. The pull-out force of yarn from
from a plain-woven
a plain-woven fabric is much fabric
moreiscompared
much more to compared
that of 1 upto4 that
down of twill
1 up weaves,
4 down twill
as theweaves,
as the interlacements in the case of plain weave are more. The stiffer weft yarn would
interlacements in the case of plain weave are more. The stiffer weft yarn would require
force torequire
overcome thetofriction
force overcomeresistance. The stress
the friction at bothThe
resistance. sides of the
stress fabricsides
at both is equal andfabric is
of the
varyingequal
as theand
rate of displacement of the ends of the fabric is constant. Solving
varying as the rate of displacement of the ends of the fabric is constant. for theSolving
first pick,
forthere are two
the first pick,segments—plain weave and float—the
there are two segments—plain weave plain weave is toward
and float—the the is to-
plain weave
left sideward
of thethe
line of center. The force on both sides (connecting point) of
left side of the line of center. The force on both sides (connecting point)the portion is of the
different due to the non-symmetry of the structure. The force acting on the right
portion is different due to the non-symmetry of the structure. The force acting on the right side of
the plain weave
side of thepart would
plain weave be part
morewould
than onbe the leftthan
more side.onThis
the would beThis
left side. balanced
wouldbybethe balanced
frictional force at each contact, which would accumulate in one direction due to differences
by the frictional force at each contact, which would accumulate in one direction due to
in the end forces. The frictional force at each contact point in plain weave and float is given
differences in the end forces. The frictional force at each contact point in plain weave and
by Pan [50] as shown in Equations (1)–(3).
float is given by Pan [50] as shown in Equations (1)–(3).
Ff = µP 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 (1) (1)

P = 2σ𝑃𝑃sin
=θ2𝜎𝜎
pw sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
(For (For
uniform uniform
plain weaveplain
) weave) (2) (2)
6σ sin𝑃𝑃θ f= 6𝜎𝜎 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑓𝑓 (For float 2/1 twill weave) (3)
P= (For5 float 2/1 twill weave) (3)
5
where Pwhere P is the compression
is the compression force acting force acting
on the onofthe
point point of intersection
intersection of warp and of weftwarpyarns,and weft
θ is the weave angle, and σ
θ is the weave angle, and σ is the applied stress, µ is coefficient of friction, where pw stands where
yarns, is the applied stress, 𝜇𝜇 is coefficient of friction,
for plainpwweave,
standsand for fplain weave,
stands f stands for float region.
andregion.
for float
Figure Figure
3 refers3 to refers to a symbolic
a symbolic representation
representation of interlaced
of interlaced (rigid(rigid
region)region)
and andnon-non-in-
terlaced
interlaced (loose(looseregion) region)
areas.areas. The float
The float portion portion
would would be experiencing
be experiencing an extra
an extra forceforce
in in the
the left left
thatthat
wouldwould notnotbe be balanced
balanced bybyitsitsfrictional
frictionalforce
forceas asshown
shownin in Figure
Figure 3. 3. Figure
Figure44demon-
strates aaline
demonstrates linediagram
diagramfor forthethe weave,
weave, where
where thethe zig-zag
zig-zag solidsolid
lineline denotes
denotes the point of
the point
interlacement of warp and weft, and the space between
of interlacement of warp and weft, and the space between them constitutes the float area. them constitutes the float area.
The line
The dotted dottedrefers linetorefers
the lineto the line connecting
connecting the midpoints
the midpoints of the twillof the twill
line. line.
This willThis
move will move
the of
the center center of thetowards
the float float towardsthe line theofline of center.
center. FromFrom Figure Figure
4, the 4, floating
the floating partpart
getsgets an-
anotherother
extraextra
forceforcetowardstowards
the left thedue
left due
to the todifference
the difference of accumulated
of accumulated friction
friction forceforce
of of the
the plainplain
weave weaveand and floatfloat
part; part;
pointpoint
A moves A movestoward toward
the line theofline of center.
center. After analyzing
After analyzing the the
singlewhile
single weft, weft,stretching,
while stretching,
the center the of
center of the
the float willfloat will deflect
deflect towardtoward the sidethe sideline
(w.r.t (w.r.t line
of center)
of center) where there whereis there is a significant
a significant portionportion
of plainof plain surrounding
weave weave surrounding the float. thePoint
float. Point
B willtowards
B will move move towards the linethe linecenter
of the of the fromcenterthe from
left the
andleft andCpoint
point C willtowards
will travel travel towards
the linethe linecenter
of the of thefrom center the from theAll
right. right.
the Allweftthein weft
between in between
point A,point B, C A, willB,follow
C will thefollow the
course according
course according to the argument
to the argument as mentioned
as mentioned earlier andearliertheand
centertheof center
float of
in float
each inweft each weft
will try will
to cometry toclosercome closer towards
towards each other each
in theother in direction.
axial the axial direction.
The virtualThe linevirtual
AB and line
BCAB and
would be BCformed
would be formed
where where
all the centerall of
thefloats
center of floats
will lie on will
that lie
line,onandthattheir
line, tendency
and their of tendency
motion of motion will force the acute angle between the lines to overlap with the line
will force the acute angle between the lines to overlap with the line of center. Thisof center.
is due toThis is due
couple to coupleinformation
formation the virtual inlines
the virtual
AB and lines
BC AB and BC individually
individually which restricts which therestricts
motion the motion
of point B inofthe point B in(weft
y-axis the y-axis (weftPoint
direction). direction).
B transfersPointitsBcomponent
transfers itsforce component
to the force
lines ABtoandthe BClines inAB and BC
upward and indownward
upward and downward
directions, directions, respectively.
respectively.

