EDWARD CARES

ZOO 101

INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALIAN AND PHYSIOLOGY ANATOMY

What are Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is the study
of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other. The study of anatomy
includes many sub specialties. These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy
and Embryology. Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope. Systemic anatomy studies
functional relationships of organs within a system whereas Regional anatomy studies body part regionally.
Both systemic and regional approaches may be used to study gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy
(Histology) requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the various organs of the body.
Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the
body and its part work or function. That is, Physiology deals with the various functions of living organisms.

Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give students a full appreciation and understanding
of human body.

Homeostasis

When structure and function are coordinated, the body achieves a relative stability of its internal
environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes
constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under
normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the
brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood
streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body
temperature, breathing and heart rate.

Level of structural organization of the body

The human body has different structural levels of organization, starting with atoms molecules and
compounds and increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the systems that make up the
complete organism.
 Figure 1: Levels of structural organization of the body

Atoms molecules and compounds: At its simplest level, the body is composed of atoms. The most
common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur. Atoms
→ Molecule → Compounds.

Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some
of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.

Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the
body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue.

Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body
cavities.

Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone
and tendons.
Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and
cardiac muscles.

Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and
transmits nerve impulses.

Organ: it is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific
function. For example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues

System: it is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory
system contains several organs. Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism.

Relative Directional terms

Standardized terms of reference are used when anatomists describe the location of the body part. Relative
means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body.

Table 1: Directional terms

Body parts Regions

The body can generally be described to have areas of:

Axial body part: It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax
(chest), abdomen, and pelvis.

Appendicular body part: It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and lower
extremities.

Body planes and sections

Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps for further
identification of specific areas.

Sagittal plane: divides the body into right and left half. - Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left
and right halves.

Para sagittal plane:

divides body into unequal left and right

Frontal plane: divides the body into asymmetrical antererior and posterior sections.

Transverse plane: divides the body into upper and lower body section. Oblique plane: - divides the body
obliquely into upper and lower section.

Figure 2: Body planes

Body Cavities

The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two
main body cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.

The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity.

The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and the
sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of tissues
and organs that separates the left and right lung).

Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into
superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder,
rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs.

The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral canal
containing the spinal cord.

Figure 3: Body cavities

 ZOO 101
SKELETAL SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
 The adult human skeleton consists of 206 named bones. Infants and children have more
than 206 bones because some of their bones fuse later in life.
 Bones of the adult skeleton are grouped into 2 principal divisions:
 axial skeleton (consisting of 80 bones)
 appendicular skeleton (consisting of 126 bones).
AXIAL SKELETON
 It consists of the skull, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone, ribs, sternum
(breastbone), and bones of the vertebral column.
THE SKULL
 It is the bony framework of the head, consisting of 22 bones (excluding the bones of the
middle ears). These bones are grouped into 2: cranial bones and facial bones.
 Unique Features of the Skull
 Sutures
 Paranasal sinuses
 Fontanels
Functions of the Skull: It gives shape to the head, protects the brain and vital organs such as eyes,
nose and ears.
HYOID BONE
It is a U-shaped bone that does not articulate with any other bone
Function: It supports the tongue; provides attachment site for muscles of the tongue, neck and
pharynx.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
It consists of series of bones called vertebrae and are held together by ligament. They are 33
during early development but as a child grows several vertebrae in the sacral and coccygeal
regions fuse.
Types of Vertebrae and Location
 Cervical vertebrae (7): Neck region.
 Thoracic vertebrae (12): Thoracic/chest cavity.

