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A Review on The AC Servo Motor Control Systems

Article in ELEKTRIKA- Journal of Electrical Engineering · August 2020

DOI: 10.11113/elektrika.v19n2.214

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VOL. 19, NO. 2, 2020, 22-39
www.elektrika.utm.my
ISSN 0128-4428

A Review on the AC Servomotor Control Systems

Abdul Wali Abdul Ali 1*, Fatin Asmida Abdul Razak2 and Nasri Hayima2

Centre for Electric Energy and Automation (CEEA) Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: [email protected], Tel: 601114320521

Abstract: AC Servomotors are widely used in the industries for the control of static and dynamic loads. Precise control of
position, speed, and torque are the main issues with the AC Servomotor. AC Servomotors are highly demanded by the
industries to have a precise response under dynamic load conditions. Many control techniques are commercially available for
the control of AC Servomotor under static and dynamic load conditions. However, all of these control techniques have
advantages and limitations. Many investigations are done on the control of AC Servomotor, but comprehensive surveys on
the control of AC Servomotor were still limited. In this paper, most of such commercially available control techniques are
investigated, discussed, and compared. It was found that all of the available control techniques have drawbacks, such as step
response issues, waveform oscillatory errors and fluctuations, instability of the system, switching losses, sensitivity to
parameter variations and external disturbances, and low dynamic responses. There is no control technique available which
could solve all the issues simultaneously.

Keywords: AC Servomotor, Control Stability, Dynamic Load, Static Load, Step Response, Control System
© 2020 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved
Article History: received 31 March 2020; accepted 26 July 2020; published 29 August 2020.

1. INTRODUCTION permanent magnet motor. Wang et al. [32] analyzed the

performances of AC servo drives utilizing synchronous
A servomotor is a motor employed for the control of
and asynchronous motors. A mathematical model is given
position or speed in the closed-loop control systems. The
with the control scheme and supported by experimental
functions of the servomotor are to turn over a wide range
results. Besides, a study done by Sravya [11] completed a
of speed and also to perform the control position and
robust control of an AC induction servomotor for a
speed instructions given. DC and AC servomotors are
motion-control system. Plus, X. Li [43] introduced a
utilized in applications due to their machine structure in
comparative study between two permanent magnet AC
general. When the condition is low power and variable
machines by using numerical simulation and also
speed, the AC servomotors are the ones favored in control
experimentally. The simulations were included for a two-
systems due to its control capabilities [1–3]. Besides, the
joint rigid robot directly driven by induction motors.
applications of the AC servomotors can be found in
Furthermore, Zhang et al. [37] have worked on high
conveying technology, printing, wood processing, textile
dynamic speed sensorless AC drives. Experimental
industry, plastics industry, food and packaging industry,
verification was achieved with an induction motor. The
packaging and filling plants, and machine tools. There are
on-line-mode parameter tuning was applied to eliminate
two types of AC servomotors available which are a
the steady-state error. Ollervides et al. [18] have dealt
squirrel cage asynchronous and a permanent magnet
with the problem of mechanical resonance in a system
synchronous. In the field of control of mechanical
comprising a permanent magnet synchronous servomotor
linkages and robots, research works are mostly done only
and a load with experimental verification. A study on the
on the DC motors. A literature review regarding the AC
performance of PD controlled servo systems was
servomotor motion control and tracking characteristics is
conducted by F. Lin et al. [15]. A mathematical model
limited since the AC servomotor technology is
was presented with simulation results and the
respectively new. AC servomotors applied in some
experimental implementation was included. In a motion
research articles are overviewed herein. Moreover, Lin et
control and implementation, X. Lx [13] performed
al. [15] have conducted a study on simulation and
motion control of robots by induction motors to trace the
dynamic performances of electrical machines; the
given directions by introducing a current controller. A
transformer, the DC machine, the polyphase induction
complete PM AC servomotor model was developed by P.
machine, the polyphase synchronous machine, and the
Puttaswamy et al. [21] too, which implemented a neural
single-phase induction machine with an electric machine
network self-tuning PI control scheme. The authors
simulation program. Takahashi [24] presented an
presented the experimental results in the study.
environment to model and simulate mechatronic devices;
electrical motors (AC and DC), electronics, fluid power
2. CONTROL METHODS
and control, and mechanical systems. Also, Seki et al.
[10] have described a study on a high-performance servo Many control methods are available for AC Servomotor.
drive system and characteristics of a salient pole Some of the control systems focus on the position control

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only while some control systems focus on the speed or The settling time of the system was around 100 seconds
torque control, respectively. However, some control under a 2% tolerance level.
systems focus on the control of position, speed, and In order to meet out the problem with Iterative
torque of the AC Servomotor at the same time. Learning Control (ILC), an Enhanced Iterative Learning
Control (EILC) method was proposed by S. Sathishbabu
2.1 POSITION CONTROL and P. K. Bhaba in 2012 [4]. The ILC control scheme
In this part of the paper, the control techniques for the features were learning filter and low-pass filter; the rate at
position control of the AC Servomotor are discussed. which the error signal was converged could be known
These control methods are only used for the position from the learning gains. This version was improved by
control of the motor. EILC, where the main idea in this version was that the
M. Sazawa and K. Ohishi designed a control system error signal was applied by the Filter before the control
based on a fast continuous path tracking mechanism for signal for the next trial was computed. Practically, the
the flexible position control in 2009 [2]. In this control developed processes may have caused some unexpected
strategy, the saturation of the torque and the coordinated- variations from the main or actual process. Subsequently,
motion were taken into account. For the starting and final few disturbances caused by the Filter could occur and
position, large accelerated or decelerated torques were affect the closed-loop stability in the presence of high
needed; thus, the PI controller had small loops of the frequencies. However, this issue could be reduced by
control acceleration to provide some output. This limited adding a Low Pass Filter in the loop of the control.
output method, compensated for the corresponding output Furthermore, this control method also provided good
and constructed the limiter of the speed controller. On the robustness opposing to the noises in the practical. It did
other hand, a time of deceleration, which was the duration not need a complicated environmental model, theories of
from the commencing brake time to the finishing brake control, and information of the system. Even though the
time, was proposed, and within this time, the control absolute error in the tracking error response of this
system was decelerated utilizing the highest torque. The system was less than ILC, some errors still existed and
commencing time of the brake was known by the torque should have been further reduced. Its tracking error
of the load and the targeted position. The distance of the response for the first five iterations was huge. The
movement was delighted as the error of the position until absolute error at the second iteration was 1200 radians.
the targeted position. This control technique had a good After the second iteration, the error started to reduce, and
step response, and it did not have oscillatory errors and finally, after eight iterations, it reached up to 80 radians
overshoot. Moreover, it also reduced the tracking error and stayed at the same value for the rest of the iterations.
that occurred because of the dynamic load. However, it This control system also was affected by the load
did not fully eliminate the error. Its tracking radius error variation.
was 0.02 rad. The system complexity and high gains of Although the reference waveforms were periodic in the
the controller may have consumed a lot of energy due to practical, the conventional controllers were not able to
the PI controller. The system settled at 1.041 seconds, track it properly with a good performance. To reduce this
whereas under conventional fast continuous path tracking problem, A.Ali and A. Alquhali suggested an AIMC
control, the system settled at 1.046 seconds. strategy [5]. This strategy states that the control scheme
M. Vijayakarthick et al. proposed a new Modified can be developed perfectly if the controller is designed
Repetitive Control Strategy to track a position control based on the definite scheme of process Gp(s). This
performance of AC Servomotor in 2012 [3]. The indicated that the identifier needed to have complete
proposed control method was used to track the reference knowledge about the process. The feedback was only
signal and reject the load signal and was designed based needed if the knowledge about the process was
on the Principle of Internal Model. IMP states that perfect incomplete or inaccurate. By using mathematical
tracking can be achieved, and a signal can be completely equations, the transfer function Gp(s) of the AC servo
rejected if the closed-loop model is stable. For the high- system was identified. Plus, Bode plot techniques were
frequency signal, the stability of the system could be utilized to analyze the closed-loop transfer function of the
affected by the noise. This problem could be solved by motor. In general, it was assured that IMC achievements
adding a low pass filter to the control loop. The were better than the PID controller, specifically, in terms
sensitivity function could be taken into consideration of rising time, settling time, overshoot, and its greater
because the stability had a direct relation with the gain margin. Even though IMC was better than PID in
sensitivity; in addition, a rational factor was incorporated. terms of performance, it still required further
Moreover, this control method was not affected by improvement to have the ability to control the dynamic
external disturbances or load variations. This repetitive load and remove the transient and steady-state errors
controller did not affect the stability of the system. It had fully. The settling time of the AIMC controller was 8.13
a good adaptive tracking ability, and in a practical seconds under a 2% tolerance level.
situation, it was very robust opposing the noises. Its A research paper conducted by N. Wang and W. Lin in
theories of control and knowledge of the system were not 2016 initiated a robust tracking control method [6]. This
required to be very difficult or complicated. Furthermore, method guaranteed the design of the controller so that the
according to the experimental results, there was an AC Servomotor could have accurate tracking of the
existence of the tracking error in the output waveform, position. The proposed strategy was implemented on the
but this error was less than PD and conventional base of vector control together besides the law of
repetitive control strategy. The error started reducing after mechanics of the Screw Ball and the development of a
70 seconds, subsequently existed some delay in the recent dynamic model. The formulation of precise
tracking response of the periodic reference trajectories. position tracking control was done. Using Lyapunov

