Lilongwe University of Agriculture and

Natural Resources

Bunda Campus

Basic Sciences Department

MAT 32202: Elementary Linear Algebra and

Complex Numbers

Introduction to Vectors

Lecture Notes

Francisco Chamera

January 8, 2024
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 1

Contents

1 Vector Algebra 2

1.1 Position Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Parallelgram Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 The Angle Between Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.5 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.6 Vector Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Equations of Lines and Planes 11

2.0.1 Equation of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.0.2 Equation of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 2

1 Vector Algebra

Definition 1.1. A vector represents the length and direction of a line segment.
The length of a vector v is denoted |v|.

1.1 Position Vector

Sometimes vectors are referred to a fixed point, an origin. Such a vector is called a
position vector. So we might refer to the position vector of a point P with respect
−→
to an origin O. In writing, might put OP for this vector. Alternatively, we could
write it as r (see Figure 1). These two expressions refer to the same vector.

Figure 1: Position Vector r

Definition 1.2. Two points P (a, b) and Q(x, y) in R2 define a vector
−→ −→ −→
P Q = [x − a, y − b]. If we write the vector P Q as P Q = [p, q] then the real numbers
−→
p and q are called components of P Q. Two vectors are equal if they have the same
−→
components. The length, also called magnitude of a vector P Q is the distance from
P to Q:
−→ p
|P Q| = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 .
Example 1.3.
−→
Let P = (3, −4) and Q = (2, −7) be points in R2 . Find |P Q|.

Solution
−→ −→ √ √
P Q = [2 − 3, −7 − (−4)] = [−1, −3], so |P Q| = 12 + 32 = 10.
Example 1.4.

Let v = [3, 4]. Find |v|.

Solution
√ √ √
|v| = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.
Definition 1.5. Two vectors u and v are equal if they have the same magnitude
and direction regardless of their initial point.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 3

1.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Definition 1.6. Let v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ] and w = [w1 , w2 , ..., wn ] be vectors and λ be
any scalar. Then

1. The sum of the vectors v and w is

v + w = [v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , ..., vn + wn ].

2. The scalar multiple is

λv = [λv1 , λv2 , ..., λvn ].
If λ is a positve real number, λv is the vector with the same direction as v
and of length λ|v|. If λ is negative, it is the same, but directed in the opposite
direction.
3. The difference v − w can best be seen as the addition of v and (−1)w.
Example 1.7.

Find the sum of the vectors u = [1, 4] and v = [5, 2].

Solution

u + v = [1 + 5, 4 + 2] = [6, 6].
Example 1.8.

Let u = [1, −2, −3]. Then −2u = [−2, 4, 6].

The following are the properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication.

Let u, v and w be vectors, and let λ and µ be scalars.

1. u + v = v + u (commutativity).
2. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (associativity).
3. There is a unique vector 0 such that for all vectors u, u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(identity element for vector addition).
4. For every vector u there is a unique vector −u such that u + (−u) = 0.
5. λ(µu) = (λµ)u = (λµu) = λ(µu) (associativity for scalar multiplication).
6. λ(u + v) = λu + λv (distributive law for vector addition).
7. (λ + µ)u = λu + µu (distributive law for scalar multiplication).
8. The number 1 is the identity element for scalar multiplication: 1u = u.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 4

1.2.1 Parallelgram Law

Definition 1.9. Suppose P and Q are any points in R3 . Then the line segemnt
−→
from P to Q, denoted P Q, is called the geometric vector from P to Q. Point P
−→ −→ −→
is called the tail of P Q, Q is called the tip of P Q, and the length of P Q is denoted
−→
|P Q|.

The following theorem gives the parallelgram law. Also refer to Figure 2.

Theorem 1.10 (Parallelgram Law). In the parallelogram determined by two vectors

v and w, the vector v + w is the diagonal with the same tail as v and w.

Figure 2: Parallelgram Law

Parallelgram law also defines vector subtraction as in the following theorem and
Figure 3.

