Networks Ammar Abdul Amer

DATA COMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

1.1 Introduction

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing

can be local or remote. Between individuals, local communication
usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place
over distance. The term telecommunication, which includes telephony,
telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance (tele
is Greek for "far").
· The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of
a communication system made up of a combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness
of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, and timeliness.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2- Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
A data communications system has five components (see Figure 1.1).
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1- Message. The message is the information (data) to be

communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
2- Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so
on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4-.. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical
path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
co~nected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
Cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Communications Model

Digital bit Analog Analog Digital bit

stream signal signal stream
Text __n_r '\JV\.J '\JV\.J __n_r Text

Trans-
Trans- estination
Source mission Receiver
mitter
System

CD
Input
®
Input data
0
Transmitted
0
Received
®
Output data
@
Output
information g(t) signal signal g'(t) information
m s(t) r(t) m'

1.2 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being
responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among
multiple computers.
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Advantage
1. Security/encapsulation
A system designer can limit the kinds of interactions that a given user
can have with the entire system, for example a bank can allow user
access to their own accounts through an automated teller machine
(ATM) without allowing them access the bank's entire database.

2. Distributed databases
No one system needs to provide storage capacity for the entire
database. For example the Word Wide Web (www) given users access
to the information that may be actually stored and manipulated any
where on the internet.

3. Faster problem solving

Multiple computers working on parts of a problem concurrently can
often solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone
for example network of PCs have broken encryption codes that where
presumed to unbreakable because the amount of time it would take a
single computer to crack them .

4. Security through redundancy

Multiple computers running the same program at the same time can
provide security through redundancy. For example space shuttle,
three computer run the same program so that if one have hardware
error , the other two can override it.

5. Collaborative processing
Both multiple computers and multiple users may interact on a task ,
for example in multi-user network game the actions of each player are
visible to and affect all the others.

Applications:
!-Marketing and sales
2-Financial services
3-Manufacturing
4-Electronic massaging
5-Directory services
6-Information services
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7-Electronics data interchange (EDI)

8-Teleconferencing
9-Cellular telephone
10-Cable television
Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in
different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or
receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics,
and timing.
1- Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the
data, meaning the order in which they are presented. For example, a
simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address
of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
2- Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what
action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message?
3- Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender
produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1
Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will
be lost.
:.

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Standard Creation Committees

1- ISO(The International Standard Organization)

created in 1947
is an organization dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards in a variety offields(scientific,
technological, economic activity) OSI model.

2- ITU-T(lnternational Telecommunication Union

Telecommunication Standards Sector)
is an international standards organization related to the
United Nations that develops standards for
telecommunications.
3- ANSI(American National Standard Institute)
is a nonprofit organization and is the U.S. voting
representative to be both the ISO and the ITU-T
4- ETSI(European Telecommunications Standards
Institute)
5- IEEE(Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
is the largest national professional group involved in
developing standards for computing, communication,
electrical engineering, and electronics)
6- EIA(Eiectronic Industries Association)
is an association of electronics manufactures in the United
States. (EIA-232-D, EIA-530 standards)