Figure 3.Figure 3. Free

Free body body diagram
diagram of loading.
of loading. (T: Outward
(T: Outward Tension,Tension, T1: tension,
T1 : Inward Inward tension, F: Total fric-
F: Total frictional
tional
force, f.p.w: force, on
friction f.p.w: friction
plain weave,onf.f:
plain weave,
friction f.f: friction on float)
on float).
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Textiles2022,
Textiles 2021,21, FOR PEER REVIEW 55

Figure 4. Couple formation in auxetic structure. (A, B, C: are nodal points of the zigzag pattern, X,
Y: are axes
Figure representing
4. Couple warp
formation and weft
in auxetic respectively)
structure. (A, B, C: are nodal points of the zigzag pattern, X, Y:
Figure
are axes4.representing
Couple formation in auxetic
warp and structure. (A, B, C: are nodal points of the zigzag pattern, X,
weft respectively).
Y: areThe
axesextension in warp
representing the plain weave
and weft that would contribute to the overall extension of
respectively)
fabricThein the axial direction
extension would
in the plain be due
weave thattowould
the stiffer part (de-crimping)
contribute to the overall and the exten-
extension of
sion in
fabric The
intheextension
the elastic in the
yarn
axial direction plain
wouldwouldbeweave
the
be due that
sameto aswould
the contribute
ofstiffer
stiffer yarn
part duetotothe overall extension
interlacement
(de-crimping) and the present
extension of
fabric
in in theweave.
plain
the elastic axial would
yarn direction would
The extension
be the inbethat
same due
as to the
ofpart stiffer
would
stiffer yarn part
bedue to(de-crimping)
according to the saw
interlacement and the model
teeth
present exten-
in the
sion
as
plain in
showntheinelastic
weave. Figure
The yarn would
5, which
extension isbe
in that the same
a part wouldasbeofaccording
representation stiffer
of the yarn
unit duesaw
to cell
the tointerlacement
of interlacement
teeth model asof present
warp
shown
in the plain weave. The extension in that part would be according to
and weft. where applied forces are not large, considering the bending energy. This analy-
in Figure 5, which is a representation of the unit cell of interlacement theofsaw
warpteeth
and model
weft.
as shown in Figure 5, which is a representation of the unit cell of
sis is useful for understanding the initial extension and de-crimping of the fabric under
where applied forces are not large, considering the bending energy. interlacement
This analysis of
is warp
useful
andunderstanding
weft.load.
uniaxial
for where applied forces
the initial are not and
extension large, consideringofthe
de-crimping thebending energy.
fabric under This analy-
uniaxial load.
sis is useful for understanding the initial extension and de-crimping of the fabric under
uniaxial load.

Figure 5. 5. Saw
Saw tooth
tooth model
model for
for plain
plain weave.
weave. (A
(A1,, A
A2,, B1, B2: are nodal points of the saw tooth model,
Figure 1 2 B1 , B2 : are nodal points of the saw tooth model,
H 1, H2: are crimp amplitudes in X and Y axes, h 1/2: crimp height from crossover point, F1, F2: Total
H1 , H2 : are crimp amplitudes in X and Y axes, h1 /2: crimp height from crossover point, F1 , F2 : Total
force
Figurealong the saw tooth
5. Saw axes, p2/2: half wavelength,
(A1, A2, B1V 1,2V 2: inter yarn pressure)
force along thetooth model
saw tooth for plain
axes, p2 /2: weave.
half wavelength, ,VB : are nodal points of the saw tooth model,
1 , V 2 : inter yarn pressure).
H1, H2: are crimp amplitudes in X and Y axes, h1/2: crimp height from crossover point, F1, F2: Total
All
forceAll
along these notations
the notations
these saw referpto
tooth axes,
refer to
2/2:Figure
5,5,where
wherethe
half wavelength,
Figure the
V1p, V pis2:isthethespacing
inter spacing
yarn between
pressure)
between thethe yarns,
yarns, V
V is
is the
the inter-yarn
inter-yarn pressure
pressure at crossover
at crossover points
points (here(here V =hP),
V = P), h iscrimp
is the the crimp height,
height, it is oth-
it is otherwise
erwise All these
called notations
crimp refer
amplitude to Figure
where the5, where
amplitude the p
is is
the
called crimp amplitude where the amplitude is the maximum displacement of yarnthe spacing
maximum between
displacementthe yarns,
offrom
yarnV
is
the the inter-yarn
fromcentral
the central pressure
axis. axis. at
It may
It may crossover
be mentioned
be mentioned points
thatthat (here
crimpcrimpV =
in the P),
in the h
yarnis the
yarn crimp
of of woven
woven height,
fabric
fabric it is oth-
makes
makes a
aerwise
waveform, called
waveform, Bcrimp
B is is the
the amplitude
bending
bending where
rigidity ofthe
rigidity of amplitude
the the
yarn,yarn, lisrefers
l refers the
to maximum
to length
the displacement
the length
of of yarn
yarn of yarn
between
between two
fromconsecutive
two the central
consecutive axis. It
crossover
crossover may be
points,
points, mentioned
1 and1 2and thatwarp
2 represent
represent crimpwarpin the
and andyarn
weft, weft,ofrespectively.
woven fabric
respectively. makes
Accord-
Accordingly,
a waveform,
ingly, to this B is
model, the bending
the rigidity
extension in theof the
warp
to this model, the extension in the warp direction is given byyarn, l
directionrefers
is to
giventhe length
by of yarn between
two consecutive crossover points, 1 and 2 represent warp and weft, respectively. Accord-
ingly, to this model, the extension in the l2 hwarp
2 ( F2 h2direction
− V1 p2 ) is given by
δp1 = (4)
l2 B1