Theorem 1.11. If v and w have a common tail, then v − w is the vector from the
tip of w to the tip of v.

Figure 3: Vector Subtraction

1.3 Dot Product

Definition 1.12. The dot product or inner product of two vectors v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ]
and w = [w1 , w2 , ..., wn ] is

v.w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + ... + vn wn .
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 5

The dot product is also called scalar product since it has only magnitude, no
direction. The following theorem gives properties of scalar products.
Theorem 1.13. For any vector v, w, w1 , w2 , and any r ∈ R, we have the following

1. v.w = w.v
2. v.(w1 + w2 ) = v.w1 + v.w2
3. v.(rw) = r(v.w)
4. v.v = |v|2 , where |v| denotes the length of v (also called the magnitude or
norm).
Example 1.14.

Let u = [1, 2, −3, −2] and v = [−1, 2, 3, 5]. Then

u.v = 1(−1) + 2(2) + (−3)3 + (−2)5 = −1 + 4 − 9 − 10 = −16.

1.4 The Angle Between Vectors

Definition 1.15. The angle between two non-zero vectors u and v is defined as the
unique angle θ ∈ [0, π] which satisfies
u.v
u.v = |u|.|v| cos θ ⇒ cos θ = .
|u||v|
Example 1.16.

Find the angle between vectors u = [3, −1] and v = [−4, 2].

Solution

Let the angle between v and u be θ.

u.v = 3(−4) + (−1)(2) = −12 − 2 = −14

p √ √
|u| = 32 + 12 = 9 + 1 = 10
p √ √
|v| = 42 + 22 = 16 + 4 = 20.

Now
 
u.v −14 7 7
cos θ = =√ √ = − √ ⇒ θ = cos−1 − √ = 3.
|u|.|v| 10 × 20 5 2 5 2
Example 1.17.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 6

Find the angle between vectors u = [3, −1, 2] and v = [1, −1, −2].

Solution

Let the angle between v and u be θ.

u.v = 3(1) + (−1)(−1) + 2(−2) = 3 + 1 − 4 = 0

p √ √
|u| = 32 + 12 + 22 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14
p √ √
|v| = 12 + 11 + 22 = 1 + 1 + 4 = 6.

Now
u.v 0 π
cos θ = =√ √ = 0 ⇒ θ = cos−1 0 = .
|v|.|u| 14 × 6 2
Hence the two vectors are perpendicular.
Definition 1.18. Two vectors u and v are said to be orthogonal (perpendicular)
π
if the angle between them is . They are parallel if the angle between them is 0.
2
Example 1.19.

Find the angle between vectors u = [1, 2, −3] and v = [2, 4, −6].

Solution

u.v = 1(2) + 2(4) + (−3)(−6) = 2 + 8 + 18 = 28

√ √
|u| = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14
√ √
|v| = 4 + 16 + 36 = 56.

Now
28 28 28
cos θ = √ √ =√ = = 1 ⇒ θ = cos−1 1 = 0.
14 × 56 784 28
Hence the two vectors are parallel.
Remark 1.20. Two vectors are orthogonal if their dot product is 0. So to check if
u and v are orthogonal we check whether u.v = 0 or not.
Example 1.21.

Check whether each pair of vectors is orthogonal or not.

1. u = [1, 2] and w = [2, −1].

2. u = [3, 2] and w = [7, −5].

Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 7

Solution

1. u.w = 1(2) + 2(−1) = 2 − 2 = 0, so the two vectors are orthogonal.

2. u.w = 3(7) + 2(−5) = 21 − 10 = 11, so the two vectors are not orhogonal.

1.5 Unit Vectors

Definition 1.22. A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. Let u be a unit

v
vector in the direction of a vector v. Then u = .
|v|
Example 1.23.

Find the unit vector in the same direction as the vector v = [1, 3].

Solution
√ √
|v| = 12 + 33 = 10.
 
