Unit 3 Hand Processes

Hand tools are used to remove small amounts of material, usually from small areas of
the workpiece. Since the use of hand tools is physically tiring, it is important that the
amount of material to be removed by hand is kept to an absolute minimum and that
the correct tool is chosen for the task.

Engineer’s Files

Files are used to perform a wide variety of tasks, from simple removal of sharp edges
to producing intricate shapes. The main parts of a file are as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: The main parts of an engineer’s file.

Classification of files can be based on length, cut of teeth, grade of cut, their general
shape and their cross-section. Files can be obtained in a variety of shapes and in
lengths from 150 mm to 350 mm. When a file has a single series of teeth cut across its
face it is known as single-cut file, and with two sets of teeth cut across its face it is
known as double-cut file. The grade of cut of a file refers to the spacing of the teeth
and determines the coarseness or smoothness of the file. Three standard grades of cut
in common use, ferule from coarsest to smoothest, are bastard, second cut and smooth.

Files identified by their general shape and their cross-section include: hand, flat or
pillar; and square, three-square, round, half-round or knife respectively as shown in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Basic classes of files based on (a) shape and (b) cross-section

Hand file is rectangular in cross-section, parallel in width along its length, but tapers
slightly in thickness for approximately the last third of its length towards the point.
The edge with no teeth is known as the ‘safe edge’; and is designed to file up to the edge
of a surface without damaging it. The taper in thickness enables the file to enter a slot
slightly less than its full thickness. The file is general use, typically on flat surfaces.

Pillar file has the same section as a hand file but of a thinner section. It is used for
narrow slots and keyways.

Flat file is rectangular in cross-section and tapers in both width and thickness for
approximately the last third of its length towards the point. The taper in width and
thickness enable it to be used in slots which are narrower than its full width and
thickness and which require filing on length and width. The file is general use,
typically on flat surfaces.

Square file is of square cross-section, parallel for approximately two-thirds of its

length, then tapering towards the point. This file is used for filing keyways, slots and
the smaller square or rectangular holes with 90° sides.

Three-square or triangular file has a 60° triangle cross-section, parallel for

approximately two-thirds of its length, then tapering towards the point. This file is
used for surfaces which meet at less than 90°, angular holes and recesses.

Round file is of circular cross-section, parallel for approximately two-thirds of its

length and then tapering towards the point. Second-cut and smooth files are single-
cut, while the bastard is double-cut. This file is used for enlarging round holes,
elongating slots and finishing internal round corners.

Half-round file has one flat and one curved side. It is parallel for approximately two-
thirds of its length, then tapers in width and thickness towards the point. The flat side
is double-cut and the curved side is single-cut on second-cut and smooth files. This is
an extremely useful double-purpose file for flat surfaces and for curved surfaces too
large for the round file.

Knife file has a wedge-shaped cross-section, the thin edge being straight while the
thick edge tapers to the point in approximately the last third of its length. The sides
are double-cut. This file is used for filing acute angles.

aluminum, lead, copper,

bronze and non-metallic
materials (plastics, wood,
Figure 3.3: Dreadnought file
fibre and slate). This type of
Dreadnought files have deep curved teeth which file is available as hand, flat,
produce fillings which clear themselves from the teeth half-round and square,
as shown in Figure 3.3; and thus prevent clogging. from 150 mm to 400 mm
They are used to file soft materials including long. The available cuts are
road, medium, standard, fine and extra fine.

Needle files are used for very fine work in tool making and fitting, where very small
amounts of material have to be removed in intricate shapes or in a confined space.
This type of file is available from 120 mm to 180 mm long, of which approximately
half is file-shaped and cut, the remainder forming a slender circular handle

Figure 3.4: Needle file

Filling process involves:

i. Gripping - The handle is gripped in the palm of the right hand with the thumb
on top and the palm of the left hand resting at the point of the file.
ii. Standing at the vice- left foot is placed well forward to take the weight of the
body on the forward stroke while right foot is placed well back to enable the
body to be pushed forward.
iii. Cutting stroke– apply pressure using the left hand during the forward stroke;
and drag the file during the return stroke to clear the fillings and to prevent
‘see-saw’ action which results in a curved surface.
iv. Through (cross) filling makes rough cuts while draw filling produces a smooth
surface during finishing. An abrasive cloth supported by the file can polish the
surface. Cross filing requires one to grab the handle of the file with the right
hand and place the palm of the other hand on the end of the file. Angle the file
diagonally to the work and press down firmly so that the file digs in and cuts
the metal. Make long, slow strokes away from your body. Lift the file away
from the surface on the return stroke to prevent dulling the file. draw filing
requires one to place his hands on either side of the file with a gap slightly
larger than the workpiece. The file is held horizontally and long, slow strokes
are made away from the body with a firm pressure. Pressure is applied on the
forward stroke, and relieved on the backward stroke.

Care of files

i. Never throw files on top of each other in a drawer

ii. Never knock a file on its edge to get rid of filings in the teeth, instead use a file
brush.
iii. Always clean the file on completion of the job.
iv. Do not exert too much pressure when using a new file
v. Avoid using a new file on rough surfaces of castings, welds or hard scale.
vi. Always use a properly fitted handle
The Hacksaw

Used when larger amounts of waste material are to be removed, as compared to filling.
The blade with teeth pointing away from the handle is supported on two holding pins
fitted into the handle and the frame as shown in Figure 3.5. The wing nut on the
adjustable pin is used to tension the blade.

Figure 3.5: The hacksaw (a) parts and (b) teeth pointing away from the handle

A standard hacksaw blade is 300 mm long × 13 mm wide × 0.65 mm thick and is

available with pitches of 14,18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25 mm. Choice of blade (pitch) is
governed by the size and hardness of the material being cut as shown in Table I. For
thin materials ensure at least 3 teeth are in contact with the work piece.