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access, a convex optimization approach was used to reference frame. This method used the current and speed
formulate the existence conditions for the controller. To variables of the motor, which were compared with the
control the motion of the Motor, some more conditions reference signal. The PI regulators were used for reducing
needed to be considered, such as non-linear effects of the the error to zero that was generated from the differences
friction and unknown disturbances in the system. The between the measured and the reference signal. The
authors also stated that the Neural Network could also be vector control technique was implemented based on the
used to make the position control more accurate and to phase and current magnitude. Plus, the three-phase
approximate the non-linear friction effects. The adaptive currents of the motor were measured and sent to the
control method could be used to compensate for the controller. The controller would calculate the convenient
parameter variations. Besides, this proposed control signals to generate the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
strategy had a good dynamic response but could lead to signals with respect to the phase current and the position
transient errors in the step response. The system position of the rotor. In this experiment, the Ds1104 dSpace
control waveform settling time was 12 seconds under a control board was used. Based on the results obtained
2% tolerance level in uncertainty cases. Also, there were from the experiment, this control method has advantages
some position tracking errors as the output signal never such as a good step response, no overshoot, a rise time of
tracked the input signal exactly at any point. Hence, the 1.5 seconds, and a settling time of 2.85 seconds. Also, the
system fault tolerance control and network framework dynamic torque response in this control system was very
needed further improvement. low, and it was sensitive to parameter variations in the
control system.
2.2 SPEED CONTROL In addition, I. Kadan et al. designed a low-speed
In this part of the paper, the available control techniques control of AC servomotors in no-load condition [9]. The
for speed control of the AC Servomotor are discussed. designed control method utilized adjustable torque ramp
These control methods are only used for the speed control option. During the mode of torque control, the torque
of the motor. ramp option was specified to know the supplied control
A study conducted by F. F. Cheng and S. N. Yeh in voltage of the drive proportional to the specific amount of
1993 suggested a novel fuzzy logic controller (FLC) torque. A proper control signal could be sent to the drive-
utilized to control the speed of the AC Servomotor [7]. by assigning a proper value to the torque ramp option.
The authors used a microprocessor to reduce the circuit Since the control signal was properly measured, and the
components for price reduction and the enhancement of prior amplitudes of the noises were known. Hence, this
reliability. In order to control the motor torque helped to reduce the effects of the noise in the later
instantaneously, field orientation was indirectly endorsed, iterations. Moreover, the motor torque was regulated by
including the current-regulated PWM and VSI. The scaling down the least noise affected signal by the drive.
functions of membership of FLC were known by the As the drives were strongly safeguarded, the noise could
normalization of the input variables and the predefinition not affect the internal signal of the drive. Dynamic
of the linguistic codes. For the high and fast performance modeling was done for the rotating shaft of the motor.
AC servo system, a rules table was proposed based on the Also, the motor speed could be well regulated at desired
following two concepts. Firstly, if the change in the error values, and the effect of noise could be reduced to some
of the angular velocity was zero, and the output was set to extent through sending a properly measured signal to the
a value, the controller would maintain the output. drive. The control voltages had some fluctuations because
Secondly, change in the output was conducted based on of a key attached to the shaft. The key weight became
the magnitude and the error in the angular velocity and noticeable because there was no load attached to the
the change of error in the angular velocity signs, which motor shaft, and the motor speed was very low. Even
means whenever there was a departure among both of the though the torque ramp parameter reduced the noise in
values that were existing, the output recovered to set. The the system to some point, the motor speed still contained
implementation of 49 rules was done by utilizing the some fluctuations and oscillations.
linguistic codes; the output variables were also composed Another research paper was published by Y. Seki et
of linguistic codes. When there was equality between the al., in 2015, suggesting another control strategy [10]. The
input and the output variables, the relation led to unity. suggested control strategy improved the voltage
The relation was 0.5 degrees if near to each other and utilization on the constraint of the region of flux
zero degrees, for others. Furthermore, this control method weakening by the combination method of flux weakening
is a low cost, simplified hardware, and reliable. It has a control and the Inverter modulation arrangement. When
good dynamic response, and the switching loss was small, saturation in the voltage appeared, the control of flux-
minimized the chattering phenomenon, and the harmonics weakening operated utilizing the d-axis current and
in the current. However, it also had some drawbacks, terminated the saturation in the voltage. Saturation in the
such as viscous friction existed in practical. The control voltage occurred when the voltage vector crossed the
system contained reduced torque pulsations, step output limitation. In order to keep this vector in the
response issues, complex calculations, and heavy inscribed circle, the desired d-axis referenced current was
parameter variations. known by the inverter control scheme. Furthermore, the
Besides, E. Yolacan and M. Aydin conducted an speed control arrangement of the Servo system was
experiment on the vector-based speed control of considered by the phenomenon of the windup and the
permanent magnet AC servomotor with FEA in 2012 [8]. control methodology of the conventional flux weakening.
According to the authors, in the Vector Control (Field The speed response tracked the reference speed and
Oriented Control) of the AC machine, three-phase AC determined the reference q-axis current. If the reference
stator current was transformed into a d-q axis rotating q-axis current was restricted by the current limiter, the

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feedback saturated q-axis current could correct the PI standard design, and the case design were considered.
controller. Since the Inverter output voltage had a limit, The standard structure was designed with 49 rules
therefore when the reference voltage crossed this limit, consisting of seven membership functions for each
the inverter would not be able to produce the referenced variable (error and rate of change of error) designed by a
output. To avoid instability, saturation in the voltage was conventional procedure. Meanwhile, in the case design,
considered to correct the integral calculation of the the structure consisted of Nine rules with Three
current controller. The d-axis current controller was not membership functions designed by tuning with the
employed by the anti-windup strategy of the control. This Universe of Discourse method. Plus, the Mamdani Fuzzy
was because the de-coupling control was disturbed by the Inference type was used for a Fuzzy Inference System
feedback of the voltage saturation. In short, this control scheme. Both scenarios were compared and tested for
method brought the improvement in the Inverter voltage different loads and wider ranges of speed. It was inferred
utilization, the reduction of copper loss, and good from the analysis that both scenarios resulted in a similar
transient response. The copper loss was reduced performance, and thus, a number of rules could minimize
compared to the conventional differential signal control the FLC system’s complexity. Besides, the major
method, but it still contained at the quantity of 12% under advantage of fuzzy logic control was the capability to
25% load condition and 14% under 75% load condition. handle impreciseness, its high adaptability, and free from
The d-axis current used for the control of the flux mathematical modeling (because of its flexibility to
weakening was reduced from 0.99A to 0.71A. On the operate with linguistic schemes). However, the setback
other hand, the expending voltage restrictions caused the with the design of the FLC scheme was that it required
voltage saturation to occur. The speed and current some intuitive understanding of the process. The
responses contained oscillatory errors which may affect simulation analysis also expressed that tuning by alternate
the accuracy of the control system. approach resulted in faster rise time. The scaling factor
Speed control of electric drives using Active played a prominent role in stability and oscillations. Thus,
Disturbance Rejection Control was initiated by Sravya K the scaling factor had to be addressed with proper care to
et al. in 2016 [11]. In this control method, first of all, the avoid some fluctuations in the speed response.
Servomotor was modeled using mathematical equations. Apart from improving the dynamic performance, in
Phase voltages, flux linkages, currents, electromagnetic order to simplify the tuning methodology, the
torque, rotor angle, and speed were obtained from the dq0 conventional ARDC scheme was decoupled, such that
equivalent circuit of the motor. In this control strategy, disturbance rejection was independent of the reference
three ADRC loops were designed; two were used for tracking. This control method is suggested by X. R. X. Lx
current control, and another one was used for the purpose et al. in their research paper in 2015 [13]. According to
of speed control. Furthermore, firstly, the input reference the authors, the analysis was carried out on the PMSM
signal, was tracked by the tracking differentiator. drive for better regulation of speed. In the conventional
Afterward, the Tracking Differentiator (TD) organized ADRC control structure, the proportional coefficient
the process of the transition and produced the derivative parameter contained the coupled effect on tracking and
value of the signal that was supplied at the input. The disturbance rejection. The underlying phenomenon
deviations of the input could be smoothened in order to behind the proposed scheme was the estimation of total
reduce the overshoot at the output. The Extended State disturbance rather than the estimation of target
Observer (ESO) was utilized to evaluate the system disturbance alone. Plus, the velocity feedback contained
disruption and uncertain model’s effects. Also, Non- noise, which was generally eliminated by using Low Pass
Linear State Error Feedback (NLSEF) was used to Filter. However, the introduction of filter affected the
produce the control rules for the system by combining the system closed-loop performances due to the lag
output of ESO and TD, where ESO being a fast tracker, associated with it. Hence, a velocity estimator was used
compensated some disturbances. For that reason, NLSEF to improve performance. The existing framework of ESO
and TD were replaced with proportional parameters to was analyzed for different structural possibilities, and the
meet the desired responses. In short, ADRC control could modified Linear Extended State Observer was proposed.
compress the unknown disturbances internally or With the LESO scheme, tuning became easier by making
externally more accurately than PI regulators. ADRC was the disturbance attenuation effect separated from the
better than conventional PI regulators with respect to proportional coefficient parameter. This resulted in the
rising time and settling time. Overall, the improvement in decoupled ADRC scheme. The proposed scheme was
the speed response and dynamic speed response of ADRC analyzed, and the validation was carried out using a real-
based control of AC Servomotor were still needed. time implementation of the control algorithm using d-
Moreover, a study on the design of the Fuzzy Logic SPACE DS1103. The proposed scheme was analyzed for
Controller (FLC) for speed regulation of Permanent different tracking and disturbance rejection performance.
Magnet Synchronous Motor dually driven system According to the results obtained, it was inferred that in
considering the complexity of fuzzy designs was carried the case of conventional ADRC, changes in the
out by B. Shikkewal and V. Nandanwar in 2012 [12]. The proportional coefficient parameter affected the
alternate methodology in designing of the fuzzy system disturbance rejection property to a great extent. In this
was to tune by the Universe of Discourse method. This case, a perfect trade-off was maintained for optimal
involved modifying the rules and also the number of rules tracking and disturbance rejection, whereas in the
in which a scaling factor was employed before each input decoupled ADRC scheme, the LESO bandwidth and
and after each output of the control structure. In many proportional coefficient were independent of each other,
cases, this scaling factor was taken by trials and error and the system could have better performance with easy
methods. For the study purposes, two structures, namely tuning. However, it was also inferred that bandwidth of