1 1 3
Hence u = √ [1, 3] = √ , √ .
10 10 10
An important set of unit vectors, denoted by i, j, and k, are those having the direc-
tions, respectively, of the positive x, y, and z axes of a three-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Unit Vectors

Any vector, in three dimension, can be expressed as a sum of multiples of basic

vectors i, j, and k, i.e., the vector v = [p, q, r] can be written as
v = pi + qj + rk.
The vectors pi, qj and rk are called component vectors of v and the scalars p, q
and r are called components of v in the x, y, z directions respectively.

Let u = ai + bj + ck, v = pi + qj + rk and d ∈ R. Then

Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 8

1. u + u = (a + p)i + (b + q)j + (c + r)k

2. du = dai + dbj + dck
√
3. |u| = a2 + b2 + c2
Example 1.24.

Let u = 6i − 3j + k and v = 4i + 2j − 2k. Then

1. u + v = (6 + 4)i + (2 − 3)j + (1 − 2)k = 10i − j − k and u − v = 2i − 5j + 3k.

2. 2u = 12i − 6j + 2k and 3v = 12i + 6j − 6k.
√ √ √ √
3. |u| = 62 + 32 + 12 = 36 + 9 + 1 = 46 and |v| = 24.
Example 1.25.

Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector v = 12i − 3j − 4k.

Solution
√ √ √
|v| = 122 + 32 + 42 = 144 + 9 + 16 = 169 = 13.
12 3 4
Hence the unit vector is u = i − j − k.
13 13 13
Example 1.26.

Let u = 6i − 3j + k and v = 4i + 2j. Find u.v and the angle between the two vectors.

Solution
√ √
u.v = 6(4) + (−3)(2) + 1(0) = 24 − 6 = 18. |u| = 46 and |v| = 2 5.
u.v 18
Hence cos θ = =√ √ = 0.593 giving θ = cos−1 0.593 = 0.936.
|u||v| 46 × 2 5

1.6 Vector Products

Definition 1.27. The vector product or cross product of a and b is defined to

be
a × b = |a||b| sin θn̂
where |a| is the modulus or magnitude of a, |b| is the modulus of b, θ is the angle
between a and b and n̂ is a unit vector, in a direction perpendicular to both a and
b.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 9

To get direction of a × b use the right hand rule (see Figure 6 and Figure 5):

• Make a set of directions with your right hand thumb and first index finger,
and with middle finger positioned perpendicular to plane of both.
• Point your thumb along the first vector a.
• Point your 1-st index finger along b, making the smallest possible angle to a.
• The direction of the middle finger gives the direction of a × b.

Figure 5: Right Hand Rule

Figure 6: a × b

The following are the properties of cross products.

Let u, v and w be vectors and λ be a scalar. Then

1. u × v = −v × u
2. λ(u × v) = (λu) × v = u × (λv) = (u × v)λ
3. (u + v) × w = (u × w) + (v × w)
4. u × v = 0 if and only if the vectors u and v are parallel.
5. |u × v| = |u||v| sin θ where θ is the angle between u and v.
Example 1.28.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 10

Find the vector product i × j.

Solution

Recall that the vectors i and j are perpendicular. Further, if we apply the right
hand rule, we see that a vector perpendicular to both i and j is k. Now
 π
i × j = |i||j| sin k = (1)(1)(1)k = k.
2

The cross product of two vectors is found by calculating the determinant as stated
in the following definition.
Definition 1.29. Let u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k and v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k. Then
i j k
u × v = u1 u2 u3 .
v1 v2 v3
Example 1.30.

Let u = i + 3j + 4k and v = 2i + j + 3k. Find u × v.

Solution

i j k
u×v = 1 3 4
2 1 3
= (3(3) − 4(1))i − (1(3) − 4(2))j + (1(1) − 3(2))k
= 5i + 5j − 5k.

Example 1.31.

Show that i × i = j × j = k × k = 0, i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j, j × i = −k,

k × j = −i and i × k = −j.