1|Page
  Lumbar vertebrae (5): Supports the lower back.
 Sacrum (1): consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae.
 Coccyx (1): Consists of 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae.
Functions: It protects the spinal cord; it supports the head and serves as a point of attachment for
the ribs, pelvic girdle, and muscles of the back and upper limbs.
Parts of a Typical Vertebra
 Centrum: It is the weight-bearing part of a vertebra found below the neural canal.
 Neural canal: It acts as a passage for spinal nerves and cord.
 Processes: The transverse process extends laterally on each side while the neural spine
projects dorsally. They are attachment points for muscles.
 Facets/Zygapophyses: These are articular surfaces where 2 bones meet and permit
movement between them. The Prezygapophyses are found at the anterior end of the
vertebra while the Postzygapophyses are found at the posterior end.
Cervical Vertebrae
 They have large neural canal, small centrum and a short neural spine. The first two
cervical vertebrae differ considerably from the others.
 Atlas: It lacks a centrum and zygapophyses. Neural spine is less prominent. It has 2 holes
called vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood vessels and the nerves. It permits
nodding movement of the head.
 Axis: It has a centrum and an odontoid process which fits into a depression in the atlas
to form a pivot joint. This permits the rotating movement of the head.

Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae

2|Page
Thoracic Vertebrae
 They are larger and stronger than cervical vertebrae. They have long neural spine
projecting upward and backward, longer and larger transverse processes.
 They are easily identified by their costal facets (cost-rib) or demifacets, which are
articular surfaces for the ribs.
Functions
 Aid the formation of rib cage with the ribs and sternum which protects the lungs and
heart.
 Support intercostal muscle to contract against them and aid breathing movement.
 Neural spine and transverse process aid attachment of shoulder and back muscles.
Lumbar Vertebrae
 They are the largest and strongest of the unfused bones in the vertebral column because
they support great amount of body weight.
 They have large transverse process; broad and flat neural spine projecting upward
and forward; thick centrum; presence of anapophyses and metapophyses.
Functions:
 They provide attachment surfaces for abdominal and large back muscles.
 They bear the weight of the body.

Lumbar Vertebra Sacral Vertebra

3|Page
Sacral Vertebrae
 The sacrum is a triangular bone formed by the union of five sacral vertebrae.
 It begins to fuse in individuals between 16 and 18 years of age, a process usually completed
by age 30.
 They have narrow neural canal, reduced neural spine, large and thick centrum, large
and thick transverse process in the anterior vertebra which fuses with the pelvic girdle.
Function
They are attached to the pelvic girdles to provide strength, support and rigidity.
Caudal Vertebra/Coccyx
 It is triangular in shape, formed by the fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae. Transverse
process, centrum and zygapophyses are greatly reduced.
 Functions: It provides attachment for tail muscles.

THE RIBS AND STERNUM

 Sternum/breastbone: It is a flat, narrow bone located in the center of the anterior thoracic
wall.
 Ribs: They are flat bones connected to the thoracic vertebrae at the back and sternum
at the front via costal cartilages.
 The rib has a head (made up of capitulum and tubercle), a neck and a shaft.
 The 1st-7th ribs (true ribs): They are connected directly to the sternum.
 The 8th -9th ribs (false ribs): They are attached to the cartilage of the 7th rib,
 The last 3pairs of ribs are not attached to the sternum, hence called floating ribs.
Functions
 The rib cage protects viscera organs in the chest region and aid breathing.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE
 The human body has two pectoral girdles, each consisting of a clavicle (collar bone) and
a scapula (shoulder blade).
 The clavicle is the anterior bone and articulates with the sternum while the scapula
articulates with the clavicle and the humerus.

4|Page
  The scapula is a large, triangular, flat bone with a prominent ridge called the spine which
runs diagonally across the posterior surface of the scapula.
 The pectoral girdles do not articulate with the vertebral column but are held in position
by large muscles from the vertebral column and ribs to the scapula.
 At end of the spine is an acromion which articulates with the clavicle. The scapula also
has a shallow depression called the glenoid cavity where the head of the humerus fits.
 The scapula also bears a projection called the coracoid process to which the tendons and
ligaments are attached.

Pectoral girdle (Anterior view)

UPPER LIMB
 Each upper limb consists of 30 bones:
 The humerus (in the arm)
 The ulna and radius (in the forearm)
 8 carpals (in the carpus or wrist)
 5 metacarpals (in the palm)
 14 phalanges (bones of the digits/fingers) in the hand
THE HUMERUS
 It is the longest and largest bone of the upper limb. It articulates proximally with the
scapula and distally with the ulna.
 The proximal end of the humerus has a rounded head that fits into the glenoid cavity
of the scapula.