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ESO affected the tracking performance with the chattering, but the chattering still existed and should have
introduction of ripples in the case of conventional ADRC, been even reduced more. The load regulation response of
and was not affected in the case of decoupled ADRC. In this control system was not fully improved as it was a
the case of the decoupled ADRC, the speed and current little bit sluggish.
response of the system contained a lot of oscillations. Moreover, an Iterative Learning control method was
supported by the fact that the same recreating effects
2.3 POSITION, SPEED AND TORQUE CONTROL would lead to the same error at each time or each run, the
In this part of the paper, the control techniques used to control signal could be adapted by the recording of such
control the position, speed, and torque of the motor errors. In the next run, this control signal was assigned to
simultaneously are discussed. the process for the reason to reduce the error. So, the
A control method used to control the position, speed, error decreased with the increasing number of trials. This
and torque of the motor simultaneously was proposed by control method introduced a new method to remove the
Z. Chen et al., in 2001 [14]. In this method, multi-layer zero-crossing and the effect of the dead-time from the
momentum neural networks of back-propagation joined PWM Inverter’s output waveform. For the creation of an
with the PID controller were used to control the appropriate dead-time compensation voltage, a learning
Servomotor. The multi-layer neural network contained algorithm and PI regulators were plugged in parallel for
Three layers, which were the input, hidden, and output the creation of dead-time compensation voltage. With the
layers. Each signal flows over a weight known as help of the motor current and the angle of the rotor, the
synaptic weight. The polarities of weights depended on actual currents were forced by the learning algorithm for
the acceleration of the signals. All the input signals were the tracking of the reference current. With a start in
accumulated and transferred to the output signal through learning, the error between the actual current and
the summing node using a transfer function. The transfer reference current decreased with time. With further
function could be either step type or threshold type. It progress in the process, d-q current approached to
would transfer one if the input outpaces the threshold reference current without the requirement of a proper
value or else zero. The desired pattern could be achieved dead time compensating signal generation. Moreover,
by training this network. Plus, since the scattered after achieving an acceptable convergence, the learning
intelligence devoted by the weights, therefore this process was ended, and the learned compensating signals
network was able to learn. Moreover, this control strategy were recorded. By making the learning process offline for
had a fast dynamic performance and there was no different values of the load current and the operating
overshoot. However, using this control system, the rise frequency, the learning process became faster. These
time of the speed response would be two seconds, which signals were stored in memory. At the time of the online
would lead the system to be slow. operation, the operating frequency of the drive and the
F. J. Lin et al. developed the Three-position currents of the load were identified with the proper
controllers, which were Variable Structure Controller selection of these stored patterns. These were superposed
(VSC), Variable Structure Adaptive (VSA) controller, to the output of the PI regulator. To take the external
and Variable Structure Direct Adaptive controller disturbances into account, Periodic online learning might
(VSDA) [15]. These three controllers worked on the same be carried [16]. In short, as the proposed learning control
principle. The VSC and VSA were improved and and PI control operated together, for that reason, the
replaced by VSDA. This control system contained Two oscillations and fluctuations in the current waveform
main parts, which were the VSDA controller and the were removed. However, removing these oscillating
Servomotor drive system. The conventional drive system errors took a few cycles that may have affected the
was supported by the VSDA controller, which provided current response.
great advantages. VSDA contained the PD controller, Another study conducted by S. Zorlu et al. in 2006
variable structure law, and direct adaptive law. In the also suggested a new control technique using a custom-
design of the VSDA controller, for the practical designed Motion Control Card [17]. In this technique, the
operation, it was hard to achieve the uncertainty implementation of control is done utilizing a Personal
constraints in advance. At the same time, a conservative Computer (PC) with a Motion Control Card. The torque
design control scheme caused the chattering issue more could also be controlled using the Motion Control Card
severe. For that reason, the Direct Adaptive law was used (MCC). In this application, a Low Pass Filter was used to
in this controller, designed to estimate the uncertainty filter the Encoder signals. A PM DC generator was
bounds. If there were no load disturbances and parameter connected at the output shaft of the Servomotor, and then
variations in the system, a very small positive value of a dynamic load was connected at the output of the
variable structure law would be enough to keep the generator to observe the nature of the Servomotor under
amplitude of chattering small and hold the system stable. the different load conditions. Field-effect Sensors were
However, if external load disturbances and parameter used in the power circuit of the Servomotor to measure
variations were present, departing from the sliding the separate voltages and current. Also, DC bus voltage
surface, it would need the regular update of variable and motor currents were measured using voltage and the
structure law, which was created by the adaptive structure current Sensors. The Inverter was driven by four 15V
to drive the trajectories of the system back towards the isolated voltage sources, and the MCC was connected to
sliding surface quickly. One of the advantages of this the PC using Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus.
control system is that it had good robustness to parameter Eight-bit port at the output of the Inverter signals, Analog
variations and external disturbances. Also, it did not to Digital Converter (ADC), and Encoder chips were
require knowledge of uncertainty bounds. This control utilized to measure the voltage and current. ADC was
method also had good performance with reduced used in order to have Zero phase shifts between the

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signals. The speed was measured using the HTCL 2016 that this control system had simplified hardware design
chip, and an algorithm was built to realize the rotor’s and good reliability. On the contrary side, the Inverter
initial position. Based on the results obtained, the current output contained a lot of oscillatory errors, which may
and voltage waveforms contained oscillations, which may have led the system to be noisy. Also, since the PID
have led the system to be noisy. This control method had controller was used, because of its high gains, it may have
a fast-dynamic response where its settling time was very consumed more energy and led the system to be noisy in
less, but an average error still existed in the speed practical as proved by the results in Chapter Four.
response of the system. The Motor at half load could not Apart from that, a PLC controller used to control the
achieve the targeted speed as fast as it could achieve at three-phase AC servomotor drive was initiated by M.
full load. Sreejeth et al. in 2012 [20]. The authors explained that a
Furthermore, an electronic feedback control system PWM signal from an AC drive was sent to the stator
based on the embedded Digital Signal Controller (DSC) windings of the motor. The Motor was controlled by the
Microcontroller is also another control approach designed PLC output, established on the mentioned ladder logic.
by J. Ollervides et al. in 2011 [18]. The control method Thus, the Motor parameters were able to change online
consisted of a Switch power amplifier which fed Actuator and offline. However, there were some specific tasks that
inputs that attributed a dual full H-bridge driver. The needed to be done in the online mode and offline mode.
driver IC was embedded with the DSC Microcontroller. In online mode, the Motor parameters such as average
Two quantities of Hall effect current Sensors were used load, speed, and feedback pulses, etc. were recorded. In
to obtain the feedback current. Besides, the angular offline mode, the Motor drive could be directly fed by the
velocity and position of the shaft of the motor were parameters. Also, for offline control mode, the parameters
measured by an incremental optical encoder. The Hybrid could be directly fed to the Servomotor drive. A data bus
Stepper Servomotor was used as an Actuator. The two- named Modbus-RTU required field data from the Motor
phase hybrid Stepper Servomotor contained two electrical and transmitted it to the PC for the process. The data bus
components and one mechanical component. These was also used to scatter the logical signals towards the
components were connected by the back-EMF Servo drive obtained from the PLC. Besides, there was an
(Electromotive Force) and the transmission of torque. error between the reference speed and original speed from
This control method was aimed for position tracking and which the reference torque was generated utilizing the
torque control. Torque could be controlled if the speed controller. During the constant torque operation,
difference between actual current and the desired current the ratio of the reference torque and the torque constant of
was zero. In order to keep this difference as Zero or to the Motor was treated in order to calculate the reference
make the stator current trajectories follow the desired quadrature axis current. The phase currents of the stator
current trajectories, the input control voltage was were achieved by employing the park’s inverse transform
designed. The switch power amplifier was used to with the help of the rotor position feedback and d-q axis
reproduce the signal that was fed to the Motor, and it also currents. The output was fed to the hysteresis-band-
worked as an integrated circuit for current sensing. controller after comparing the reference current with the
Lastly, this electronic control system of the Servomotor actual current using the PWM converter. The hysteresis-
provided enormous benefits in portable drive system band-controller output was used as a gate pulse for the
applications. On the other side, because of the electronic Inverter, and the variable frequency and voltage of the
drive network, the cost and complexity of the control Inverter were supplied to the stator windings of the motor
system increased and also consist of many angular errors in order to achieve the commanded speed. Plus, with high
and oscillatory errors in the shaft rotor position of the speed and high current, the Total Harmonic Distortion
motor. (THD) level was lower, and Motor was in a good
Besides, L. Zhang et al. proposed another control performance. However, the harmonics in the line current
system based on the XC164CM microcontroller in 2012 increased when the Motor was running at a lower speed.
[19]. In this control system, the Incremental Encoder was Hence there were effects on the precision and
used to achieve the angular position of the AC performance of the drive. At 25% load and 1500rpm
Servomotor, since the speed was determined from the speed, the harmonics in the line current were 71.7%, and
position that changed over time. This value and the at 3000rpm, this distortion reduced to 61.7%. The speed
feedback value were both sent to a speed-PID controller response of the system was affected by fluctuations.
for the adjustment. This speed-PID controller was used to The servo motor also could be controlled by utilizing a
adjust the output (d, q-axis current), and then this output Multi-layer Neural Network, as discussed in the research
value was sent to the current-PID adjuster. Three-phase paper written by P. S. Puttaswamy and K. D. Dhruve in
stator current was detected by ACS712 (the hall device). 2013 [21]. This method adopted the use of a neural
Plus, the Clark and Park transformations were utilized to network for the adaptive direct torque control of AC
convert the three-phase current to d-axis and q-axis Servomotor. The Artificial Neural Network had higher
currents. This current was transferred to the current-PID precise control than a conventional PID controller. This is
controller, and the resulted signal was transferred to the due to the fact that the proposed method could tune the
Inverter. A Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation conventional PID controller parameters more accurately
(SVPWM) signal was generated from the CCU6 unit, with the neural network technology. To demonstrate the
whose input was the two-phase current, which was the speed control loops, a PWM inverter fed the motor. The
conversion of the Inverter output using Park inverse speed control loop that had a PID controller produced the
transformation. This SVPWM signal was then sent back quadrature axis current. This quadrature current produced
to the Inverter in order to generate a PWM signal to the electromagnetic motor torque. This method was
control the Motor. The benefit of this control system is known as DTC. The d-q frame was transformed into the