The final extension in the plain weave part is multiplied by the number of plain weave
interlacements (n)
Textiles 2022, 2 6

δx1 = (n − 1) × δp1 (5)

The extension in the floating part would be because the elastic yarn is in taut condition
and the stiffer yarn is in slack condition. The float is extended till the stiffer yarn is in a
taut condition.
∆Ff
∈= (6)
El
∆Ff
δx2 = L (7)
El
where ∆Ff the difference in the force of friction of the two portions, L is the float length, El
is the elasticity of the weft yarn, δx2 is the final extension in the float region. Now, the total
extension would be the sum of extension in the plain weave and float part. The strain in the
axial direction is total extension divided by the length of the fabric (in this case unit cell).
Now, considering the forces that are acting on warp yarns, as there is no external
stress applied in the transversal direction, the frictional force, and the transferred force due
to the restricted motion of Point B would be in action. In the warp yarn also, there is a
tightly woven and loosely woven part. Solving for the warp containing point A and C, the
extension in plain weave is
 
l1 h1 ∆Ff h1 − V2 p1
δp2 = (8)
l2 B2

The float will also extend according to the same argument but with a different com-
pression force. Similarly, we add the extension of both the sections and dividing by the
total length of warp yarn. The strain in the transverse direction would be positive and
finally, the Poisson’s ratio would be negative until the tension (applied force) becomes too
large to decrease the angle of the weave to zero. After this point, Poisson’s ratio becomes
positive because the yarn extension and strength come into the role. The above model is
valid for the tension less than the critical point.

2.1. Material
Auxetic fabric is developed with foldable strips created in a zig-zag way in a vertical
(warp) direction. It is based on the principle that when the fabric is stretched unfolding
of the folds takes place, leading to an increase in transverse dimensions. Foldable geom-
etry was realized into the fabric using a combination of loose and tight weaves to create
differential shrinkage [14–17]. The unit cell of interlacement pattern of two single-layered
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW fabrics based on parallel in-phase zigzag alternately folded stripes running along the warp7
direction as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Auxetic
Auxetic woven
woven fabric
fabric sample.
sample.

The yarn used as weft was elastic (core spun spandex) with a fineness of 38 tex and
non-elastic yarn (cotton) with a fineness of 20 tex. The yarn in the warp was non-elastic
yarn (cotton) with a fineness of 2/30 tex. These yarns are used to exploit the differential
shrinkage effect. The thread density in both directions is 16/cm. Mainly three types of
yarns are used to exploit the auxetic nature of the developed fabric. The stretch properties
Textiles 2022, 2 7

The yarn used as weft was elastic (core spun spandex) with a fineness of 38 tex and
non-elastic yarn (cotton) with a fineness of 20 tex. The yarn in the warp was non-elastic
yarn (cotton) with a fineness of 2/30 tex. These yarns are used to exploit the differential
shrinkage effect. The thread density in both directions is 16/cm. Mainly three types of
yarns are used to exploit the auxetic nature of the developed fabric. The stretch properties
of these yarns are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Yarn properties.

Tenacity at Breaking Extension Breaking Extension

S.No Yarn Fineness
(cN/tex) (%)
A Cotton (30/2 tex) 13.608 6.304
B Cotton (20 tex) 11.890 3.404
C Core spun spandex 38 tex 5.674 63.24

2.2. Test Method

Testing of all the specimen samples is performed on a video extensometer shown in
Figure 7. The video extensometer is designed to accurately measure specimen strain during
a materials test without the need to contact the specimen. The non-contacting measuring
process leads to no mechanical influence on the specimen, ease of use, and reproducibility.
The developed fabric has extensibility in one direction therefore test was carried out along
this direction however the fabric can be tested along the warp direction but due to the
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW limited extensibility in this direction, the fabric may break at smaller strain and cannot be
8
tested over a wider range of strain.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Experimental
Experimental setup
setup to
to determine
determine Poisson’s
Poisson’s ratio.
ratio.

The tensile test

The tensile testwas
wasconducted
conductedon onananInstron
Instron 5982
5982 tensile
tensile machine.
machine. TheThe capacity
capacity of
of the
the
loadload cell used
cell used waskN.
was 100 100ThekN.tensile
The tensile
speed and speed theand
gaugethelength
gaugewerelength
set were set as 50
as 50 mm/min
mm/min
and 100 mm andrespectively.
100 mm respectively. Fabric
Fabric strips strips of dimension
of dimension (100 mm × (100
50 mmmm)* were
50 mm)cutwere cut
for each
for each Four
sample. sample. Four
points points
were wereby
marked marked
keeping bythe keeping
scale atthe
thescale at of
center thethe
center
fabricofatthe fabric
a 25 mm
at a 25 mm
distance to distance
simplify tothesimplify
recordingtheofrecording of the information
the information of the fabricofdeformation
the fabric deformation
during the
during the tensile test. The distances of the two marks in the tensile and the traversal
tensile test. The distances of the two marks in the tensile and the traversal directions di-
were
rections were scanned by a camera to record the extension for each sample until the sam-
scanned by a camera to record the extension for each sample until the sample broke and
ple
the broke
software andofthe
thesoftware
machining of the machining
process the data process the data
to calculate theto calculate the
engineering engineering
strain of fabric
strain
in bothoftensile
fabric in both tensile
directions anddirections
the traversalanddirections.
the traversal Thedirections. The fabricare
fabric parameters parameters
given in
are given
Table 2. in Table 2.