Solution

i j k
i×i= 1 0 0 =0
1 0 0
and
i j k
i × j = 1 0 0 = k.
0 1 0
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 11

2 Equations of Lines and Planes

2.0.1 Equation of a Line

Vector Equation

A point P = (p, q, r) and a vector v = [a, b, c] define the line

    
 p a 
L = q  + t  b  , t ∈ R. (1)
r c
 

The line consists of all points obtained by adding a multiple of the vector v = [a, b, c]
−→ −→
to the vector OP = [p, q, r]. It contains the point P as well as a copy of v = P Q
attached to P . Every vector contained in the line is necessarily parallel to v. We
−→
think about the parameter t as “time”. At t = 0 we are at the end point P of OP
−→ −→
and at t = 1 we are at the end point Q of OQ = OP + v.

Symmetric Equation

If we write
[x, y, z] = [p, q, r] + t[a, b, c]
as a collection of equations

x = p + at, y = q + bt and z = r + ct (2)

and solve each equation for t we get equivalent form of equation 1 as follows
x−p y−q z−r
L = {(x, y, z)| = = }. (3)
a b c
The eqation in 3 is called symmetric equation.

Parametric Equations

The equations in 2 are called parametric equations. Note that if we are given a
line in this form, we can immediately read off the point on the line (p, q, r) and a
direction vector [a, b, c].

Example 2.1.

Find vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line L which passes through
the points A = (2, 4, 3) and B = (3, 4, 1).

Solution
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 12

Since the line L extends between A and B, direction vector for L is

v = [3 − 2, 4 − 4, 1 − (−3)] = [1, 0, 4].

Hence the vector equation for L is

[x, y, z] = [2, 4, −3] + t[1, 0, 4].
a set of parametric equations for L is
x=2+t
y=4
z = −3 + 4t.
A set of symmetric equations for L is
z+3
y = 4, x − 2 = .
4
Definition 2.2. Two lines L1 and L2 in R3 are parallel if their direction vectors are
scalar multiples of each other. The two lines are intersecting if they pass through
a common point. They are skew if they are neither parallel nor intersecting.
Example 2.3.

Let L1 and L2 be lines in R3 described by the following parametric equations.

L1 :x = 1 + t y = −2 + 3t z =4−t
L2 :x = 2s y =3+s z = −3 + 4s.
Are these lines parallel?

Solution

By Definition 2.2, parallel lines extend in the same direction. That is if L1 has
direction vector v1 and L2 has direction vector v2 then L1 and L2 are parallel if and
only if v1 and v2 point in the same (or exact opposite) direction, i.e., if v1 is a scalar
multiple of v2 .

Now v1 = [1, 3, −1] and v2 = [2, 1, 4].

Hence L1 and L2 are not parallel since v2 is not a scalar multiple of v1 .

Example 2.4.

Show that the lines

L1 :x = 3 − t y = 5 + 3t z = −1 − 4t
L2 :x = 8 + 2s y = −6 − 4s z = 5 + s.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 13

are intersecting and find the point of intersection.

Solution

Equating x’s gives

3 − t = 8 + 2s ⇒ t = −5 − 2s.
Equating y’s and substituting t = −5 − 2s gives
5 + 3t = −6 − 4s ⇒ 5 + 3(−5 − 2s) = −6 − 4s ⇒ s = −2.
So s = −2 when t = −5 − 2(−2) = −1.

Equating z’s
−1 − 4t = 5 + s.
Checking if z values are equal for t and s:
−1 − 4t = 5 + s ⇒ −1 − 4(−1) = 5 + (−2) ⇒ 3 = 3.
Therefore, L1 and L2 are intersecting lines. Substituting values of t and s in L1
gives
x = 3 − (−1) = 4, y = 5 + 3(−1), z = −1 − 4(−1) = 3.
Hence the point of intersection is (4, 2, 3).
Example 2.5.