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a-b frame, and the resulting currents were fed to the existed, which could affect the dynamic behavior of the
motor. The advantage of this control method is it has a system.
good speed control performance for larger and smaller T. Takahashi and I. Rectifier designed a controller
variations in Motor parameters and the load conditions. using a single chip motion control engine IC [24]. The
Also, the motor achieved the required speed after a small authors used the IRMCK201 IC, which was a single Chip
overshoot and some delay. The performance of the entire solution for the closed-loop torque and speed
system was further improved for small parameter control of the AC drives. This engine did not require
variations rather than large parameter variations. complex AC servo algorithm development, and with the
In addition, J. Yin et al. proposed another servo motor use of this IC, a complete control strategy could be
controller, which utilizes a Fuzzy Adaptive PID based on implemented with a minimum number of components and
the DSP [22]. This control strategy was adopted using design effort. Furthermore, this IC did not only contain
Three control loops, which were the current loop, speed motion peripheral functions (such as PWM, current
loop, and position loop. This control strategy played a sensing interface and Encoder counter circuit, etc.), but it
role in improving the dynamic response of the system and also contained complete algorithms for speed and field
adjusting the faults at the slow speed. This control orientation in the hardware form, named as Motion
strategy was designed based on the linear motor position Control Engine (MCE). Also, this control engine
motion law, according to which a large error could be contained control elements such as Proportional Integral,
quickly eliminated by increasing the weight of the error Clark transformation, vector rotator, etc. This IC did not
control function. To eliminate the overshoot of the system require any coding or programming. Hence it could be
with an increase in error, the weight of the error-change easily tuned and also could adapt to new motor
control action was increased. Also, the addition of a parameters easily. Besides, it contained memory registers
special Analog to Digital (A/D) acquisition Chip helped that could be scanned or written using a mating
to improve the precision of the system, which could Microprocessor RS232C by serially interfacing it with a
recognize the feedback currents and the collection computer. The scanning and writing of the registers could
conversion. The system used a Chebyshev type II filter be done using a computer. For instance, if a specific value
for digital filtering. In short, this control system had a for the switching frequency was chosen, then it could be
wide speed range and did not need the modeling of the simply written to the specific register. The benefits of this
object that was going to be controlled. The positioning type of controller are that the IC computed very fast for
accuracy was high, but the position control curve the closed-loop control algorithm, which led to a good
contained small overshoot errors, and the rise time was dynamic performance of the speed and torque of the
two seconds. Plus, the settling time was 2.5 seconds, and system. It was a single-chip solution for complete closed-
the proposed control procedure led to the frequency of the loop control. Plus, it could be easily tuned with different
system to fluctuate. specifications holding Motors, which helped to
Another control approach was proposed by K. implement a control algorithm easily. The torque control
Matsuura et al. in 2014 [23]. According to the authors, in loop had a good step response, yet it contained small
the AC Servomotor, the phase currents were detected by oscillations. Lastly, its voltage switching waveform and
the Current Sensors. Three Current Sensors were used to motor current waveforms contained oscillations and were
measure the three-phase current. Sometimes two Current not smooth, which may cause noise in the practical.
Sensors were also used (such as u-phase and w- phase). In harsh environments such as underwater, the sensor
However, the problem with this method was that these of the Motor was one of the main issues. Therefore, the
sensors had characteristics variations such as gain and Sensor-less Servo system was suggested and
offset variations. The current ripples were caused due to implemented by B. Allotta et al. [25]. One of the critical
this issue. To overcome this problem, a DC-link Current parts of the Sensor-less control algorithm was the
Sensor was practiced. After the measurement of this position-speed estimation. The Filter that had to be
current, the construction of a three-phase current was implemented to estimate the rotor position in order to
done utilizing a three-phase algorithm. For the three- perform an optimal commutation of the currents on
phase current to be not affected, the current sensor should windings. The most common technique for the Sensor-
have had an offset, but if there was gain variation, the less control strategy of PMSM was established on the
current would be affected. Hence, it was a necessity to observation of back-EMF as emf was proportional to the
recognize and compensate for the variations in the gain of rotor speed. This technique performed well when the
the sensors. Moreover, a reconstruction circuit was Motor spine at a speed over 10-20% of the nominal value.
obtained by using multiple RC series circuits. Six As a result, the feed-forward start-up of the Motor was
samples and hold circuits were needed to achieve the required. Another technique was based on the injecting
dynamics of the DC-link current for each Switch. Also, signal that excited the machines at frequencies that were
the Inverter was driven using the SVPWM technique, so different from the operating frequency of the machine and
that the convenience of achieving the dynamics in the with a negligible influence on the mechanical behavior of
DC-link current prior and after the switching was the machine. However, this kind of method required
increased. Lastly, by using this method, there was no accurate current measurement and precise and reliable
occurrence of the current ripples. This is because only a current Sensors. For PMSM with star-connected
single sensor was utilized for the detection of the current, windings, it was also possible to perform Direct Flux
and secondly, the current measurement gain deviation Control that was able to directly estimate the motor flux
was compensated. However, there was a presence of linkages. Plus, an Improvement was done in the smart
electrical parameter variations in the practical work, and back-EMF estimators that were the determination of the
some current variations in reconstructed current still rotor speed and position through back-EMF estimation.

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The first part of the estimator generated the esteem of the measurement of this resistance was done by employing a
back-EMF and the second part estimated the rotor speed pulse of d-axis voltage. Based on this pulse, the
and position through back-EMF. In short, the robustness measurement of the d-axis current at the steady-state was
of the controller against a harsh environment is that the performed and then from this measurement, the resistance
real speed of the motor was lower than the reference was calculated. The inductance was calculated by the
speed. This led to an average error between the estimated measurement of the peak current, which was done by
speed and reference speed of the motor. Also, the current applying pulses of q and d axes voltages. Mechanical
and voltage waveforms contained a lot of oscillations. Parameters, Feed-forward voltage and torque constant
Furthermore, C. H. Yan and J. H. Hui designed a full- were known by utilizing the theoretical current and speed
closed loop servo control system in 2015 [26]. The semi- waveforms. In practice, the entire auto-tuning procedure
closed loop control system was widely used but for the took roughly 1.4 seconds for accomplishment. The
enhanced control precision, the full-closed loop method advantages of this control system are this method led to a
was introduced. Gear Measuring Center used the good dynamic response, although the parameter
technology of the measurement for Four axes which were identification was not free of errors. Next, the transient
X (tangential movement), Y (radial movement), Z (axial response and the frequency of the closed-loop showed
movement) and C (spindle rotary movement) axes. These consistency with the tuning. However, some errors
axes were directed by the Servomotor using the numerical existed in the measurement of auto-identified parameters
control method in order to understand the linkages when compared with manual measurement, these errors
between these axes. Besides, two ways communication were within 10% and at the same time. The system
was constructed between a single board computer and a current waveforms contained many oscillatory errors and
motion controller. The computer sent motion command to these errors should have been reduced for further control
the controller based on the received motion state from the precision.
controller. The position of individual axes in real-time Next, Y. Sang et al. proposed a practical AC servo
was measured using circular grating. In the semi-closed motor controller based on the STM32 microcontroller in
loop control method, the encoder was utilized as a speed their research paper in 2015 [28]. The proposed servo
closed-loop control as well as position closed-loop drive had three control modes, which were the position,
control but some errors existed in the transmission chain. speed, and torque. For speed control, the Microcontroller
To overcome this defect, a grating was used as position produced two-way pulse signals and then the signal was
closed-loop control, so the Encoder would only work as fed to the servo drive to control the Motor. The Encoder
speed closed-loop control. The speed closed-loop produced the feedback signal. The rotation angle of the
contained Three internal closed-loops feedback control Servomotor was controlled by the deviation signals that
systems (loop of the current, loop of the speed and loop were generated by the comparison of the target value and
of the position). The current-loop was created internally feedback value. The position control accuracy was
in the drive and it was used to improve the dynamic depending on the number of pulses that encoder produced
response of the system. As a conclusion, this control per revolution. This particular Servomotor had two input
system had no distinct sensitivity to its components ways of speed command, analog input and register input.
fluctuations. The control method could improve the Moreover, the Microcontroller realized the speed control
overall performance of the Motor. Yet, the drawbacks of of Motor through digital-to-analog conversion. For
this control method were it was more expensive and instance, a higher value of analog voltage led to a higher
complex, there consisted risk of instability, and it may value of speed. Finally, closed-loop control was known
have created an oscillatory response and reduced the by the feedback of speed loop Encoder. On the other
overall gain of the system. hand, the torque was controlled by the produced
Besides, an automatic control loop tuning initiated by instruction of the Chip through the digital-to-analog
S.-M. Yang and K.-W. Lin’s study in 2015 presented a conversion to be sent to the CN1 terminal of the drive. In
new scheme for the AC Servomotor drives parameters; such a way, the Servo drive would rely on the internal
the determination and auto-tuning [27]. For the current current loop to realize closed-loop control. The current
control loop, the determination of the electrical loop was used to determine the anti-interference ability
parameters such as inductance and resistance was done. and response speed of the system. Lastly, the position
On the other side, for the speed and position loop tuning, loop was the most important part of the stability of the
the determination of mechanical parameters and torque system. The actual position from the feedback loop was
constant were done. According to the authors, the drive compared with the target position set and then position
contained two inner loops for the current control and two regulator produced speed commands. In short, this
outer loops for the speed and position control. The path in control system had a precise static performance. It had a
the speed loop was realized with the speed command. The simple hardware circuit, strong real-time performance,
PI regulators were utilized in the q and d axes current low cost, fast processing speed, and reliable operation.
controllers and there was a limitation of at least half of However, this control system had two drawbacks, firstly,
the rated single-phase voltage. Also, the decoupling of the while adjusting the gain in manual mode, machine
cross-coupling and back-emf voltages were done utilizing rigidity and surroundings had an enormous influence on
the predicted speed of the rotor and the electrical the selection of Bandwidth. Secondly, the transmission
parameters of the system. The cross-coupling voltages inertia affected the stability and dynamic response of the
and back-emf voltages were decoupled using the Servomotor.
estimated electrical parameters and rotor speed. To In the conventional AC drives the performance of the
prevent the error caused by the motion of the rotor, the current loop was affected by the saturation of the
resistance of the stator should have been known. The magnetism. This affected performance subjected to the

