IGCSE Biology (S4)

Unit 2: Structure and functions

in living organisms

Teacher Notes
Book 10: Co-ordination and
Responses (Eye and Hormones)

Name:

Teacher:
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The Human Eye: Structure
• The eye is a highly specialised sense organ containing receptor cells that allow
us to detect the stimulus of light
• The retina of the eye contains two types of receptor cells:
o Receptor cells that are sensitive to light, known as rods cells
o Receptor cells that can detect colour, known as cones cells

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The structures of the eye
Cornea transparent lens that refracts light as it enters the eye

Iris controls how much light enters the pupil

Lens transparent disc that can change shape to focus light
onto the retina
Retina contains light receptor cells – rods (detect light
intensity) and cones (detect colour)
Optic nerve sensory neuron that carries impulses between the eye
and the brain
Pupil hole that allows light to enter the eye
Conjunctiva a clear membrane that covers the white of the eye and
the inside of the eyelids; it lubricates the eye and
provides protection from external irritants
Ciliary muscle a ring of muscle that contracts and relaxes to change
the shape of the lens
Suspensory ligaments ligaments that connect the ciliary muscle to the lens
Sclera the strong outer wall of the eyeball that helps to keep
the eye in shape and provides a place of attachment for
the muscles that move the eye
Fovea a region of the retina with the highest density of cones
(colour detecting cells) where the eye sees particularly
good detail
Blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, where
there are no receptor cells

Examiner Tip
Make sure you can identify the structures of the eye on a diagram because
diagrams with labels are a very common form of exam question for this topic.

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The Human Eye: Function

The function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects

• The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation
• The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when the suspensory ligaments
attached to it become tight or loose
• The changes happen by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
• When an object is close:
1. The ciliary muscles contract (the ring of muscle decreases in diameter)
2. This causes the suspensory ligaments to loosen
3. This stops the suspensory ligaments from pulling on the lens, which allows
the lens to become fatter
4. Light is refracted more

Diagram showing the eye when an object is close up

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• When an object is far away:
1. The ciliary muscles relax (the ring of muscle increases in diameter)
2. This causes the suspensory ligaments to tighten
3. The suspensory ligaments pull on the lens, causing it to become thinner
4. Light is refracted less

Diagram showing the eye when an object is far away

Near objects Distant objects

Ciliary muscles Contracted Relaxed

Suspensory ligaments Loose Tight

Lens Fatter Thinner

Light refraction More Less

Examiner Tip: A common mistake is to refer to the suspensory ligaments

contracting and relaxing. This is incorrect because suspensory ligaments are not
muscles. You must say that the ligaments tighten or loosen/slacken instead.

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The function of the eye in responding to changes in light intensity
• The pupil reflex is a reflex action carried out to protect the retina from damage
o In dim light, the pupil dilates (widens) to allow as much light into the eye as
possible to improve vision
o In bright light, the pupil constricts (narrows) to prevent too much light from
entering the eye and damaging the retina

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Pupil reflex table
Circular
Stimulus Radial muscles Pupil size Light entering eye
muscles

Bright light Relaxed Contracted Narrow Less

Dim light Contracted Relaxed Wide More

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The Role of Skin in Temperature Regulation
• The skin is our largest sense organ
• It contains many different receptors that enable us to detect various external
stimuli, including touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold
• Structures within the skin also play an important role in regulating body
temperature (an example of homeostasis)

Human skin contains structures involved in processes that can increase or reduce
heat loss to the surroundings

Cooling mechanisms in humans

• Vasodilation of skin capillaries
o Heat exchange (for both warming and cooling) occurs at the body's surface
as this is where the blood comes into shortest distance to the environment
o Increase heat loss by supplying capillaries in the skin with a greater volume
of blood, which then loses heat to the environment via radiation

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 o Arterioles have muscles in their walls that can relax or contract to allow
more/less blood to flow through them
o During vasodilation, these muscles relax, causing the arterioles near the skin
to dilate (get wider) and allowing more blood to flow through capillaries
• Sweating
o Sweat is secreted by sweat glands
o This cools the skin by evaporation which uses heat energy from the body to
convert liquid water into water vapour
• Flattening of hairs
o The hair erector muscles in the skin relax, causing hairs to lie flat
o This stops them from forming an insulating layer by trapping air and allows
air to circulate over the skin and allows heat to leave by radiation

Responses in the skin when the body temperature is too high and needs to
decrease

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Warming mechanisms in humans
• Vasoconstriction of skin capillaries
o Decrease heat loss by supplying the capillaries in the skin with a smaller
volume of blood, minimising loss of heat to environment via radiation
o Muscles in the arteriole walls contract, causing the arterioles near the skin to
constrict (get smaller) and allowing less blood to flow through capillaries
o Vasoconstriction is not a 'warming' mechanism as it doesn’t raise blood
temperature but reduces heat loss from the blood as it flows through the skin
• Shivering
o This is a reflex action in response to a decrease in core body temperature
o Muscles contract in a rapid and regular manner
o The exothermic metabolic reactions required to power this shivering
generate heat to warm the blood and raise the core body temperature
• Erection of hairs
o The hair erector muscles in the skin contract, causing hairs to stand on end
o This forms an insulating layer over the skin's surface by trapping air
between the hairs and stops heat from being lost by radiation