5|Page
THE FOREARM
 It consists of the ulna and radius. The ulna is located on the little-finger side of the
forearm and is longer than the radius.
 The ulna and radius articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint. The distal end of
the radius articulates with three bones of the wrist.
CARPALS
 The carpus (wrist) consists of 8 small bones, joined to one another by ligaments.
Articulations among carpal bones are called inter-carpal joints.

Anterior view of the upper limb Radius and ulna

METACARPALS
 The palm consists of five bones called metacarpals, each consisting of a proximal base,
an intermediate shaft, and a distal head.
 The heads articulate with the proximal phalanges to form the metacarpophalangeal
joints.

PHALANGES
 These are the bones of the digits. There are 14 phalanges in the five digits of each hand.
A single bone of a digit is referred to as a phalanx.
 Each phalanx consists of a proximal base, an intermediate shaft, and a distal head.

6|Page
  Joints between phalanges are called interphalangeal joints.
PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE
 It consists of two (2) hip bones which unite at a joint called the pubic symphysis and
consist of a disc of fibrocartilage.
 The pelvis is composed of the hip bones, pubic symphysis, and sacrum.
 The pelvic girdle consists of the ilium, ischium, and pubis; which connect the bones of
the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
 Ilium is the largest and has a socket called acetabulum into which the head of the femur
fits.
 A large hole in the pelvic girdle that allows for the passage of blood vessels and nerves is
called the obturator foramen

THE PELVIC GIRDLE PARTS OF THE HIP BONE

LOWER LIMB
 Each lower limb has 30 bones
 The femur in the thigh
 The patella (kneecap)
 The tibia and fibula in the leg
 The 7 tarsals in the tarsus (ankle)

7|Page
  The 5 metatarsals in the metatarsus
 The 14 phalanges (bones of the digits) in the foot

Anterior view of the lower limb

FEMUR (THIGH BONE)

 It is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body.
 Its proximal end articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone while its distal end
articulates with the tibia and patella.
THE PATELLA (KNEECAP)
 It is a small triangular bone located anterior to the knee joint. The patella protects the
knee joint.
TIBIA
 It is the larger, weight-bearing bone of the leg. The tibia articulates at its proximal end
with the femur and fibula and at its distal end with the fibula and the talus bone of the
ankle.

8|Page
FIBULA
 Unlike the tibia, it is considerably smaller and does not articulate with the femur but
helps stabilize the ankle joint.
 The head of the fibula articulates with the tibia below the level of the knee joint while the
distal end articulates with the talus of the ankle.
TARSALS, METATARSALS, AND PHALANGES
 The tarsus (ankle) consists of seven tarsal bones connected by intertarsal joints.
 The talus is the only bone of the foot that articulates with the fibula and tibia.
 The metatarsus consists of five metatarsal bones. Each metatarsal consists of a proximal
base, an intermediate shaft, and a distal head.
 The metatarsals articulate with the phalanges to form the metatarsophalangeal joints.
 The phalanges comprise the distal component of the foot. The toes are numbered 1–5
starting with the great toe. Each phalanx (singular) consists of a proximal base, an
intermediate shaft, and a distal head.
 The great or big toe has two large, heavy phalanges called proximal and distal phalanges.
The other four toes each have three phalanges, namely, the proximal, middle, and distal.
 Joints between the phalanges of the foot are called interphalangeal joints.
TYPES OF MUSCLES
Skeletal muscles
 They are attached to bones by Tendons and are responsible for skeletal movements. The
basic unit of skeletal muscle is muscle fiber which consist of bundles of long cells. The
smallest functional unit of skeletal muscle is sarcomere.
 Skeletal muscles are also called striated muscles because the arrangement sarcomeres,
along the length of the fibers gives the cells a striped (striated) appearance when viewed
under the microscope. Each muscle acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers. They
are under the control of the peripheral nervous system hence, they are under conscious,
or voluntary control.
Cardiac Muscles
 They are found in the wall of the heart. They are striated like skeletal muscle and their
contraction is involuntary, strong and rhythmical. Unlike skeletal muscle, the activities
of cardiac muscles are unconscious because they are under the control of the autonomic
nervous system.