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precision of tracking and the optimized methods like field torque, flux and current for both DTC & FLC schemes.
weakening. An algorithm was used to control the current Lastly, this control system was elucidated from the
vector trajectory for the production of perfect current that analysis that the proposed FLC methodology resulted in
produced torque within the limit of the supplied voltage. smaller ripples at a steady-state than the conventional one
This algorithm is designed by J. Bermingham et al. and and also with quicker dynamic performance. With the
the principle was named field weakening [29]. According proposed method, the torque ripple was almost reduced
to the authors, the optimized torque current was by 75%, the flux ripple was reduced by 50% and the
calculated by utilizing the compensated PI regulator reduction of fluctuation and stator current. However, the
based on the voltage vector control method. The levels of setback with design of FLC scheme was that it required
the optimized torque under dynamic speed and system some intuitive understanding of the process. Even though
parameters were achieved through voltage vector the fluctuations and oscillations in the torque and speed
trajectory commands generated by this algorithm. In this response were reduced, there were some oscillations and
scheme, the voltage commands were generated under fluctuations, which needed to be further reduced.
Four operation conditions, which laid within the speed Sliding Mode Control (SMC) method was considered
and current boundaries of the motor. The voltage vector to be one of the successful non-linear control
commands were implemented utilizing the voltage methodologies owing to its robustness. However, in the
control strategy. Also, these commands were used to case of the non-linear system, some chattering
prevent the interaction or the sensitivity among the phenomenon was being observed during the process of
current loop and voltage loop. The voltage loops played a sliding at the end surfaces. To cope with the chattering
vital role in the regulation of the Motor voltage at the phenomenon, a composite technique was studied by H.
defined boundaries. This occurred when the realization of Wang et al. in 2016 [31]. The studied composite scheme
the current commands of the drive could not be done in contained Continuous Terminal Sliding Mode Control
the field weakening region. The decoupling process (CTSMC) with ESO. The CTSMC was employed to cope
ensures that the d and q axes voltage control loops with the chattering phenomenon. However, in the
controlled the d and q axes current control loops presence of stronger disturbance in the PMSM system,
respectively. In conclusion, this control system was this would result in steady-state speed fluctuation. To
robust against the effects of large parameter variations solve this issue, an ESO with adjustable gain was
and its speed range and torque per set point of the speed introduced. Besides, this particular study was contributed
were high. Plus, the voltage-vector control maintained to the attenuation of the chattering phenomenon along
continues Motor voltage and eliminated the risk of the with the speed regulation and disturbance rejection of
degradation in the performance in the field weakening PMSM. The CTSCM scheme was used as a feedback
region. The principle of field weakening was regulation in order to stabilize the PMSM drive dynamics
comprehensive in terms of the theories but practically, it in a finite time. ESO was employed as feed-forward
was difficult to achieve the objective correctly. Its voltage compensation to regulate the steady-state speed
and current waveforms were not very smooth which may fluctuation of PMSM drive in the presence of
affect the speed and torque performances of the Motor.’ disturbance. To validate the proposed methodology, the
Apart from that, the performance improvement of the scheme was implemented with DSP TMS320F2808 with
torque ripple suppression by using the FLC approach for 100MHz clock frequency. Based on the results obtained,
PMSM was proposed by M. Gong et al. in 2015 [30]. In it can be seen that the CTSMC had shorter settling time
this proposed design, the conventional Direct Torque and the overshoot was almost minimal for both CTSMC
Control (DTC) scheme was replaced with the FLC and SMC schemes. However, with the introduction of
structures. The hysteresis controller of the DTC scheme sudden load, better disturbance rejection property was
considered only the signs of flux and torque error rather observed in the composite mode only. Also, it was
than their amplitudes. If the amplitude of the errors inferred that the composite method produced better
exceeded the hysteresis boundary, then only vectors were tracking properties and faster convergence compared to
changed else they remained the same irrespective of how the conventional one. In order to improve the disturbance
large or small the error was. Besides, these vectors of rejection property of the CTSMC, switching gain was
voltages given by Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) with adjusted by varying from smaller to a larger value. The
flux and torque error information were used to control the more the value of gain, the better the rejection. On the
Motor. The authors also employed discrete control other hand, speed fluctuation was more for larger gain
methodology, which was performed with respect to the values. Hence, it was quite complex to achieve a trade-off
defined discrete instances. Thus, the torque ripples and in rejection of disturbances and minimal speed fluctuation
flux ripples were higher than hysteresis limits and the with an adjusting gain. The same analysis was carried out
conventional DTC resulted in large flux and torque for the composite mode where for a smaller gain, it
ripples. To overcome this issue, the conventional DTC resulted in good disturbance rejection and small steady-
scheme was replaced with the FLC structure. The voltage state fluctuations. This was far less than the one by
vector selection of optimal value was achieved by CTSMC with the adjustable gain method. Lastly, it was
inferring the ranges of torque errors and flux errors. noted that the speed response of the system with
Another FLC was employed into the structure to composite mode resulted in some dead time and resulted
determine the action time of the vectors. This was in more rise time than the other two schemes. It was also
obtained by inferring the duty ratio, which was also observed that the gain parameter had a coupled effect on
determined by the second FLC in the structure. tracking and disturbance rejection characteristics.
Furthermore, the proposed scheme was analyzed and Predictive controllers were the class of optimal control
validated using four various parameters like speed, methods that were usually employed if in a case to

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determine the future behavior of the system. Model method, and the Finite element method. The three
Predictive Control (MPC) was such an optimal control predeveloped methods were used to reduce the cogging
scheme and was quite popular in industries because of its torque effectively. These methods implied the adjustment
capability to forecast the behavior of the system in of the width of the slots, the use of unequal thickness of
addition to its control action according to the target the permanent magnets and the use of unequal widths of
optimizing function. A simple and effective Predictive the permanent magnets. Based on these methods, the
Functional Control (PFC) methodology for PMSM drive finite element method was used to set; a variety of
to improve its controller performance was proposed by S. programs were compared and an optimal solution was
Wang et al. in 2015 [32]. According to the authors’ proposed. Based on the experiments and analysis of this
explanations, the PFC was majorly employed to investigation, it was found that the cogging torque was
overcome the limitations of MPC. MPC involved a higher affected by the solder bath placed on the stator. When the
computational burden since it required optimization at stator yoke portion was uniform, it did not affect the
every sampling instant. The PFC was essentially an magnetic circuit of the stator. After notching the solder
alternate version of MPC. This is because the PFC bath periodically, the resistance of the circuit got affected.
retained most of the advantages like handling constraints This affected flux density, thereby affecting the air-gap
and online optimization with a low computational cost. magnetic and this energy was converted into cogging
The reduction in computational complexity was achieved torque. Nevertheless, the cogging torque still was reduced
through more intuitive design procedures. Besides, the to some extent. It was assured that thickening the stator
speed control of PMSM using a cascade structure was yoke to reduce the saturation level could reduce the
carried out by this methodology. The methodology was a impact of the solder bath and reduce the cogging torque
two-level design procedure. In the first level, forecasting further but it would lead to the reduction of the power
of the current values was carried out which was followed density of the motor.
by an optimization procedure to optimize the level one A methodology for reduction of torque ripple for
value using a suitable cost function. The system Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) Motor was proposed by
performed well for a few well-defined conditions. optimizing reference current utilizing the Integral
However, when subjected to strong disturbances, the Variable Structural Control (IVSC) strategy. This
performance was not quite satisfactory. Hence, Improved methodology was suggested by C. Xia et al. in their
Predictive Functional Control (IPFC) was proposed to research paper in 2014 [34]. The authors explained that
compensate for unknown dynamics and stronger external there were two types of commutation modes which were
perturbations. The proposed IPFC was a composite low-speed commutations with and high-speed
scheme that employed PFC with ESO. This was utilized commutations. The actual type of commutation was
for effective controller performance. Feed-forward determined with respect to the relation between back-
compensation was provided for better disturbance EMF (Electromotive force) and voltage of DC links. The
rejection properties. The entire control algorithm was commutation controlled by double-phase switching for
implemented using DSP TMS320F2808 with 100MHz as current optimization of non-commutated windings was
clock frequency and the implementation of the control used for low-speed commutation. However, if the same
algorithm was carried out using C-language was applied for high-speed commutation, the non-
programming. One of the advantages of the PFC is it commutated line would fail to trace the reference current
resulted in minimal overshoot and small settling time and would also introduce ripples in the torque response of
compared with PI. During the introduction/removal of the system. In order to avoid this, three-phase switching
load, speed fluctuations were less in PFC. The real-time was explored in this work for high-speed commutation
experimental results also elucidated that PFC provides instead of double phase switching. Furthermore, the
better disturbance rejection and faster recovery time after control structure contained two loops. The current
the load introduction/removal. To improve disturbance optimization was carried out in the inner loop and the
rejection capabilities further, the system was assessed respective speed control was carried out in the outer loop
with IPFC where a feed-forward compensation was using the PI technique. This method involved the
introduced for better disturbance rejection. This resulted estimation of the back-EMF using Luenberger full order
in the smallest settling time and very minimal overshoots state observer. Also, the optimization was carried out in
than PFC and PI schemes. In addition to that, during the accordance with the back-EMF waveform of both the
load introduction/removal, faster recovery and very modes. This proposed scheme was validated in real-time
minimal fluctuations were observed. Lastly, in the real- using the DSP TMS320F28335 for surface mounted
time analysis, PFC + ESO resulted in very good BLDC system. The stability of IVSC was further
disturbance rejection properties. However, the speed and analyzed with the Lyapunov candidate function. In short,
current waveform of the system contained a lot of this method was employed with an IVSC strategy owing
oscillations/ripples using the proposed methodology. to its advantages like robust disturbance rejection
Furthermore, C. Dang et al also suggested analysis and capabilities and wider noise band suppression
reducing methods of cogging torque on permanent competency. These features were fully utilized, which
magnet AC servo motor in 2014 [33]. According to the resulted in the avoidance of a negative chattering
authors, the permanent magnet poles unavoidably phenomenon. The reduction in the torque ripple and the
interacted with armature iron core and hence produced improvement in controller performance over a wider
cogging torque that caused vibration and noise, which range of load and speed were observed. Lastly, it was
affected the operation performance and control accuracy noted that the use of three-phase commutation switching
of the Motor. The computation techniques for the cogging action increased the commutation time, cost and also
torque included energy method, the Maxwell tensor decreased efficiency of the process. However, the