Table 2. Fabric Parameters.

Parameters Warp Weft

Yarn spacing (mm) 0.635 0.635
Textiles 2022, 2 8

Table 2. Fabric Parameters.

Parameters Warp Weft

Yarn spacing (mm) 0.635 0.635
Crimp (%) 8 7.1
Bending modulus (MPa) 0.53 0.53
Coefficient of friction 0.1 0.1

3. Computational Model
For the computational modeling of the foldable woven fabric, the unit cell of the model
is firstly created on Texgen software, according to the weave design. Texgen can create a
wide variety of 2-D and 3-D weaves [1]. Here, the yarns are considered as single unit, that
is, solid volumes instead of considering the fiber in the yarns as individual units.
Geometry: The unit cell shown in Figure 8, is created by varying the float length along
the warp and weft direction. Here, we use a combination of the plain weave along with the
4 up 1 down twill weave. Here, in each weft, 9 warp yarns are interlaced in plain weave
and 10 warp yarns are interlaced in a 4/1 twill pattern, forming a foldable geometry. The
twill weave forms the folded part with a long float length, which unfolds when extended
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW
in the axial direction. The unit cell created in Texgen, when joined, can produce full-scale9
fabric. This sort of portrayal is significantly more helpful for computational analysis of
material properties.

Figure 8. Texgen weave design for the auxetic structure.

Figure 8. Texgen weave design for the auxetic structure.
FEM: The prepared unit cell is imported to Ansys Workbench as a Stereo Lithography
file toFEM:
FEMThe prepared
Modeler unit cell
to generate theis initial
imported to Ansys
geometry. ThenWorkbench
these data as
area transferred
Stereo Lithogra-
to the
phy file tostructural
transient FEM Modeler to generate
feature. Then thethe initial
type geometry.
of material Then these
is assigned data
to the are transferred
yarns, that is, the
to
wefttheyarns
transient
werestructural
kept elasticfeature.
and warpThenyarns
the type of material
are kept is assigned to the yarns, that
non-elastic.
is, theContact:
weft yarns werethe
Initially kept elasticisand
contact warpautomatically
created yarns are kept onnon-elastic.
Ansys mechanical, analyzing
Contact: Initially
the face-to-face the contact
detection shownisincreated
Figureautomatically on Ansys
9 but the contacts mechanical,
are modified analyzing
according to
the face-to-face detection shown in Figure 9 but the contacts are modified according to
weave design. The contact method is changed to frictional with the coefficient of friction
weave
equal todesign.
0.1. TheThe contact method
formulation is set toisAugmented
changed toLagrange
frictionalaswith
the the coefficient
penetration of friction
matter in this
equal
model.toThe 0.1. initial
The formulation is set toisAugmented
contact condition Lagrange
analyzed through as the penetration
the contact matter in
tool and accordingly
this model.
pinball Theisinitial
radius adjustedcontact condition is analyzed through the contact tool and accord-
manually.
ingly pinball radius is adjusted manually.
 is, the weft yarns were kept elastic and warp yarns are kept non-elastic.
Contact: Initially the contact is created automatically on Ansys mechanical, analyzing
the face-to-face detection shown in Figure 9 but the contacts are modified according to
weave design. The contact method is changed to frictional with the coefficient of friction
equal to 0.1. The formulation is set to Augmented Lagrange as the penetration matter in
Textiles 2022, 2 9
this model. The initial contact condition is analyzed through the contact tool and accord-
ingly pinball radius is adjusted manually.

Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 10

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Contact
Contact definition in the
definition in the model.
model.

Mesh generation: After

Mesh generation: After the contact point
the contact point generation,
generation, the mesh was
the mesh was generated
generated as
as
shown in
inFigure
Figure10.
10.The mesh
The sizesize
mesh taken herehere
taken waswas
medium for easy
medium for processing and accu-
easy processing and
racy and element
accuracy size was
and element 0.1250.125
size was mm mm by default.
by default.

Figure 10. Mesh

Figure 10. Mesh generation.
generation.

Boundary conditions:
Boundary The boundary
conditions: The boundary conditions
conditions are
are imposed,
imposed, as
as shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 11,
11,
on the unit cell, keeping in mind that it is a repeating unit and not a full-scale fabric. The
on the unit cell, keeping in mind that it is a repeating unit and not a full-scale fabric. The
following kinematic boundary condition will be applied as in Equations (9) and (10).
following kinematic boundary condition will be applied as in Equations (9) and (10).
1 −−v2𝑣𝑣2
v𝑣𝑣1 ( x2 −−x1𝑥𝑥1)
==E𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥2 ) (9)
(9)

v𝑣𝑣3
3 −−v4𝑣𝑣4
==E𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥4
( x4 −−x3𝑥𝑥3)
) (10)
(10)
where v1,
where v1 , v2,
v2 , v3, and v4
v3 , and v4 are
are displacement
displacement vectorsvectorsofofpoints
pointsononthe
theedges
edgesofof1, 1,
2, 2,
3, 3,
andand4,
respectively,
4, respectively, andand x1,xx2,
1 , x x3
2 , xand
3 andx4 xare
4 the
are absolute
the absolute value of
value distances
of distancescorresponding
corresponding to
displacement
to displacement vectors v1, v2,
vectors v1 , v3,
v2 , and v4. Ev4stands
v3 , and for macroscopic
. E stands strainstrain
for macroscopic tensortensor
of the offabric
the
[51–54].
fabric [51–54].
 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1) (9)

𝑣𝑣3 − 𝑣𝑣4 = 𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥4 − 𝑥𝑥3) (10)

where v1, v2, v3, and v4 are displacement vectors of points on the edges of 1, 2, 3, and 4,
respectively, and x1, x2, x3 and x4 are the absolute value of distances corresponding to
Textiles 2022, 2 displacement vectors v1, v2, v3, and v4. E stands for macroscopic strain tensor of the fabric
10

[51–54].

Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 11

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Boundary
Boundary conditions.
conditions.

Simulation:
Simulation: The The left
left boundary
boundary was
was fixed
fixed along
along the
the x-direction
x-directionand
andaadirectional
directionaldis-
dis-
placement
placement waswas applied
applied along
along the
the right
right boundary, with the
boundary, with the displacement rate of
displacement rate of 22 mm/min.
mm/min.
For
For the
the tensile
tensile test
test environment
environment simulation,
simulation, zz and
and yy directional
directional displacements
displacementswere werecon-
con-
strained on both left and right boundaries. For the mechanical analysis of the model, elas-
strained on both left and right boundaries. For the mechanical analysis of the model, elastic
tic strain
strain in the
in the transverse
transverse direction
direction in Figure
in Figure 12. 12.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Elastic
Elastic strain
strain in
in the
the transverse
transverse direction.
direction.

4. Results
4. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
The prepared
The prepared fabric
fabric samples
samples were
were tested
tested for
for the
the tensile
tensile deformation
deformation under
under aa video
video
extensometer as shown in Figure 7. The Poisson’s ratios at different axial strain were were
extensometer as shown in Figure 7. The Poisson’s ratios at different axial strain plot-
plotted.
ted. ThisThis experimental
experimental deformation
deformation behavior
behavior waswas comparedwith
compared withthe
theresults
results obtained
obtained
from analytical and computational model results. The graphical representation of the NPR
from analytical and computational model results. The graphical representation of the NPR
effect is shown as Poisson’s ratio vs. axial strain values.
effect is shown as Poisson’s ratio vs. axial strain values.

4.1. Experimental Results

The poison’s ratio was measured for the auxetic foldable design according to the pro-
cedure explained in Section 2.2. On analysis of Figure 13, it may be observed that fabric
Textiles 2022, 2 11

4.1. Experimental Results

The poison’s ratio was measured for the auxetic foldable design according to the
procedure explained in Section 2.2. On analysis of Figure 13, it may be observed that fabric
with foldable strips created in a zig-zag way in the vertical (warp) direction produced
NPR up to 8.7% of axial strain and maximum Poisson’s ratio of (−0.41) produced at an
axial strain of around 1%. Although the NPR effect was lost when the strain percentage
exceeded 9%. The increase in Poisson’s ratio with the increase of strain is due to the force
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 12
of up-crimping in the traverse direction. This up-crimping is increasing as the applied load
increases, resulting in the shrinking behavior of the sample in the transverse direction.

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Experimental
Experimental results
results of
of Poisson’s
Poisson’s ratio
ratio at
at different
different axial
axial strain.
strain.

4.2. Analytical Model Results

4.2. Analytical Model Results
The axial and transverse strain obtained by solving Equations [4–8] at tension 0.13296 N
The axial and transverse strain obtained by solving Equations [4–8] at tension 0.13296
is given in Table 3. So, the maximum strain in the transverse direction is 0.000834 and the
N is given in Table 3. So, the maximum strain in the transverse direction is 0.000834 and
strain in the axial direction is 0.0014837. The Poisson’s ratio calculated from the above
the strain in the axial direction is 0.0014837. The Poisson’s ratio calculated from the above
figures is −0.5623. This value is calculated for a particular point, as the tension increases
figures is −0.5623. This value is calculated for a particular point, as the tension increases
the sin(θ) decreases leading to a change in Poisson’s ratio. Drawing a continuous graph
the sin(θ) decreases leading to a change in Poisson’s ratio. Drawing a continuous graph
from the analytical model is difficult due to the non-linear dependence of θ on applied
from the analytical model is difficult due to the non-linear dependence of θ on applied
force. The above value calculated is at a particular value of applied force in which the
force. The above value calculated is at a particular value of applied force in which the
maximum Poisson’s ratio was obtained experimentally.
maximum Poisson’s ratio was obtained experimentally.
Table 3. Axial and transversal strain.
Table 3. Axial and transversal strain.
Direction Plain Weave Float
Direction Plain Weave Float
Weft (Axial strain %) 1.1660 0.5253
Weft (Axial strain %) 1.1660 0.5253
Warp (Transverse strain %) 0.5268 0.3909
Warp (Transverse strain %) 0.5268 0.3909
4.3. Computational Model Results
4.3. Computational Model Results
The Poisson’s ratio obtained through simulation data has a good relationship with
The Poisson’s ratio obtained through simulation data has a good relationship with
the experimental data. Under unidirectional displacement, a series of quasi-uniform wave
the experimental data. Under unidirectional displacement, a series of quasi-uniform wave
forms was observed in the transverse direction. Figure 14 shows that the value of Poisson’s
forms was observed in the transverse direction. Figure 14 shows that the value of Pois-
son’s ratio is dependent on the extent of axial strain, that is, as the axial strain increases
the NPR effect decreases. The trend observed here is close to the experiment values, the
variation is due to the difference between contact simulations and actual contact condi-
tions. From Figure 12, it was observed that the float region undergoes maximum elonga-
Textiles 2022, 2 12