9|Page
Smooth muscles
 They are found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, uterus, blood vessels,
and other internal organs. They lack striations and their cells are spindle-shaped.
 Smooth muscles are under the control of autonomic nervous system, hence, cannot be
controlled consciously/acts involuntarily. Smooth muscles are responsible for as
churning of the stomach or constriction of arteries.
CONTROL OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Skeletal muscles are composed of long, cylindrical cells called muscle fibers, each containing
myofibrils. Myofibrils consist of repeating units called sarcomeres, which are the functional
units of contraction. Sarcomeres are composed of:
 Actin (thin filaments): Protein filaments with binding sites for myosin.
 Myosin (thick filaments): Motor proteins with heads that interact with actin to produce
contraction.
 Regulatory proteins:
 Tropomyosin: Blocks myosin-binding sites on actin when at rest.
 Troponin: Regulates the position of tropomyosin in response to calcium ions.
Control Mechanisms
The neuromuscular junction is the synapse where a motor neuron communicates with a muscle
fiber. Action potential in the motor neuron triggers the release of acetylcholine into the
synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane),
generating an action potential in the muscle fiber. This action potential moves along the
sarcolemma and into the muscle through T-tubules, initiating contraction.

A skeletal muscle is attached to the bone in at least 2 places, namely the origin, a fixed non-
movable part of the skeleton, and the insertion, a movable part of the skeleton. They attach to
bones by means of tendons. At least 2 muscles or sets of muscles (antagonistic muscles) must
be used to move a bone into one position and back again. Walking movement is brought about
by the alternate contraction of flexor and extensor muscles. A flexor muscle bends a limb by
pulling 2 parts of the skeleton towards each other, such as the biceps which flexes the arm causing
the ulna and the radius (bones of the lower arm) to be pulled towards the humerus in the upper
arm. The extensor is antagonistic to a flexor. Triceps muscle is antagonistic to the biceps and
extends the lower arm.

10 | P a g e
The sliding filament model
The sliding filament model shows how skeletal muscles contract at the molecular level. It involves
the interaction of actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments) within the sarcomere. The
sarcomere is bound at both ends by Z-lines, which act as anchors for the actin filaments. In the
middle lies the M-line, which stabilizes the myosin filaments. Surrounding the M-line is the H-
zone, a region where only thick filaments exist. The overlapping areas of actin and myosin
create the A-band, while regions with only actin form the I-band.

Diagrammatic representation of how a sarcomere contracts by the actin filaments sliding

between myosin filaments

A muscle contraction is initiated when the brain or spinal cord sends a nerve impulse to a skeletal
muscle fiber via a motor neuron. This electrical signal reaches the neuromuscular junction,
where the motor neuron releases acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft. acetylcholine binds to
receptors on the sarcolemma, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber. The action potential
travels along the sarcolemma, deep into the muscle through transverse tubules.

The action potential stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an internal membrane system
surrounding myofibrils, to release stored calcium ions (Ca²⁺) into the cytosol of the muscle cell.

In a resting muscle, tropomyosin, covers the binding sites on actin where myosin heads could
attach. Troponin, a small regulatory protein complex, sits on tropomyosin and is sensitive to

11 | P a g e
calcium. When Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, it causes a conformational change. Troponin shifts
tropomyosin away, exposing the myosin-binding sites on actin.

With the binding sites now exposed, the myosin heads, which are part of the thick filaments,
attach to actin, forming a cross-bridge. At this stage, the myosin heads are in a "cocked"
position, primed by energy from the hydrolysis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Once the cross-bridge is established, the myosin heads "pulls" on the actin filaments,
drawing them toward the center of the sarcomere (the M-line). This movement shortens the
sarcomere, and as thousands of sarcomeres shorten simultaneously, the entire muscle fiber
contracts. This pulling action is powered by the release of energy stored in the myosin heads.

After the power stroke, the myosin heads remain bound to actin until a fresh molecule of ATP
binds to the myosin. This binding weakens the connection between myosin and actin, causing
the cross-bridge to detach. This step is important because it prevents the muscle from
becoming locked in a contracted state.