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methodology played a dominant role in ripple reduction. smaller rise time and also faster recovery time whenever
The performance comparison of PMSM for the control the load was removed/added when compared with the PI.
of speed using Proportional Integral (PI) and FLC Next. the rise time was around 0.066 seconds for ADRC
schemes was carried out. This study was conducted by S. whereas, for the PI, it was 0.095 seconds during
P. Singh et al. in 2016 [35]. The FLC technique involved implementation. The separation principle could be used in
the designing of input-output mapping of the controller’s ADRC for designing ESO and SEF. It was noted that
behavior which was generally expressed as fuzzy rules. there was no authenticated mathematical evidence that
The input to the FLC was a crisp value that would be claimed the design procedure for ADRC parameters. The
fuzzified and this value was taken for fuzzy operations. used method gave only the generalized disturbance
After that, mapping of degree of matching to fuzzy output estimated by ESO. Plus, the combined expression for
by suitable implication methodology was carried out. dynamic disturbances of both internal and external effects
Followed by, aggregation of output and defuzzification was not used here. However, the torque and speed
mechanism was performed. The output of the FLC was response contained oscillations and fluctuations.
again a crisp value because of the choice of the Fuzzy Apart from that, the experiments on Induction Motor
Inference System (FIS - Mamdani) used for the study. In with the objective to develop a digital controller for
this study, error and the derivative of error of speed are Induction Motor (IM) Drive was carried out by Y. Zhang
used as input to FLC. Besides, each input was defined et al. in 2013 [37]. The improvement of Field Oriented
with Seven membership functions with a maximum of 49 Control (FOC) for Induction Motor Drive (IMD) was
rules that were designed for tuning the process. Mamdani achieved by using the ADRC scheme. The analysis was
type inference mechanism was used as the FIS scheme performed without any Speed Sensor. The
for the control of speed for the motor drive and the center implementations of control algorithms were carried out in
of gravity method was utilized for the defuzzification Digital Signal Processors (DSP) and Field Programmable
process. As a conclusion, the PI scheme was easily Gate Array (FPGA) was used for some basic logical
affected by non-linear dynamics and time-varying manipulations. The concept behind this control strategy
parameters. To cope with that, an intelligent controller was to identify the unknown disturbances using extended
using FLC was incorporated. The simulation analysis was observers and to compensate for it in real-time. The Two
performed for various conditions like no-load, full load control algorithms namely ADRC and PID were
and varying load scenarios. For no-load condition, the implemented in DSP processors. The PI parameters were
overshoot of PI was 0.38% with settling time of 0.16 tuned by trial and error method whereas the ADRC was
seconds, whereas, for full load condition, the overshoot tuned with Linear Extended State Observer (LESO) and it
was 0.033% and settling time was 0.034 seconds. Under followed the conventional systematic procedure.
varying load conditions, the overshoot was 0.6% for PI Moreover, the real-time implementations were carried out
and 0.053% for FLC with a settling time of 0.16 seconds with the TMS320F2812 DSP processor and EP2C5T144
for PI and 0.04 seconds for FLC respectively. It was FPGA processor. However, the major drawback of FOC
inferred from the simulation analysis that FLC which required co-ordinate transformation and current
outperforms PI scheme owing to its highly adaptable controllers was modified with the ADRC scheme. The
nature. However, the major setback of designing the FLC analysis showed that the ADRC outperformed the PID
was that it required knowledge/experience of humans scheme without overshoots and oscillations. Lastly,
regarding the particular system of interest for which FLC owing to tuning by trial and error, the speed response of
design had to be carried out. the PI controller resulted in larger settling time, rise time
A novel methodology for Active Disturbance and overshoots whereas the ADRC resulted in faster
Rejection Control (ADRC) for suppressing the overshoots settling and very minimal overshoot. Though, this
of the highly dynamic input signal was outlined. This approach of using DSP and FPGA introduced complexity
proposed scheme is designed by Tianrui Luan et al. in in design, space and also in cost aspect.
2016 [36]. The proposed scheme was subjected to an W. Bin et al. conducted a study on the application of
analysis of the PMSM system. ADRC structure control techniques with respect to the region of operation
encompassed Three sub-components namely TD, ESO for achieving the full range speed in 2014 [38]. Based on
and State Error Feedback (SEF) respectively. There were the authors' research, the constant torque and constant
many non-linear parameters associated with the ADRC power zone were taken for analysis. The Interior
scheme and these parameters introduced difficulty in Permanent Magnet Motor (IPMM) drive also was taken
tuning. To avoid this and also to obtain speed regulation, for study. For the constant power range, in order to keep
a simplified approach was proposed. The proposed the Motor with the unchanged power, the Field
approach primarily eliminated the TD component and Weakening (FW) control was applied. Meanwhile, for
further linearization was carried out in ESO and SEF regions with constant torque, Maximum Torque Per
components. Hence, this reduced the tuning complexity Ampere (MTPA) was applied for full torque performance
and also resulted in better dynamic performance and requirements. When Motor was operating at a constant
improved robustness to disturbances. Besides, the torque region, the MTPA control scheme was utilized to
proposed scheme was a two-step procedure where the use the advantage of the torque reluctance of the Motor.
primary step was to tune tracing and the disturbance When producing constant torque with minimal current, by
estimation parameter as they were supposed to tune in using this control scheme, Motor efficiency could be
accordance with each other. The secondary step was to highly improved by decreasing the copper loss. On the
find the optimal tuning parameter of the controller and other hand, if the speed of the Motor was more than the
the settling time was chosen as an objective criterion. The base speed, this would result in the increase of the back-
benefits of the proposed scheme are the ADRC possessed EMF. However, the higher Inverter voltage introduced

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bounds on the Motor terminal voltage. Therefore, to disturbances and uncertainties in the parameters unless
maintain the balance in voltage level during high-speed the system was employed with more sophisticated control
rotation, the stator current was manipulated by increasing algorithms. To cope with the time-varying parametric
the demagnetization current. In this scenario, the flux uncertainties and perturbations, non-linear control
weakening scheme should be used. Furthermore, the techniques were largely adopted to improve the
important machine parameters based vector control performance of the system. The SMC was one of the non-
method was obtained through Finite Element Analysis linear robust strategy employed in many fields because of
(FEA). For Motor speed below the base speed, the its advantages like easy tuning and implementation for
analysis was carried out with two schemes namely control highly non-linear systems. However, the system would be
and MTPA control. On the other hand, for Motor speed associated with some chattering phenomenon because of
greater than base speed, the analysis on smooth switching its discontinuous switching action. To compensate for
from MTPA to FW was carried out. Based on the disturbances, an observer could be introduced and based
analysis, the results showed that the improved dynamic on this effect, switching gain had to be selected
performance was obtained by the appropriate choice of appropriately to minimize the chattering. Apart from the
control strategy according to the particular operating above-discussed method, the chattering phenomenon
region. However, during switching, torque ripples were along with time-varying uncertainties was also addressed
evident from the study which may have required some with other composite schemes. Therefore, Generalized
ripple suppression techniques to be incorporated with the Proportional Integral (GPI) observer with SCM
proposed methodology. (GPI+SCM) for better rejection of disturbances and
For Motor control, generally high precise and reliable unknown uncertainties of the system were proposed by H.
Sensors were required for accurate positioning. However, Wang et al [40]. The proposed methodology was tested
owing to reasons like space constraint, cost, and system for speed regulation of the PMSM drive. The procedure
complexity, these Sensors were not installed especially in involved the design of the GPI observer for disturbance
the case of serious industrial environments. Therefore, rejection and SMC for speed regulation. The GPI
sensor-less speed identification was another important observer for PMSM drive was designed as a function of
area gaining wider attention. Z. Ding et al. proposed external perturbations, frictional loads and current
another speed control technique for permanent magnet tracking error. The final gain parameter tuning was
synchronous motor in 2014 [39]. The proposed obtained as the function of the single parameter by
methodology suggested Sensor-less speed identification directly equating to the characteristic polynomial of the
and speed control using a Sliding mode approach. The observer using a direct comparison method by assuming
analysis was performed on the PMSM system. The that poles were in complex left half far away from the
conventional PI scheme was replaced with SMC structure imaginary axis. Besides, the speed control regulation was
to improve the performance mainly because of the achieved by combining SMC with GPI observer. It was
presence of non-linear characteristics associated with the stated that convergence of the speed error to equilibrium
PMSM drive. The speed identification was carried out point asymptotically was assured if the switching gain
with variable structure Model Reference Adaptive was larger than the gain of the disturbance error
Control (MRAC) scheme where SMC was integrated estimation parameter. In addition, SMC did not require
with MRAC structure. Also, the MRAC scheme rejecting disturbance with feed-forward compensation
contained an actual model and a reference model. They using a disturbance estimator. As a conclusion, both the
were compared each time and according to the deviation schemes possess minimal overshoot with small settling
between them, corresponding control action was carried time. However, for the application of constant load
out with a suitable adaptation mechanism. This scheme torque, it was inferred that speed recovery in the
also was incorporated with the SMC scheme. The control composite scheme was faster than the SMC. The
law was constructed with a sigmoid function. Since the composite method could estimate and reject ramp
traditional SMC utilized signum function for switching disturbances. When the slowly varying signal was applied
resulted in a chattering phenomenon. Therefore, to with a sufficiently larger gain for SMC, it was difficult to
overcome this drawback, the signum function was suppress the disturbance. However, the composite mode
substituted with the sigmoid function. SMC based MRAC rejected in a better way with much smaller gain value.
was used for speed identification. Furthermore, the Lastly, during the recovery/rejection, some overshoots
proposed structure was validated for the reach-ability and oscillations (in case of ramp signal) were observed in
condition using the Lyapunov analysis. The SMC the speed regulation performance, which may have
function was designed with the variable exponential rate needed to be further addressed.
reaching law for quicker sliding and for the elimination of Besides that, the SMC also was widely adopted in
chattering effect. For the proposed structure, Lyapunov most of the highly non-linear electromechanical systems
analysis was carried out for stability assurance. In short, owing to its highly remarkable features such as excellent
this proposed method was elucidated that the estimated tracking properties and robustness for disturbance
speed was tracked quickly and properly. It was inferred rejection and time-varying parameters of the system.
that the SMC scheme resulted in faster response, lesser However, some of the chattering phenomena were
speed overshoots and high robustness. However, the observed because of the discontinuous switching whose
precise performance largely depended on the reference again could be reduced by adjusting switching gain
model used in the structure. Also, the system torque and parameters. Even the highly sophisticated control
speed response contained oscillations and fluctuations algorithms might have performance degradation if in case
It was highly challenging for the system performance to a fault associated with any Actuator or Sensor
be robust when the system was subjected to unknown components of the system. To overcome this issue, many