ratio is dependent on the extent of axial strain, that is, as the axial strain increases the NPR
effect decreases. The trend observed here is close to the experiment values, the variation
is due to the difference between contact simulations and actual contact conditions. From
Figure 12, it was observed that the float region undergoes maximum elongation, due to
the unrestricted motion of the elastic yarn. Moreover, the variation in the result is due
to the weft yarn arrangement, that is, for actual fabric construction, alternate elastic and
Textiles 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 13
non-elastic yarns are used, whereas for the FEM simulation, consecutive elastic yarns are
considered as the weft.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Computational
Computational model
model results
results vs.
vs. experimental
experimental results.
results.

4.4. Comparison
4.4. Comparison of
of the
the computational
Computationaland andexperimental
Experimentalresults
Results
From Figure
From Figure 14,
14,ititwas
wasobserved
observedthat thatthe analytical
the model
analytical results
model areare
results in good agreement
in good agree-
with the experimental results despite having the limitation to predict the
ment with the experimental results despite having the limitation to predict the trend. trend. The error
The
percentage
error of the of
percentage results of this model
the results of this is 37.14%
model is for experimental
37.14% results. The
for experimental computational
results. The com-
results alsoresults
putational predictalso
thepredict
Poisson’s
theratio with an
Poisson’s error
ratio percentage
with of 22.26%. of
an error percentage The reasonThe
22.26%. for
this error is the difference between the behavior yarn at interlacement points and this
reason for this error is the difference between the behavior yarn at interlacement points
increases with the increase in the number of interlacements.
and this increases with the increase in the number of interlacements.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The analytical and computational model was built to predict the variation of Poisson’s
ratioThe
of theanalytical
auxetic and computational
fabric with the axialmodel
strain.wasThebuilt
modelto predict the on
was based variation
the unitofcell
Pois-
of
son’s ratio of the auxetic fabric with the axial strain. The model was based
the foldable stripes created in a zig-zag way. In the analytical model, Poisson’s ratio on the unit cell
is
of the foldable stripes created in a zig-zag way. In the analytical model, Poisson’s
based on the crimp percentage, bending modulus, yarn spacing, and coefficient of friction. ratio is
based
In thison the crimp
yarn, percentage,
properties bending
and fabric, modulus,were
parameters yarn also
spacing, and coefficient
considered. Also, of friction.
successful
In this yarn, properties and fabric, parameters were also considered. Also,
computational modeling of the same was done. Both the analytical and computational successful com-
putational modeling of the same was done. Both the analytical and computational
models gave close predictions to the experimental results. It was observed that fabric models
gave
with close predictions
foldable to the experimental
strips created in a zig-zag results.
way in Itvertical
was observed
(warp) that fabric produced
direction with folda-a
ble strips Poisson’s
negative created inratio
a zig-zag
(NPR)way in vertical
of 8.7%. (warp)
Poisson’s ratiodirection produced
of (−0.41) a negative
was produced at anPois-
axial
son’s
strainratio (NPR)1%.
of around of 8.7%.
The NPRPoisson’s
effectratio of (−0.41)
was lost when was produced
the strain at an axial
percentage strain9%.
exceeded of
around 1%. The NPR effect was lost when the strain percentage exceeded 9%. The error
percentage in the analytical model was 37.14% for experimental results. The computa-
tional results also predict the Poisson’s ratio with an error percentage of 22.26%. Such
predictions are useful for estimating the performance of auxetic woven structures in com-
posite reinforcement. The auxetic structure exhibits remarkable stress-strain behavior in
Textiles 2022, 2 13

The error percentage in the analytical model was 37.14% for experimental results. The
computational results also predict the Poisson’s ratio with an error percentage of 22.26%.
Such predictions are useful for estimating the performance of auxetic woven structures in
composite reinforcement. The auxetic structure exhibits remarkable stress-strain behavior
in longitudinal as well as transverse directions. This performance is useful for energy
absorption in a composite reinforcement.