Determine whether the lines L1 and L2 are parallel, skew or intersecting. If they
intersect, find the point of intersection.
L1 :x = 4 + t y = −8 − 2t z = 12t
L2 :x = 3 + 2s y = −1 + s z = −3 − 3s.

Solution

Equating x’s gives

4 + t = 3 + 2s ⇒ t = −1 + 2s.
Equating y’s and substituting t = −1 + 2s gives
−8 − 2t = −1 + s ⇒ −8 − 2(−1 + 2s) = −1 + s ⇒ s = −1.
Therefore s = −1 when t = −1 + 2(−1) = −3.

Checking if z values are equal for these values of t ans s

12(−3) = −3 − 3(1) ⇒ −36 6= 0.
This shows that L1 and L2 do not intersect.

Let v1 and v2 be direction vectors for L1 and L2 respectively. Then v1 = [1, −2, 12]
and v2 = [2, 1, −3]. Clearly, L1 and L2 are not parallel.

Hence L1 and L2 are skew.

Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 14

2.0.2 Equation of a Plane

Consider a plane through point P0 (called reference point) and perpendicular to

vector n, i.e., n is a vector that is orthogonal to the plane, so n is called the normal
vector. Given an arbitrary point P on the plane, let r0 and r be position vectors
of P0 and P (see Figure 7). The vector equation of the plane is given by

n.(r − r0 ) = 0.

Figure 7: Plane

Given points P = (x, y, z) and P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and the normal vector n = [a, b, c],
the vector equation is

n.(r − r0 ) = [a, b, c].[x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ] = 0.

The scalar equation is

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

Simplifying this we have

ax + by + cz − ax0 − by0 − cz0 = 0.

If we put d = −ax0 − by0 − cz0 we get the following equation which is called linear
equation:
ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Example 2.6.

Find the scalar and linear equation of the plane which passes through the points
P (1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6) and R(5, 2, 0).

Solution

The vectors

−→ −→
P Q = [2, −4, 4] and P R = [4, −1, −2]
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 15

both lie in the plane, and hence the normal vector is

i j k
−→ −→
n = P Q × P R = 2 −4 4 = 12i + 20j + 14k.
4 −1 −2

Taking P (1, 3, 2) as a reference point we have

Scalar equation: 12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0.

Linear equation: 12x + 20y + 14z − 100 = 0 or 6x + 10y + 7z - 50 = 0.

Example 2.7.

Determine the equation of the plane that contains the lines L1 and L2

L1 :x = 3 − t y = 5 + 3t z = −1 − 4t
L2 :x = 8 + 2s y = −6 − 4s z = 5 + s.

Solution

In order to find the equation of a plane, we need a point on the plane and a vector
n = [a, b, c] that is orthogonal to the plane. We have two points in the plane:

(3, 5, −1) from L1 and (8, −6, 5) from L2 .

We have two vectors in the plane

[−1, 3, −4] from L1 and [2, −4, 1] from L2 .

Let u = [−1, 3, −4] and v = [2, −4, 1]. Then

i j k
n = u × v = −1 3 −4 = −13i − 7j − 2k.
2 −4 1

Taking (3, 5, −1) as reference point we have

−13(3)−7(5)−2(−1)−39−35+2 = 0 ⇒ −13x−7y−2z+72 = 0 ⇒ 13x+7y+2z−72 = 0.

The angle between two planes is the angle between their normal vectors.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 16

Definition 2.8. Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. If two
planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight line and the angle between
them is defined as the acute angle between their normal vectors.

Algebraically, we can combine the equations of the planes and try to solve them.
The solutions give us the line of intersection, while no solution means the planes are
parallel.
Example 2.9.

Find the line of intersection of two planes x − 2y + z = 0 and 2x + 3y − 2z = 0.

Solution

First equation times 2 plus second equation gives

4x − y = 0 ⇒ y = 4x.

Substituting in the first equation gives

x − 2(4x) + z = 0 ⇒ z = 7x.