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fault diagnostic approaches were developed in recent Incremental Photo Encoders were used for rotor position
trends. The Fault Tolerant Control (FTC) approach using detection. It can be concluded that both schemes were
the SMC strategy for PMSM Drives had been studied by stable and could detect speed changes. However, there
H. Mekki et al. in 2015 [41]. The fault associated with was lag associated with detection by M/T method
stator asymmetries had been addressed in this research. (measuring both frequency and time speed method) and
The healthy model of PMSM was applied with an integral also its tracking performance was not as accurate as
surface SMC strategy. The surface integral SMC for compared to the KF method. Secondly, observer
PMSM drive was provided with Three surfaces, utilized performance analysis was carried out with Disturbance
for speed, direct and quadrature current regulators. The Observer-Based (DOB) method. For changes in load
proposed scheme was analyzed for closed-loop stability torque, the DOB method introduced some overshoots and
performance with Lyapunov stability studies. The faulty it converged within 0.3 seconds. Meanwhile, KF was
model for eccentric fault diagnosis of PMSM drive was being stable within 0.15 seconds and the overshoot was
developed. The objective was to make the system to comparatively much lesser than the DOB method.
provide continued better performance, even if in case the Besides, it was observed that dynamic properties of
fault was being identified during the process such that PFC+KF outperform PI with less rise time, settling time
reconfiguration was not required during the process. and minimal overshoots. The steady-state ripples,
Furthermore, to improve the controller performance overshoots and settling time were more in PI, less in PFC
under faulty conditions, the internal switching SMC and relatively minimal in PFC+KF scheme. Compared to
scheme was reinforced with the FTC approach. Lastly, PFC, PFC+KF possessed a small speed drop and faster
the Lyapunov stability analysis was carried out for the recovery time. This was made possible by KF, which
FTC approach and also for continued stable performance helped in creating a better estimation of information for
[41]. In short, this novel SMC provided good robust PFC and high-efficiency performance. However, the
tracking properties. However, in the presence of static system speed and current waveforms contained a lot of
stator fault, the performance was degraded largely. The oscillations and ripples under all of these implemented
FTC with SMC resulted in good reference tracking and control methods.
rejection of load disturbance even when the system was Furthermore, an adaptive control technique was widely
subjected to eccentricity faults. It was inferred that the preferred in cases where the system was expected to
system possessed faster dynamic performance and it was adapt to the changing process parameters/environmental
highly robust under faulty conditions. However, systems conditions experienced during the processes. According
speed and current responses contained oscillations and to the research conducted by X. Li and S. Li, Speed loop
fluctuations under stator faults and needed to be further control for PMSM using adaptive control were initiated
improved. [43]. The Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC)
The PFC accuracy was largely dependent on its scheme was employed for the system to accommodate the
external perturbations. This had been addressed with a parameter changes. MRAC scheme consisted of three
composite scheme like PFC+ESO and the performance main components namely, reference model, adaptation
was improved. However, apart from the external mechanism and the controller. The reference model was
disturbances, speed feedback quantization error also generally chosen as to how the system was expected to
largely influenced the performance of the system. A behave. Meanwhile, the adaptation mechanism was about
methodology for better dynamic performance was how the system had to accommodate to the changes and
proposed with PFC by incorporating a Kalman filter at what rate the system had to be adapted like the
(KF). This methodology was investigated and suggested reference model and also to account for perturbations.
by H. Liu and S. Li in 2012 [42]. By employing the Thirdly, the controller was the basic control structure or
Kalman filter, a better estimation of states was made control law, which was usually employed in the system.
possible by eliminating system and measurement noise. Every time, the deviation between the plant model and
KF was mainly used to obtain the information of load the reference model was accounted for. Based on the
torque, position of the rotor and the speed. Its ability to deviation, according to the adaptation mechanism,
operate in a noisy environment (both system’s and corresponding control actions were provided each time.
measurement noise) and also the disturbance estimation Also, the control performance was quite improved and
resulted in better performance. Besides, the PFC is the the adaption mechanism was carried by using Lyapunov
modified version of MPC with minimal computational stability analysis by the appropriate choice of candidate
complexity. It also contained some base function in terms function. However, to improve the disturbance rejection
of control variable of interest and it is a predictive model. capabilities, the system was incorporated with ESO to
Plus, it contained some amount of error correction compensate for uncertainties and unknown dynamics.
phenomenon between predicted and the actual model. The stability analysis was carried for the composite
The receding optimization control methodology with the method. The proposed scheme was implemented using
objective to minimize the variance employed with DSP TMS320F2808 with a clock frequency of 100MHz
quadratic cost functions. This approach was added with and C-programming language was used to implement the
the KF for compensation of quantization errors in speed control algorithm. In short, the MRAC resulted in better
feedback loop mainly because of rotor precision performance than PI in a relative way in terms of fewer
limitations. The estimated and validated information were overshoots and steady-state oscillations. MRAC had a
used in the PFC control scheme for performance good dynamic load performance. It resulted in a smoother
enhancement of the system. The proposed scheme was response and very minimal overshoot. Even in the
implemented in real-time using Infineon’s XMC4500, presence of the load torque disturbances, MRAC
120 MHz clock CPU frequency of ARM Cortes core. performed better than PI. However, for better rejection,

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feed-forward compensation was employed by introducing Within real complex industrial situations, handling of
an observer. The composite structure resulted in better disturbances by non-linear systems was quite challenging.
properties than MRAC with relatively less settling time Many disturbance rejection techniques were employed to
and overshoots. Furthermore, the composite scheme cope with slow varying signal or periodic disturbances. A
resulted in very good disturbance rejection properties methodology to reject multiple disturbances using the
with very short recovery time. This composite MRAC IMC principle had been identified. This methodology was
(MRAC+ESO) scheme possessed improved controller suggested in the study conducted by Y. Tan et al. in 2015
performance with high robustness. It was also to be noted [45]. The authors proposed the composite control
that the composite method degraded the adaptation technique which contained a disturbance model being
capability of the system. This was mainly evident from embedded into the disturbance observer for better
the steady-state ripple which was always greater than the rejection. This composite model was called as Internal
MRAC scheme. Model Extended State Observer (IMESO), which was
Apart from the handling of parameter variation and the employed to reject multiple disturbances. Despite many
unknown dynamics of the system by adaptive structures, observer schemes, the reason for the choice of ESO was
for enhancing the performance of the closed-loop, a that the design of the observer by this method required
fractional adaptation mechanism was developed. The very limited information such as the order of the system,
MRAC using factional adaptive scheme was utilized in the inputs, and the outputs. The study and the analysis
the PMSM drive for velocity control. Two mechanisms of were carried out on the PMSM drive for speed loop under
adaptation were elaborated in this work. The mechanisms multiple disturbance conditions. Both the simulation and
were a gradient-based fractional order adaptation scheme experimentation were carried out for the Three cases
and Lyapunov based fractional order adaptation scheme. namely, proportional feedback with ESO (P+ESO),
It was inferred that for the gradient-based adaptation Proportional feedback with IMESO (P+IMESO) and PI
approach that convergence of the system could be scheme. For the torque ripple information, the obtained
increased by increasing the adaptation rate (𝛾). However, speed response of PI was analyzed with Fast Fourier
In the Lyapunov adaptation mechanism, it was inferred Transform (FFT) to characterize the corresponding
that larger the 𝛾, slower the adaptation rate. Larger 𝛼 was harmonics before the experiments. The experiment was
better for the transient response and disturbance rejection carried out for the reference speed of 1500rpm. The
features. These results were completely contradictory to proposed scheme was implemented in real-time using the
the gradient-based adaptation method. Apart from that, DSPTMS320F2808 processor with associated Power
the presence of oscillations in the transient response also modules. Based on the experimental results, it is
was observed. To overcome this oscillatory behavior, the elucidated that the P+IMESO performs better with
normalized gradient approach had to be introduced. The multiple disturbance rejection than the other two
methodology for velocity control of the PMSM system schemes. However, the equivalent performance was being
consisted of two loops. The inner loop controlled by observed in the case of time-domain properties. All these
feedback linearization to obtain the reference voltage schemes possessed small settling time and very minimal
information and the outer loop employed with Reference overshoot. Also, it was inferred that the proposed scheme
Signal Tracking (RST) scheme for current information. had a smaller settling time and little overshoot. The speed
Also, the outer loop control parameters were tuned by a ripples observed during the process were small for
fractional adaptive mechanism using the MRAC P+IMESO, which was approximately 2.10 rpm, large for
technique. Moreover, Lyapunov analysis was carried out P+ESO and larger for PI schemes during the disturbance
for the design of the fractional-order MRAC scheme. rejection of periodic ones. Lastly, the proposed scheme
Besides, the stator reference current parameters were eliminated slowly varying signal and sinusoidal signals
controlled with the RST scheme. The parameters of RST effectively. The results elucidated the fact that the
were adapted periodically using the gradient-based proposed methodology (P+IMESO) was capable to reject
approach or Lyapunov adaptation with MRAC structure. multiple disturbances and the unknown dynamics
The stator reference voltages were compensated with a associated with the process. However, overshoots during
feedback linearization mechanism. It should be noted that load torque addition/removal could be reduced for
the reference model time constant had to be always performance enhancement.
greater than the time constant of the inner loop to Apart from that, the tuning of Integer Order PID
preserve the system dynamics [44]. As a conclusion, to schemes was usually carried out by using either
demonstrate the robustness of the system, parameter frequency or time domain specifications. To facilitate the
uncertainty was tested by varying inertia to +30% for tuning of the FO-PID controller, a graphical approach had
both the approaches. The responses did not introduce any been discussed to achieve the robust behavior of the
compromise in the performance. Better transient response system. FO-PID (Fractional Order PID) consists of Three
was achieved at lower in case of gradient approach gains as same as the IO-PID (Integral Order PID). In
whereas, for the later, the system performed well with addition to that, Integral Order (𝜆) and derivative order
large values of 𝛼. Secondly, the proposed scheme was (𝜇). FO-PID became IO-PID if 𝜆 = 𝜇 = 1, even though,
compared with the adaptive backstepping algorithm. It FO-PID resulted in more flexibility and improved
was inferred that the proposed FO+MRAC scheme had a performance, the tuning was quite complex. The gains of
higher tendency to cope with mechanical uncertainties FO-PID were determined by using the D-composition
and to reject disturbances in an effective way than the method chosen from the left half of the complex plane,
later. However, the appropriate choice of fractional order and the degree of stability was defined with a parameter
derivative had to be provided with some guidelines to 𝜎. The graphical approach elucidated that the stabilizing
improve the closed-loop performance. region was obtained by the D-decomposition technique