Author Contributions: S.S., B.K.B., R.K.M., M.T., V.K. and M.M., experiment design; S.S., B.K.B.,
R.K.M., M.T., V.K. and M.M., methodology; S.S., R.K.M., M.T. and V.K., testing of mechanical
properties and data analysis; S.S., B.K.B. and R.K.M. wrote and edited the paper; B.K.B., R.K.M., M.T.,
V.K. and M.M., project administration; S.S., B.K.B. and R.K.M. language correction; B.K.B., R.K.M.,
M.T., V.K. and M.M., resources; R.K.M., communication with the editors; B.K.B., R.K.M. and M.M.,
supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Supported by the Internal grant agency of Faculty of Engineering no. 2021:31140/1312/3108
“Experimental research of hybrid adhesive bonds with multilayer sandwich construction, Czech
University of Life Sciences Prague”.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Carneiro, V.H.; Meireles, J.; Puga, H. Auxetic materials—A review. Mater. Sci. Pol. 2013, 31, 561–571. [CrossRef]
2. Lim, T.C. Mechanics of Metamaterials with Negative Parameters; Springer: Heidelberg/Berlin, Germany, 2020. [CrossRef]
3. Gorodtsov, V.A.; Lisovenko, D.S. Auxetics among Materials with Cubic Anisotropy. Mech. Solids 2020, 55, 461–474. [CrossRef]
4. Lim, T.C. Auxetic Materials and Structures; Springer: Heidelberg/Berlin, Germany, 2015. [CrossRef]
5. Goldstein, R.V.; Gorodtsov, V.A.; Lisovenko, D.S. Classification of cubic auxetics. Phys. Status Solidi Basic Res. 2013, 250, 2038–2043.
[CrossRef]
6. Zhou, S.; Li, Q. Microstructural design of connective base cells for functionally graded materials. Mater. Lett. 2008, 62, 4022–4024.
[CrossRef]
7. Goldstein, R.V.; Gorodtsov, V.A.; Lisovenko, D.S.; Volkov, M.A. Auxetics among 6-constant tetragonal crystals. Lett. Mater. 2015, 5,
409–413. [CrossRef]
8. Goldstein, R.; Lisovenko, D.S.; Chentsov, A.; Lavrentyev, S.Y. Experimental study of auxetic behavior of re-entrant honeycomb
with curvilinear elements. Lett. Mater. 2017, 7, 81–84. [CrossRef]
9. Lakes, R. Foam Structures with a Negative Poisson’s Ratio. Science 1987, 235, 1038–1040. [CrossRef]
10. Wojciechowski, K.W. Two-Dimensional Isotropic System with a Negative Poisson Ratio. Phys. Lett. A 1989, 137, 60–64. [CrossRef]
11. Wojciechowski, K.W.; Tretiakov, K.V.; Kowalik, M. Elastic properties of dense solid phases of hard cyclic pentamers and heptamers
in two dimensions. Phys. Rev. E 2003, 67, 036121. [CrossRef]
12. Goldstein, R.V.; Gorodtsov, V.A.; Lisovenko, D.S. Auxetic mechanics of crystalline materials. Mech. Solids 2010, 45, 529–545.
[CrossRef]
13. Baughman, R.H.; Shacklette, J.M.; Zakhidov, A.; Stafström, S. Negative Poisson’s ratios as a common feature of cubic metals.
Nature 1998, 392, 362–365. [CrossRef]
14. Williams, J.; Lewis, J.L. Properties and an anisotropic model of cancellous bone from the proximal tibial epiphysis. J. Biomech. Eng.
1982, 104, 50–56. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Frolich, L.M.; LaBarbera, M.; Stevens, W.P. Poisson’s ratio of a crossed fibre sheath: The skin of aquatic salamanders. J. Zool. 1994,
232, 231–252. [CrossRef]
16. Pikhitsa, P.V. Architecture of cylinders with implications for materials with negative Poisson ratio. Phys. Status Solidi B-Basic Solid
State Phys. 2007, 244, 1004–1007. [CrossRef]
17. Wang, Z.; Hu, H. Auxetic materials and their potential applications in textiles. Text. Res. J. 2014, 84, 1600–1611. [CrossRef]
18. Love, A.E.H. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Nature 1920, 105, 511–512. [CrossRef]
19. Grima, J.N.; Gatt, R.; Zammit, V.; Williams, J.J.; Evans, K.E.; Alderson, A.; Walton, R.I. Natrolite: A zeolite with negative Poisson’s
ratios. J. Appl. Phys. 2007, 101, 086102. [CrossRef]
20. Bhullar, S.K. Three decades of auxetic polymers: A review. e-Polymers 2015, 15, 205–215. [CrossRef]
21. Gunton, D.J.; Saunders, G.A. The Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of arsenic, antimony and bismuth. J. Mater. Sci. 1972, 7,
1061–1068. [CrossRef]
Textiles 2022, 2 14

