Exam 1:

Physiology, Homeostasis and temperature regulation

Homeostasis refers to the optimal internal physical and biochemical conditions maintained by
organisms for survival.

Homeostasis is maintained by physiological systems and processes.”physiology’ is often

defined as the study of physical and biochemical processes and functions in living organisms.
Physiology is the study of homeostatic mechanisms

Homeostasis is a balance*

The Receptor sends a message to the control centre to determine the needed action , after it is
determined an effector is sent to evaluate the situation.

Surface area to volume relationships:

Levels of organization and types of tissue

tissues are distinct group of cells performing a similar function

Epithelial tissue- Compartmentalization , separates the internal environment from the external
environment, may have secretory functio

Muscle tissue- generation of force , skeletal muscle- responsible for the voluntary movement ,
Cardiac muscle - responsible forthe contractions of the heart, Smooth muscle- provides motility
to internal organs such as the digestive tract. Controls the diameter of blood vessels.

connective tissue- provides support, adipose tissue is fat tissue

Nervous tissue-processes information, Gillia

Organs consist of multiple tissue types

homeostasis: multicellular organisms require a stable internal environment; multicellular

organisms exist in very different environments and are subject to large differences in
Temperature
available nutrients
metabolic wastes

General physiological mechanism to maintain homeostasis

Negative feedback- deviations are negated; regulation of hormones

positive feedback-increases deviation from some set point, but culminates in an event that
resets the system
parturition( giving birth)

feedforward information- the set point changes in anticipation of changing conditions

stress response

Animals exchange heat with the environment

conduction- transfer of heat when objects of different temperatures come into contact
radiation - warmer objects lose heat to cooler object as by radiation
convection
evaporation- water from the body surfaces or breathing passa

Environmental temperatures can fluctuate dramatically and present problems for alll organism
q10 is a measure of temperature sensitivity

The higher the q10 the more sensitive it is

q10= 1 is not temperature sensitive

why do varying q10 values in different system often pose a problem

Why do extreme temperatures threaten survival

denaturing of proteins happens during extreme temperatures

Homeotherms- organism that maintain a constant body temperature

poikilotherms- experience fluctuations in body temperature

Endotherms-metabolic processes produce heat to compensate for loss to environment( internal
heat generated)

Ectotherm - are dependent on environmental sources of heat(external heat acquired)

Heterortherm- recent term arising from the realization that some ectotherms can produce a lot of
metabolic heat and some endotherms may not produce heat( at least sometimes).

The body temperature of a endothermic remains constant

The temperature of the ectotherm equilibrates to the environmental temperature.

At colder environmental temperatures metabolic heat production increases in endotherms

In ectotherms it will fall

The thermoneutral zone represents the range of temperatures in endotherms wherein metabolic
rate is low sand independent of environmental temperature

Endotherms alter metabolic rate to regulate temperature

The general idea is that some physiological process is activated when too cold or too hot and
this increases metabolic rate.

It is possible that positive feedback kicks in and creates a problem

thermoregulatory adaptations and considerations

1.antifreeze
2. Heat shock proteins- prevents denaturation of proteins so it remains functional
3. Isozymes- different forms of an enzymes
4.blood shunts- ways to divert blood to other parts of the body to maintain heat
5 sweat/ pant-
6. Shivering-
integument
8. Behavior

Acclimatization- refers to alterations in physiological processes to cope with environmental

changes( ex. Production of isozymes )

Thermogenin uncouples movement of protons from atp production( it is also referred to as

uncoupling protein or UCP)

White fat- the concentration gradient is used to produce atp

brown fat- The protons from the concentration gradient move down the gradient and produces
heat and not creating atp

Behavioral regulation

*just because lizards are ectotherms doesn’t mean that they don’t or can’t regulate their body
temperature

countercurrent heat exchange - tubes in which heat is exchanged resulting in a temperature in

equilibrium

As you get bigger and bigger the metabolic rate decreases because they’re subject to
overheating.

Geographic variation in morphology of closely related species because of temperature

Bergman’s rule : animals tend to be larger in colder climates ( less likely to be subjected to the
hypothermia)

Allens rule: limbs to be shorter and thicker in colder climates.

Having shorter limbs allows for heat not to dissipate

thermoregulatory system in found primarily in the brain

hypothalamus acts as a thermostat

Torpor, hibernation and heterothermy (regulated hypothermia)

When an organisms enters torpor or hibernation its metabolic rate and body temperature
decreases over the course of 24 hours

ANIMAL HORMONES

Homeostasis requires coordination of multiple systems.

Hormones are chemical messengers that affect the function of some target cell.

The hormone is dumped into circulation and can communicate with any cell in the body

The only cells that respond to the hormone is the cell that has the receptor for that hormone
FORMS of hormonal communication

Endocrine cells secrete chemicals into the bloodstream , where they may travel to distant target
cells

Autocrine mediation- Autocrine substances feed back to influence the same cells that secreted
them

Paracrine mediations - paracrine cells that secrete chemicals that affect adjacent cells.