The myosin heads act as enzymes (ATPases) that hydrolyze ATP into ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). i.e.,

ATP ADP + Pi
ATPase

This hydrolysis provides the energy to reset the myosin heads to their cocked position, ready for
another round of binding and pulling. As long as calcium remains in the cytosol and ATP is
available, this cycle repeats.

NOTE: When the nerve signal ceases, calcium ions are actively pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum using ATP. As calcium levels in the cytosol drop, troponin changes
shape again, allowing tropomyosin to slide back and cover the myosin-binding sites on actin.
This prevents further cross-bridge formation, and the muscle relaxes.

12 | P a g e
TYPES OF JOINTS
 Ball-and-socket joints: These joints have a rounded surface so that one bone fits into a
cuplike depression of another bone. They permit movements around three axes. E.g., the
shoulder and hip joints.
 Pivot joints: The rounded surface of one bone articulates with a ring formed partly by
another bone and partly by a ligament. It allows rotation only around its own longitudinal
axis. It is found between the atlas and axis and permits the turning of the head.
 Hinge joints: The convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone.
E.g., the knee, elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints.
 Planar joints: They permit gliding movements around two axes i.e., back-and-forth and
side-to-side movements between the flat surfaces of bones. They are found between carpal
bones at the wrist, between tarsal bones at the ankle, between the sternum and the
clavicle, and between the acromion of the scapula and the clavicle.
 Sutures: It is composed of a thin layer of dense fibrous connective tissue. They unite the
bones of the skull. The irregular, interlocking edges of sutures give them added strength
and decrease their chances of fracturing.

13 | P a g e
 ZOO 101: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the
exchange of respiratory gases. The major organs of the respiratory system function primarily to
provide oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration, remove the waste product carbon
dioxide, and help to maintain acid-base balance.

Respiration is defined as the oxidation of food substances to release chemical energy (ATP),
carbon dioxide and water. Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting
zone and a respiratory zone. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs
and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the respiratory
zone.

The mammalian respiratory system is divided into:

Upper respiratory tract

Nose and nasal cavity: They form the main external opening for the respiratory system through
which air moves. The nose is a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin that
supports and protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is lined with mucous
membranes, containing sebaceous glands and hair follicles that prevent the passage of dirts. Each
lateral wall of the nasal cavity has three bony projections, called the superior, middle, and
inferior nasal conchae. Conchae increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and to disrupt
the flow of air as it enters the nose, causing air to bounce along the epithelium, where it is
filtered and warmed before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and mucus lining the nasal cavity help to
trap dust, mold, pollen and other environmental contaminants.

Mouth/oral cavity: It is the secondary external opening for the respiratory tract. Most normal
breathing takes place through the nasal cavity, but the oral cavity can be used to supplement or
replace the nasal cavity’s functions when needed. Because the pathway of air entering the body
from the mouth is shorter than the pathway for air entering from the nose, the mouth does not
warm and moisturize the air entering the lungs.

Pharynx/throat: It is a muscular funnel that extends from the posterior end of the nasal cavity to
the end of the oesophagus and larynx. It is divided into 3 regions: the nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx is the superior region of the pharynx found in the posterior
of the nasal cavity. Inhaled air from the nasal cavity passes into the nasopharynx and descends
through the oropharynx, located in the posterior of the oral cavity. Air inhaled through the
oral cavity enters the pharynx at the oropharynx. The fauces is the opening between the oral
cavity and the oropharynx.

Page | 1
The inhaled air then descends into the laryngopharynx, where it is diverted into the opening of the
larynx by the epiglottis (a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the
esophagus). Because the pharynx is also used to swallow food, the epiglottis ensures that air passes
into the trachea by covering the opening to the esophagus.

Larynx/voice box: It connects the laryngopharynx and the trachea. Several cartilage structures
(epiglottis, thyroid cartilage/Adam’s apple and cricoids cartilage) make up the larynx and
give it its structure. The thyroid and cricoid cartilage holds the larynx open. Larynx contains
special structures known as vocal folds, which allow the body to produce the sounds of speech
and singing.