22. Li, Y. The anisotropic behavior of Poisson’s ratio, Young’s modulus, and shear modulus in hexagonal materials. Phys. Status Solidi
Appl. Res. 1976, 38, 171–175. [CrossRef]
23. Yeganeh-Haeri, A.; Weidner, D.J.; Parise, J.B. Elasticity of α-cristobalite: A silicon dioxide with a negative poisson’s ratio. Science
1992, 257, 650–652. [CrossRef]
24. Liu, Q. Literature Review: Materials with Negative Poisson’s Ratios and Potential Applications to Aerospace and Defence; Defence Science
and Technology Organisation: Canberra, Australia, 2006.
25. Faisal, N.; Mcleod, A.; Booth, F.; Scott, L.; Duncan, S.; Droubi, G. Auxetic Structures for Marine Safety Applications (Rope,
Sandwich Panel). Presented at the The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology (IMarEST), Londin, UK,
28 March 2018.
26. Uzun, M. Mechanical Properties of Auxetic and Conventional Polypropylene Random Short Fibre Reinforced Composites. Fibres
Text. East. Eur. 2012, 5, 70–74.
27. Miller, W.; Ren, Z.; Smith, C.; Evans, K. A negative Poisson’s ratio carbon fibre composite using a negative Poisson’s ratio yarn
reinforcement. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2012, 72, 761–766. [CrossRef]
28. Wang, X.-T.; Wang, B.; Wen, Z.-H.; Ma, L. Fabrication and mechanical properties of CFRP composite three-dimensional double-
arrow-head auxetic structures. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2018, 164, 92–102. [CrossRef]
29. Pozniak, A.; Wojciechowski, K.W.; Grima, J.; Mizzi, L. Planar auxeticity from elliptic inclusions. Compos. Part B Eng. 2016, 94,
379–388. [CrossRef]
30. Narojczyk, J.W.; Wojciechowski, K.W. Poisson’s Ratio of the f.c.c. Hard Sphere Crystals with Periodically Stacked (001)-Nanolayers
of Hard Spheres of Another Diameter. Materials 2019, 12, 700. [CrossRef]
31. Brańka, A.C.; Heyes, D.M.; Wojciechowski, K.W. Auxeticity of cubic materials under pressure. Phys. Status Solidi B 2011, 248,
96–104. [CrossRef]
32. Hu, H. Auxetic Textile Materials—A review. J. Text. Eng. Fash. Technol. 2017, 1, 1–15. [CrossRef]
33. Argatov, I.; Guinovart-Díaz, R.; Sabina, F. On local indentation and impact compliance of isotropic auxetic materials from the
continuum mechanics viewpoint. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 2012, 54, 42–57. [CrossRef]
34. Yang, W.; Li, Z.-M.; Shi, W.; Xie, B.-H.; Yang, M.-B. On auxetic materials: Review. J. Mater. Sci. 2004, 39, 3269–3280. [CrossRef]
35. Evans, K.E.; Alderson, K.L. Auxetic materials: The positive side of being negative. Eng. Sci. Educ. J. 2000, 9, 148–154. [CrossRef]
36. Alderson, K.L.; Alderson, A.; Smart, G.; Simkins, V.R.; Davies, P.J. Auxetic polypropylene fibres: Part 1—Manufacture and
characterisation. Plast. Rubber Compos. 2002, 31, 344–349. [CrossRef]
37. Lakes, R.S.; Witt, R. Making and Characterizing Negative Poisson’s Ratio Materials. Int. J. Mech. Eng. Educ. 2002, 30, 50–58.
[CrossRef]
38. Lorato, A.; Innocenti, P.; Scarpa, F.; Alderson, A.; Alderson, K.; Zied, K.; Ravirala, N.; Miller, W.; Smith, C.; Evans, K. The
transverse elastic properties of chiral honeycombs. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2010, 70, 1057–1063. [CrossRef]
39. Mir, M.; Ali, M.N.; Sami, J.; Ansari, U. Review of Mechanics and Applications of Auxetic Structures. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2014,
2014, 1–18. [CrossRef]
40. Alderson, K.; Webber, R.; Mohammed, U.; Murphy, E.; Evans, K. An experimental study of ultrasonic attenuation in microporous
polyethylene. Appl. Acoust. 1997, 50, 23–33. [CrossRef]
41. Darja, R.; Tatjana, R.; Alenka, P.Č. Auxetic textiles. Acta Chim. Slov. 2013, 60, 715–723.
42. Ng, W.S.; Hu, H. Woven fabrics made of auxetic plied yarns. Polymers 2018, 10, 226. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Sloan, M.; Wright, J.; Evans, K. The helical auxetic yarn—A novel structure for composites and textiles; Geometry, manufacture
and mechanical properties. Mech. Mater. 2011, 43, 476–486. [CrossRef]
44. Miller, W.; Hook, P.; Smith, C.W.; Wang, X.; Evans, K.E. The manufacture and characterisation of a novel, low modulus, negative
Poisson’s ratio composite. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2009, 69, 651–655. [CrossRef]
45. Yang, S.; Chalivendra, V.B.; Kim, Y.K. Impact behaviour of auxetic Kevlar® /epoxy composites. In IOP Conference Series: Materials
Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2017. [CrossRef]
46. Khan, M.I.; Akram, J.; Umair, M.; Hamdani, S.T.A.; Shaker, K.; Nawab, Y.; Zeeshan, M. Development of composites, reinforced by
novel 3D woven orthogonal fabrics with enhanced auxeticity. J. Ind. Text. 2019, 49, 676–690. [CrossRef]
47. Rabbi, F.; Chalivendra, V.; Kim, Y. Dynamic constitutive response of novel auxetic Kevlar® /epoxy composites. Compos. Struct.
2018, 195, 1–13. [CrossRef]
48. Hu, H.; Zhang, M.; Liu, Y. Auxetic fibre–reinforced composites. Auxetic Text. 2019, 1, 285–335. [CrossRef]
49. Zhou, L.; Jiang, L.; Hu, H. Auxetic composites made of 3D textile structure and polyurethane foam. Phys. Status Solidi Basic Res.
2016, 253, 1331–1341. [CrossRef]
50. Pan, N. Analysis of woven fabric strengths: Prediction of fabric strength under uniaxial and biaxial extensions. Compos. Sci.
Technol. 1996, 56, 311–327. [CrossRef]
51. Cao, H.; Zulifqar, A.; Hua, T.; Hu, H. Bi-stretch auxetic woven fabrics based on foldable geometry. Text. Res. J. 2019, 89, 2694–2712.
[CrossRef]
52. Grima, J.N.; Ravirala, N.; Galea, R.; Ellul, B.; Attard, D.; Gatt, R.; Alderson, A.; Rasburn, J.; Evans, K.E. Modelling and testing of a
foldable macrostructure exhibiting auxetic behaviour. Phys. Status Solidi Basic Res. 2011, 248, 117–122. [CrossRef]
Textiles 2022, 2 15

53. Whitcomb, J.D.; Chapman, C.D.; Tang, X. Derivation of boundary conditions for micromechanics analyses of plain. J. Compos.
Mater. 2000, 34, 724–747. [CrossRef]
54. Carvelli, V.; Corazza, C.; Poggi, C. Mechanical modelling of monofilament technical textiles. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2008, 42, 679–691.
[CrossRef]