Table I: Selection of hacksaw blades

Pitch (number of teeth per 25

Material mm)
thickness (mm) Hard Soft materials
materials

Up to 3 32 32

3-6 24 24

6- 13 24 18

13 - 26 18 14

Types of hacksaw blades:

i. All hard –is made from hardened high-speed steel. The blades have a long life.
However, they are brittle and hence, easily broken if twisted during sawing.
Therefore, they are best suited to the skilled user.
ii. Flexible – the blade is also made from high-speed steel, but with only the teeth
hardened. This results in a flexible blade with hard teeth which is virtually
 unbreakable and can therefore be used by the less experienced user or when
sawing in an awkward position. The blade life is reduced due to the problem
of fully hardening the teeth only.
iii. Bimetallic – The blade consists of a narrow cutting-edge strip of hardened high-
speed steel joined to a tough alloy-steel back by electron beam welding. This
blade combines the qualities of hardness of the all-hard blade and the
unbreakable qualities of the flexible blade, resulting in a shatterproof blade
with long life and fast-cutting properties.

Hammers

The engineer’s hammer (ball peen hammer) consists of a hardened and tempered steel
head that is firmly fixed on a tough wooden handle, usually hickory or ash as shown
in Figure 3.6 and 3.7. The flat striking surface is known as the face, and the opposite
end is called the peen. This is a general purpose hammer used for forging, riveting,
and hitting tools including punches and chisels.

Figure 3.6: Ball peen hammer

Straight and cross peen hammer hammers are generally used in blacksmith shop to
turn wrought iron or steel into a value-added tool or product. The one end of the head
is a flat face while the wedge shaped peen end is either parallel (straight peen) or
perpendicular (cross peen) to the handle. The peen end can be used to tap a nail if
there is less space, and the flat face is used for forging, riveting, striking steel tools,
etc.

Figure 3.7: Basic metal workshop hammers.

A soft faced hammer has a striking surface made of wood, brass, lead, rawhide, hard
rubber, or plastic. These hammers are intended for use in forming soft metals and
striking surfaces that are easily damaged. Soft faced hammers should not be used for
rough work. Striking punch heads, bolts, or nails will quickly ruin this type hammer.

Riveting hammer is used to hammer rivets. The wedge profile head shape is used to
spread the heads of the rivets, while the other end, which can be flat square or round
in cross-section area are used to refine or to forge the rivets head.

Cold chisels

Cold chisels are chisels normally designed to be used on unheated metals which are
softer than themselves. The metals cut include wrought iron, copper, brass,
aluminium and low carbon steels. Types of cold chisels include flat chisel, cross-cut
(cape) chisel, the half-round and diamond point chisels as shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Types of cold chisels (a) Diamond point chisel, (b) flat chisel, (c) half round
chisel, and (d) cross cut chisel.

The diamond point chisel has a diamond shaped tip and is used to create grooves with
a “V” shape. It is also used in corners and in the moving of incorrect marks left by a
centre punch.

A flat chisel has a broad flat cutting edge that is ground to an angle of approximately
60°. It is used to cut sheet metal and to break off things such as rivet heads, nuts and
metal rods.

A half-round (round nose) chisel has a rounded shape, although the top of the tool is
actually flat. It is designed to create grooves/channels with rounded bottoms. Such
grooves may be found in bearings, acting as “oil ways”.

Cross- cut chisel has a narrower point than the flat chisel. It is used to cut keyways,
narrow grooves, square corners and holes in sheet metal too small for the flat chisel

While using a chisel on sheet metal, care should be taken by holding the workpiece in
a vice. Long work can be further supported using metal bars and clamps. To cut a big
hole in a material chain drilling is performed followed by chiseling out the wast
material and finishing through filling. The chisel should be held at approximately 40o
to the workpiece. Never allow a mushroom head to form on the chisel. When
sharpening the chisel do not allow its head to be over heated.

Scrapers

Scrapers remove the unwanted material selectively in small amounts, usually to give
a flat or a good bearing surface. Scraping therefore removes high spots to make the
surface flat or circular, and at the same time to create small pockets in which lubricant
can be held between the two surfaces. Surface plates and surface tables are examples
of scraping being used when flatness is of prime importance. Examples where both
flatness and lubricating properties are required can be seen on the sliding surfaces of
centre lathes and milling, shaping and grinding machines.

Various types of scraps include flat, half round and three square scrapers are as shown
in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Types of scrapers (a) flat, (b) half- round and (c) three- square.

The flat scraper, for use on flat surfaces, resembles a hand file thinned down at the
point, but it does not have any teeth cut on it. The point is slightly curved, and the
cutting edges are kept sharp by means of an oilstone. The scraper cuts high spots in
work piece in order to produce a flat surface. Flatness is checked by applying
engineer’s blue on a surface table and rubbing the workpiece on the surface in order
to mark the high sports to be scrapped. Desired flatness is achieved when the whole
surface of the workpiece is evenly covered with the blue.

Half-round scrapers are slightly hollow on the underside, to prevent digging in, and
have a cutting edge on each side. A reference surface (a shaft smeared with engineer’s
blue) is run in the curved surface so as to indicate the high spots, which are removed
by scraping. The process is repeated until the desired surface is produced.

The three-square or triangular scraper is used to remove the sharp edges from curved
surfaces and holes. It is not suited to scraping internal curved surfaces, due to the
steeper angle of the cutting edges tending to dig into the surface. However, the sharp
point is useful where a curved surface is required up to a sharp corner.