Lower respiratory tract

Trachea/windpipe: It is a long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings lined with pseudo
stratified ciliated columnar epithelium. It connects the larynx to the bronchi. The epithelium
lining the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other contaminants and prevents it
from reaching the lungs. Cilia on the surface of the epithelial cells move the mucus superiorly
toward the pharynx where it can be swallowed.

Bronchi and bronchioles: The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi (at the
carina), and are also lined by pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing mucus-
producing goblet cells. The carina is a structure that induces violent coughing if a foreign body,
is present. Rings of cartilage support the bronchi and prevent their collapse.

The primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum. They branch off into smaller secondary
bronchi which carry air into the lobes of the lungs—2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung. The
secondary bronchi in turn split into tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi split into many
smaller bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs. Each bronchiole further splits into many
smaller branches called terminal bronchioles. Finally, terminal bronchioles join a respiratory
bronchiole (the smallest type of bronchiole) which then leads to an alveolar duct. The presence
of smooth muscle and elastin in the bronchi and bronchiole wall helps to regulate airflow
into the lungs.

Alveoli: An alveolar duct is a tube which opens into an alveolar sac containing cluster of alveoli
that are responsible for gas exchange. It is approximately 200μm in diameter with elastic walls
that allow the alveolus to stretch during air intake, which greatly increases the surface area
available for gas exchange. Alveoli are connected to their neighbors by alveolar pores, which
help maintain equal air pressure throughout the alveoli and lung.

Alveoli surfactants are special secretions containing a mixture of phospholipids and proteins.
They reduce the surface tension of the alveoli. A lack of lung surfactants is a major problem for
human babies born very prematurely.

Page | 2
The alveolar wall consists of three major cell types: type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar cells,
and alveolar macrophages. A type I alveolar cell constitute up to 97 percent of the alveolar surface
area. These cells are highly permeable to gases. A type II alveolar cell are scattered among the
type I cells and secretes pulmonary surfactant. Around the alveolar wall is the alveolar
macrophage that removes debris and pathogens that have reached the alveoli.

Lungs: The lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thoracic region. The left and
right lungs are slightly different in size due to the heart pointing to the left side of the body. The
left lung is therefore slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while the right
lung has 3 lobes.

Page | 3
Figure 1a&b: Structure of mammalian respiratory system

MECHANISM OF BREATHING AND CONTROL

Mammals employ negative pressure breathing – pulling air into the lungs. The process of
breathing is divided into two (2) phases;

 Inhalation
 Exhalation

INHALATION/INSPIRATION: During inhalation, the rib muscles and diaphragm contract

to expand the thoracic cavity by pulling the ribs upward and the sternum outward. This lowers
the air pressure in the lungs below that of the air outside the body. Because gas flows from a
region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure, air rushes through the nostrils and
mouth and down the breathing tubes to the alveoli.

EXHALATION/EXPIRATION: During exhalation, the muscles controlling the thoracic

cavity relax, and the volume of the cavity is reduced. The increased air pressure in the alveoli
forces air up the breathing tubes and out of the body. Thus, inhalation is always active and
requires work, whereas exhalation is usually passive.

Page | 4
The volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath is called tidal volume. The tidal volume
during maximal inhalation and exhalation is the vital capacity while the air that remains after a
forced exhalation is called the residual volume.

Figure 2: Negative Pressure Breathing

The partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in the blood vary at different points in the circulatory system.
Blood arriving at the lungs via the pulmonary arteries has a lower PO2 and a higher PCO2 than the
air in the alveoli. As blood enters the alveolar capillaries, CO2 diffuses from the blood to the
air in the alveoli while O2 in the air dissolves in the fluid that coats the alveolar epithelium
and diffuses into the blood.

CONTROL OF BREATHING

Breathing is regulated by involuntary mechanisms which ensure that gas exchange is coordinated
with blood circulation and with metabolic demand. Breathing control centers, consisting of
networks of neurons are located in two brain regions, the medulla oblongata and the pons. In
regulating breathing, the medulla uses the pH of the surrounding tissue fluid as an indicator
of blood CO2 concentration.