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by analyzing Three regions of operation namely, Infinite Microprocessors because of its handle-able sampling time
Root Boundary (IRB) lines, Complex Root Boundary based on the Nyquist sampling criterion. Lastly, the
(CRB) curves and Real Root Boundary (RRB) curves. algorithm resulted in a sub-optimal solution since it was a
The D-composition was obtained by dividing the interval local search algorithm.
into Three zones, namely at 0, (0, +∞), and +∞ Last but not least, although the heuristic-based
corresponding to each region. The procedure was mainly approaches like GA and Particle Swarm Optimization
carried out to reduce the complexity involved in (PSO) tuned PI controllers gave a better performance than
fractional order PID tuning. The validation of the conventional PI, owing to the converge of parameters in
proposed scheme was performed in real-time for the sub-optimal level, the performance efficiency still
PMSM drive. The DSP56F8346 was the module used for hindered. To overcome this, the algorithm, which resulted
control in this study [46]. In short, both the schemes were in global optimal was taken for analysis. R. Kannan et al
analyzed for Servo and the regulatory properties. It was chose a Bio-geographical based optimization (BBO) for
observed that tracking of step signal by FO-PID was the tuning of parameters for PI controller [48]. BBO was
faster compared to IO-PID, and both the schemes resulted the algorithm that was inspired as the collection of
in no overshoots. For regulatory conditions, load torque biological distribution of species from the geological
had been changed abruptly. It was observed that FO-PID area. The objective was to minimize the difference
had a faster recovery to maintain tracking with smaller between actual and the reference speed of the PMSM
undershoots than IO-PID. Thus, the experimentation drive. Habitat Sustainability Index (HSI) was mostly used
elucidated the robust behavior of fractional order PID in for determining the optimal solution in BBO. The value
terms of the dynamic performance produced relatively was high in favorable regions and low in the case of
faster rise time and better disturbance rejection. Even unfavorable regions. Moreover, the migrations were also
though the graphical tuning method was proposed, possible into or out of the regions, namely, emigration or
assurance of optimal stability value had to be explored. immigration. So, HSI was improved largely by migration
Besides that, the popularity of PI controllers in phenomenon. After several trials, solution convergence
industries was mainly because of its simplicity and was attained. For the converged parameters, the controller
effectiveness for the reasonable performance of the was tested for real-time performance. Apart from that, the
system. PMSM drives generally employ the FOC parameters obtained through Zeigler Nicolas (Zn), Real
algorithm, which basically involved some transformations Coded Genetic Algorithm (RGA), and BBO were tested
to bring the current parameter to the required form (from for different scenarios like no-load, full load, and
AC to DC). However, this process was quite time- disturbance rejection conditions. The tuning of PI
consuming and used lots of memory. To overcome this, parameters was carried out offline. The several
Simplified Vector Control (SVC) had been proposed by performance measures, namely Integral Absolute Error
W. K. Wibowo and S. Jeong in 2013 [47]. The SVC (IAE), Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE), Integral
algorithm was obtained from the inverse of the coordinate Square Error (ISE), and Integral Time Square Error
transformations used in FOC. Three PI controllers were (ITSE) had been evaluated for all the three schemes. It
used in the PMSM control structure. Two corresponds to was inferred that the BBO tuned controller reduced
current and one for speed. These PI were tuned with a steady-state error up to 75.2% and transient error up to
heuristic-based optimization algorithm known as the 52%. However, for even better performance, swarm-
Genetic Algorithm (GA) to obtain optimal tuning based optimization techniques could be employed.
parameters for each of the three controllers. Besides, the
GA was a local search algorithm originated by the 2.4 AC SERVOMOTOR CONTROL TECHNIQUES
concept of the survival of the fittest. The algorithm had COMPARISON
three steps namely selection, crossover and mutation. The All of the available control techniques for the AC
potential candidates were selected for the process from Servomotor were compared in terms of their advantages
the initially generated solutions. They were taken for and disadvantages, as shown in Table 2.1 below. The
reproduction either by using two parents (crossover) or by precise control of speed, position, and torque were the
a single parent (mutation). The Mean Square Error (MSE) main issues with the AC Servomotor. Many control
was used as an objective function and some constraints techniques and algorithms such as neural networks, fuzzy
with respect to the specifications in the time domain such logic, iterative control, vector control, scalar control,
as overshoot, rise time and settling time were provided to electronic power drives, repetitive control, PLC control,
the system. After a suitable number of iterations, the internal model control, current differential signals control,
algorithm resulted in a solution satisfying both the digital signal processing, FPGA, sliding mode control,
objective and the constraints imposed on it. Furthermore, continuous path tracking, direct torque control, predictive
the proposed scheme was analyzed for implementation functional control, and active disturbance rejection
using simulation. The analysis elucidated the fact that the control were implemented for the solution of these issues.
proposed scheme was feasible for environmental However, all of the above-stated control techniques had
conditions where no higher sophistication and precision their advantages and limitations. Most of these control
were required. The tracking of reference speed, response techniques led to the step response issues, waveform
tracking for varying speed and load rejection were all oscillatory errors and fluctuations, instability of the
analyzed. Also, it was elucidated that the performance of system, switching losses, sensitivity to parameter
the system satisfied the requirements stated. The variations and external disturbances, and low dynamic
overshoot was 0.41%, settling time was 0.3 seconds and responses. Each control technique led to at least two of
the rise time was 0.37 seconds. The algorithm reflected the issues mentioned above. There was no control
fairly precise control and could be easily realizable in

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 Abdul Wali Abdul Ali et al. / ELEKTRIKA, 19(2), 2020, 22-39

technique implemented that could solve all of these issues Iterative Fluctuations in The elimination of
at the same time while offering a high precision control learning [16] the waveforms fluctuations takes
are eliminated few cycles that
may affect the
current response
Control Control Advantages Disadvantages
Technique
Vector control Good dynamic Oscillatory errors
Position Continues path Good step Dynamic load
using custom- load response and fluctuations
tracking response issues and more
designed
[2] energy
motion control
consumption
card [17]
Repetitive Robustness Step response
XC164CM Simplified Presence of
control against noises, issues, position
Microcontrolle hardware design oscillatory errors
[3] unaffected by tracking error
r and good
load variations
[18] reliability
and more stable
PLC Good Fluctuations in the
Enhanced Robustness Position tracking
[19] performance step response of the
Iterative against noises error and dynamic
and low THD system and high
Learning [4] load issues
level at high THD level at low
Internal Model Good Step response speed speed
[5] performance issues and dynamic
Multi-layer Good dynamic Delay and
and low load issues
Neural load response overshoot in the
tracking error
Network [20] speed response
Robust Good dynamic Step response
Fuzzy Good position Fluctuations in the
tracking [6] load response issues tracking
Adaptive PID and speed system frequency
error, network
[21] control and the rise time of
framework and
the speed response
fault tolerance
is high
issues
Current control Good system Electrical
Speed Fuzzy logic [7] Good dynamic Existence of
using the DC- response parameters
load response, viscous friction and
link current variation in
small switching step response
sensor practical
losses and issues, rotor time
[22]
minimize constant is
chattering unknown, heavy Single-chip Fast response Oscillatory errors
parameter motion control and good in the step response
variations IC [23] dynamic load of the torque and
response, The the voltage
Vector-based Good step Dynamic load
IC can be easily switching
speed control response issues
tuned to be used waveforms
[8]
for different
Low-speed Good control on Fluctuation and motors
control the regulation of oscillatory errors in
Sensor-less Robustness Amplitude error
[9] the motor speed the speed response
servo control against harsh between the real
Current Reduction of Waveforms system environment speed and
differential copper losses, Oscillatory errors [24] such as reference speed
signals improvement in and voltage underwater and oscillatory
[10] inverter voltage saturation usage errors in the system
utilization response
Active The ability of Improvement The full Good system More expensive,
Disturbance unknown errors needed in speed closed-loop performance complex, risk of
Rejection [11] compression response and control system and robustness instability and
and good step dynamic speed of Gear against the oscillatory errors
response response Measuring variations of the
Fuzzy Logic Highly Fluctuations and Centre system
[12] adaptive, good oscillatory errors [25] components
tracking Automatic Good dynamic Presence of
performance control loop load response oscillatory errors
and robustness tuning [26] and error in the
Decoupled Independency Oscillations are parameter auto-
ADRC for of the system evident in both identification
PMSM drives parameters and speed and current STM32 Strong real-time Dynamic load issue
[13] easy tuning of responses Microcontrolle performance,
the controller r reliable
Position,S Neural Good dynamic System response is [27] operation and
peed and Networks [14] load response, slow, high rise time static precision
Torque no overshoot Optimized Robustness More complex, its
and oscillatory control of against voltage and current
errors servo-motor parameters waveforms contain
Variable Good dynamic Presence of drives in the variations oscillations, which
Structure load response chattering and step field may affect the
Direct response issues weakening performance of the
Adaptive [15] region system
[28]

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Direct Torque Reduction in Oscillatory errors an intelligent inverter,” IEEE Trans. Energy
Control based torque ripple and fluctuations in Convers., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 312–318, Jun. 1993.
FLC [29] and flux ripple, the waveforms
good dynamic
[8] E. Yolacan and M. Aydin, “Vector based speed
response control of permanent magnet AC servomotor with
Continuous Small steady- Speed response FEA and experimental verification,” in 2012 9th
Terminal state response leads to dead time France-Japan & 7th Europe-Asia Congr. on
Sliding Mode and disturbance and high-rise time, Mechatronics (MECATRONICS) / 13th Int’l
with Extended rejection effects of gain
State Observer parameters on the
Workshop on Research and Educ. in Mechatronics
[30] system (REM), 2012, pp. 324–328.
performance [9] I. Kardan et al., “Low speed control of AC servo
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Control with and fast system waveforms
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2015.
was done; this review was taken from the research
[11] Sravya K et al., “Speed control of electric drives
articles and the research papers that were published for
using Active Disturbance Rejection Control,” 2016
the control of the AC Servomotor. It covered all of the
Bienn. Int. Conf. Power Energy Syst. Towar.
commercially available control methods for the AC Sustain. Energy, pp. 1–6, 2016.
Servomotor, which include control of speed, torque and [12] B. Shikkewal and V. Nandanwar, “Fuzzy Logic
position of the AC Servomotor. Matlab Simulink, C Controller for PMSM,” Int. J. Electr. Electron.
programming, and Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Eng., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 73–78, 2012.
programming were used in the implementation of these [13] X. R. X. Lx et al., “A Decoupled Active
control approaches. The advantages and drawbacks of Disturbance Rejection Controller for PMSM Speed-
these control strategies were discussed and compared in regulation System with Position Feedback,” 2015.
this review. This review was analyzed and related to the [14] Z. Chen et al. , “Intelligent control of alternative
industrial application to investigate the most demanded current permanent magnet servomotor using neural
solutions of the problems by the industry. From the network,” ICEMS 2001 - Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Elect.
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torque of the AC Servomotor when handling a dynamic for PM synchronous servo motor drive,” IEE Proc.
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