Let x = t. Then y = 4t and z = 7t. Hence the equation of the line of intersection is

L : x = t y = 4t y = 7t.

Example 2.10.

Calculate the angle between the planes T1 and T2 given by the equations x+y+z = 1
and x − 2y + 3z = 1, respectively.

Solution

A vector orthogonal to T1 is n1 = [1, 1, 1] and a vector orthogonal to T2 is

n2 = [1, −2, 3]. Let θ be the angle between vectors n1 and n2 , which is the angle
between planes T1 and T2 . Then
 
n1 .n2 2 2
cos θ = = √ giving θ = cos−1 √ ≈ 72◦ .
|n1 ||n2 | 42 42
Definition 2.11. Let v be the direction vector of a line and n the normal vector of
a plane. The line and the plane are parallel if v and n are orthogonal, otherwise
they intersect at a point.

Algebraically, we can combine the equations of the line and the plane and try to
solve them. The solutions give us the intersection point, while no solution means
parallel.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 17

Example 2.12.

Find the point at which the line

x = 2 + 3t, y = −4t , z = 5 + t

intersect the plane

4x + 5y − 2z = 18.

Solution

4(2 + 3t) + 5(−4t) − 2(5 + t) = 18

so t = −2 giving x = −4, y = 8 and z = 3.

Hence the point of intersection is (−4, 8, 3).

Example 2.13.

Show that the line

x = 2 + 3t, y = −4t , z = 5 − 4t
is parallel to the plane
4x + 5y − 2z = 18.

Solution

4(2 + 3t) + 5(−4t) − 2(5 − 4t) = 18

giving −2 = 18, so the line is parallel to the plane.

Alternatively, direction vector of the line is v = [3, −4, −4] and the normal vector
to the plane is n = [4, 5, −2].

v.n = 3.4 + (−4).5 + (−4).(−2) = 0,

so v and n are orthogonal implying that the line and the plane are parallel.

Distance from a Point to a Plane

Theorem 2.14. The distance between the point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
D= √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 18

Proof. Choose a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on the plane. The distance is given by the
−−→
absolute value of the scalar projection of P0 P onto the normal vector n = [a, b, c]
and hence
−−→
−−→ |n.P0 P | |a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 )|
D = |compn P0 P | = = √ .
|n| a2 + b2 + c2
Using ax0 + by0 + cz0 = d, we get the desired formula.

Corollary 2.15. The distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and

ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is given by
|d1 − d2 |
D=√ .
a2 + b2 + c2

Proof. Take a point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the second plane. Since ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d2 = 0,
the distance between these two planes is
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d| |d1 − d2 |
√ =√ .
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2

Example 2.16.

Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x + 2y − 2z = 5 and 5x + y − z = 1.

Solution

Rewrite above equations as

10x + 2y − 2z − 5 = 0 and 10x + 2y − 2z − 2 = 0.

Then the distance is

√
| − 5 − (−2)| 3 3
D=p =√ = .
102 + 22 + (−2)2 108 6

Exercise 2.17.

1. Find a set of vector, parametric, and symmetric equations of the line through
the origin and the point (4, 3, −1).

2. Find a set of vector, parametric, and symmetric equations of the line through
the point (0, 14, −10) and parallel to the line x = −1+2t, y = 6−3t, z = 3+9t.
Introduction to Vectors, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda 19

3. Is the line through (−4, −6, 1) and (−2, 0, −3) parallel to, intersecting with,
or skew with the line through (10, 18, 4) and (5, 3, 14)?

4. Find a set of vector, scalar, and linear equations of the plane through (1, −1, −1)
and parallel to the plane 5x − y − z = 6.

5. Calculate the angle between the planes 9x − 3y + 6z = 2 and 2y = 6x + 4z.

6. Find the point at which the line x = t − 1, y = 1 + 2t, z = 3 − t intersects the

plane 3x − y + 2z = 5.