Increased metabolic activity during exercise lowers pH by increasing the concentration of

CO2 in the blood. In response, the medulla's control circuits increase the depth
and rate of breathing. Both remain high until the excess CO2 is eliminated in exhaled air and
pH returns to a normal. The O2 concentration in the blood usually has little effect
on the breathing control centers. However, when the O2 level drops very low (at high altitudes, for
instance), O2 sensors in the aorta and the carotid arteries in the neck send signals to the breathing
control centers, which respond by increasing the breathing rate.

Page | 5
Figure 3: Automatic control of breathing

TISSUE RESPIRATION

Tissue respiration (cellular respiration), is the process by which cells produce energy in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by breaking down glucose and other organic molecules.
This energy (ATP) generated is used for all cellular activities.

Tissue respiration occurs in three main stages:

1. Glycolysis (it occurs in the cytoplasm).

2. Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle (it occurs in the mitochondrial matrix).
3. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation (it occurs on the inner
mitochondrial membrane).

In each stage, there is extraction of energy from glucose, ultimately producing ATP, carbon
dioxide, and water.

Page | 6
 1. GLYCOLYSIS

It is the first stage in cellular respiration. It involves the breakdown of glucose (6-C sugar
molecule) through oxidative phosphorylation to form 2 molecules of pyruvate (3-carbon
molecules) with the production of 2NADH and 2H2O and a net total of 2ATP. For Glucose to be
broken down (or phosphorylated), 2 molecules of ATP are used up, but during the process of
breakdown, 4 molecules of ATP are produced. Therefore, the net gain of ATP during glycolytic
pathway is 2 ATP. NADH is reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) which carry
high-energy electrons to later stages.

Each pyruvate molecule produced during the glycolytic pathway is oxidized and converted into
Acetyl-CoA (a 2-carbon molecule) by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase. During this process,
one molecule of carbon dioxide is released per pyruvate, and one NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH. This
implies that the products of pyruvate oxidation for a molecule of Glucose is 2 Acetyl-CoA, 2
NADH and 2 CO₂.

2. KREBS’S CYCLE

In this cycle, high energy electrons are extracted from the products entering the Kreb’s cycle (2
Acetyl-CoA, 2 NADH and 2 CO₂). Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate (a 4-carbon
molecule) to form citrate (6-carbon molecule). Citrate undergoes a series of enzymatic reactions,
producing

 2 molecules of CO₂ (waste product)

 3 NADH and 1 FADH₂ (flavin adenine dinucleotide) per Acetyl-CoA.
 1 ATP (per Acetyl-CoA).

Oxaloacetate is regenerated at the end of the cycle. It then accepts another Acetyl-CoA and the
above process is repeated.

NOTE: Per molecule of Glucose, the Krebs’s cycle products are (6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, 2 ATP,
and 4 CO₂).

3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

It occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane This process involves the generation of energy
gradient from the NADH and FADH₂ produced during Krebs’s cycle. Electron transport chain
consists of a series of protein complexes and electron carriers to which NADH and FADH₂ donate
high-energy electrons to. As electrons pass through the chain, energy is released and used to
pump protons (H⁺) from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space. This creates a
proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Oxygen serves as the final electron
acceptor, combining with electrons and protons to form water. Therefore, for electron transport
chain, no ATP is directly produced in this step, rather, it sets up the conditions for ATP synthesis
through oxidative phosphorylation.

Page | 7
In the inner mitochondrial membrane protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix through
ATP synthase. This flow drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

TOTAL ATP PRODUCED DURING TISSUE RESPIRATION

 Glycolysis: 2 ATP (net).

 Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP.
 Oxidative Phosphorylation: 34 ATP (At maximum efficiency).

Total ATP Yield: 38 ATP per glucose molecule.

NOTE: The fate of pyruvate produced during glycolysis depends on whether oxygen is present or
not. Under aerobic condition (i.e., when oxygen is present), pyruvate is converted to Acetyl Co A
in the mitochondria and then enters the Citric Acid Cycle. In anaerobic conditions, the pyruvate
gets converted to lactate in presence of lactate dehydrogenase.

Page | 8