Ectocrine- when the chemical messenger is released to the surrounding environment to

communicate with others individuals ( ex pheromones)

Classification of hormones

protein hormone - formed from a chain of amino acids

Steroid hormones- formed from a molecule titled cholesterol , modified by enzymes to become a
particular steroid

Amine hormones- Formed from a single amino acids

Different classes of hormones affect cells via various types of receptors

Steroids are nonpolar and lipid soluble

Proteins hormones are polar and water soluble

Amine hormones may be either

Hormones are involved in signal transduction that is, converting some extracellular signal into
an intracellular response

Nonpolar will just diffuse right the cell and have no trouble

Protein hormone receptor is binder into the cell b

Signal transduction a Steroid receptor act as a transcription factor

Receptor is found in the nucleus or cytoplasm

chaperone prevents the steroid receptor from doing anything but once the receptor reaches the
cell the chaperone
The receptor for protein is embedded in the bilayer of the cell . The G protein coupled receptors
Once it binds to the receptor it

Cellular responses to hormones can vary because of receptors

Endocrine and nervous systems work together:

The hypothalamus consists of neurosecretory cells

The pituitary consists of anterior (adenohypophysis- endocrine cells) and posterior lobes
(neurohypophysis-neuroendocrine cells)

POSTERIOR PITUITARY PRODUCES NEUROHORMONES

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin)

Oxytocin-

Negative feedback loops typically regulate hormone secretion

Tropic hormones are Used to stimulate other endocrine glands to produce particular hormones

Glucocorticoids- stress
Protein catabolism
lipid catabolism
The products are used by the liver to produce glucose via gluconeogenesis
Inhibits immune system and reproductive systeM
Can be good because if stress levels are too high

Thyroid hormones

synthesis of thyroid hormones requires iodine in diet

colloid is an intermediate stage in the formation of the thyroid hormone

Thyroid hormones are lipid soluble

actions on target cells are mediated through receptors characteristics of steroids

Increases metabolic rate and hence heat production- another role of hypothalamus in
thermoregulation,

Regulation of thyroid hormone production comes from negative feedback

Goiters
May be associated with underproduction (hypothyroidism) or overproduction of thyroid
hormones (hyperthyroidism)

In the U.S., where iodine is not in short supply, a goiter is usually associated with
hyperthyroidism.

If iodine is not present the production of the thyroid hormone will not happen.

Blood glucose regulation by the pancreas

Acinar cells- digestion-exocrine

Islets of Langerhans-consists of alpha and beta cells- endocrine

Type 1 diabetes is associated with not making enough insulin, not producing the hormone or too
little of it.

Type 2 diabetes is associated with insulin resistance, lack of receptors

The increase in blood glucose calls for the stimulation of the pancreas to secrete insulin :
triggers all cells in the body to take up glucose

Alpha cells stimulates pancreas to secrete glucagon

glucagon causes the breakdown of glycogen which increases blood glucose

Insulin controls glucose uptake via glucose transporters

Gonadal hormones play a central role in gamete production , reproduction, and behavior. These
are activational effects of gonadal hormones

Gonadal hormones also play a major role in the differentiation and development of external
genitalia

These are organizational effects of gonadal hormones

Think about how variation in these structures can arise

Nervous System

Nervous system encode, process, and store information from the external and internal
environments and regulate physiology and behavior
dendrites receive information from other neurons

The cell body contains the nucleus and most cell organelles]

Information collected by dendrites is intergrated in the axon hillock, which generates action
potentials.

The axons

The other cells found in vertebrae nervous system include glia

Unlike neurons, glia do not generate and conduct electrical signals.’

Glia support and modulate neural function or provide immune defenses

Oligodendrocytes- located in the brain and spinal cord , insulate and prevent “ electrical leakage
with myelin

Schwann cells- myelin insulation in the periphery

Ependymal cells- line fluid chambers and produce cerebrospinal fluid

Astrocytes- contribute to blood-brain barrier , can alter neural communication

Microglia-phagocytosis/immune defense

Hypothalamus makes hormones->into blood circulation of the posterior pituitary

gland->hormone to the entire body/bloodstream
-neurohormones/neuroendocrine cells/neurohyposis( straight from the hypothalamus)
1.​ Oxytocin:​
a.​ Location:cervix, female reproductive organs,uterus, mammary glands
b.​ Functions:
i.​ positive feedback-birth/parturition->increases contractions
ii.​ Breast feeding/milk injection​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
2.​ Antidiurectic(ADH/vasopressin)
a.​ Location: kidneys
b.​ ADH present:collecting air dust is highly permeable to water( absorbing water)
i.​ Small volume of concentrated urine​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ c. No ADH is present: collecting duct is not permeable to water​
​ i Large volume of dilute urine.

Anterior pituitary hormone :

-hypothalamus releases RH/RIH->bloodstream of anterior pituitary->anterior pituitary-> makes
stimulating/tropic hormone-> to whole body->target organ/tissue makes the final hormone-> to
whole body
endocrine cells/ adenohypophysis(hormone from the gland)

Adrenal gland:
-Location: on top of kidneys
-medulla(inside/Medulla)-epinephrine/norepinephrine
-cortex(outer)- glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex steroids

Hypothalamus releases corticotropin->anterior pit. Gland->ACTH-> adrenal cortex->

glucocorticoids

Cortisol-inhibits release of CRH and ACTH in negative feedback loop

glucocorticoid functions

thyroid hormones​ \
-​ location : neck on thyroid glan
-​ stimulates thyroid hormones requires iodine in diet