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• The core body temperature of humans is kept close to 37°C
o This is very tightly controlled as a change in core body temperature of more
than 2°C can be fatal
• For this reason, the human body must be able to make a coordinated response
to any rise or fall in body temperature
• Temperature receptors (thermoreceptors) in the skin and hypothalamus (a
part of the brain) can detect minute changes in body temperature
• Brain coordinates a cooling/heating response, depending on what is required

Temperature regulation is an example of homeostasis as it must be maintained

within a constant range

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The Role of Hormones: Basic
• A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the
blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs
o They are chemicals that transmit information from one part of the organism
to another and bring about a change (e.g. water content)
• The following hormones are of great importance in humans:
o Adrenaline
o Insulin
o Testosterone
o Progesterone
o Oestrogen
Adrenaline
• Adrenaline (the 'fight or flight' hormone) is produced in situations where the
body may be in danger
• Range of different changes happens due to adrenaline release, all designed
to prepare it for movement (i.e. fight or flight)
• These include:
o Increase in heart and breathing rate, more glucose & oxygen delivered
to muscle cells (CO2 can be taken away from muscles cells)
o Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of
the body (e.g. the alimentary canal) which ensures an increased supply of
the reactants of respiration (glucose and oxygen)
o Dilation of the blood vessels inside muscles - ensures more blood can
circulate through them (again, supplying more glucose and oxygen)
o Breaking down of stored glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscle cells.
Glucose from liver delivered to muscle cells ensuring higher blood glucose
concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells for more energy

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Insulin
• Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another
example of homeostasis (like the control of core body temperature)
o Too high a level of glucose in the blood can lead to cells of the body losing
water by osmosis, which can be dangerous
o Too low a level of glucose in the blood lead to the brain receiving insufficient
glucose for respiration, potentially leading to a coma or even death
• The pancreas and liver work together to control blood glucose levels
• The pancreas acts as an endocrine gland (making and secreting hormones into
the bloodstream). Although it also plays a vital (but separate) role in digestion
(making and secreting enzymes into the digestive system)
• If the blood glucose concentration gets too high:
o Cells in the pancreas detect the increased blood glucose levels
o The pancreas produces the hormone insulin, secreting it into the blood
o Insulin stimulates muscles and the liver to take up glucose from the
bloodstream and store it as glycogen (a polymer of glucose)
o This reduces the concentration of glucose in the blood back to normal levels,
at which point the pancreas stops secreting insulin

The regulation of blood glucose levels

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Testosterone
• Testosterone is produced in the male testes
• Responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males
Progesterone
• Progesterone is produced in the female ovaries
• It is responsible for maintaining the uterine lining during pregnancy
Oestrogen
• Oestrogen is produced by the female ovaries
• It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
females and regulating the menstrual cycle
Summary of hormones and their functions table (need to know comes up in
exams a lot)
Hormone Source Role Effect

Adrenal Readies the body for a

Adrenaline Increases heart and breathing rate
gland 'fight or flight' response

Causes excess glucose in the blood

Lowers blood glucose to be taken up by the muscles and
Insulin Pancreas
levels liver and converted into glycogen
for storage

Development of male reproductive

Main sex hormone in
Testosterone Testes organs and secondary sexual
males
characteristics

Maintains the uterus lining to

Progesterone Ovaries Maintains pregnancy cushion the fertilised egg and
allow it to develop

Development of female secondary

Main sex hormone in
Oestrogen Ovaries sexual characteristics and
females
regulation of the menstrual cycle

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The Role of Hormones: Advanced
• As well as adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen, the
following hormones are also of great importance in humans:
o ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
o FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
o LH (luteinising hormone)
ADH
• If the water content of the blood falls below a certain level:
o The blood is too concentrated (not enough water)
o Receptors detect this and stimulate the pituitary gland to release more ADH
o This causes the collecting ducts of the nephrons to become more
permeable to water
o This leads to more water being reabsorbed from the collecting ducts
o The kidneys produce a smaller volume of urine that is more
concentrated (contains less water)
• If the water content of the blood rises above a certain level:
o The blood is too dilute
o Receptors detect this and stimulate the pituitary gland to release less ADH
o The collecting ducts of the nephrons to become less permeable to water
o This leads to less water being reabsorbed from the collecting ducts
o The kidneys produce a larger volume of urine that is less concentrated
(contains more water)

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Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
• 4 hormones control the events that occur during the menstrual cycle:
o Oestrogen
o Progesterone
o FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
o LH (luteinising hormone)
• Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus lining
o Oestrogen is produced by the ovaries and progesterone is produced by an
empty egg follicle called the corpus luteum inside the ovaries

Oestrogen and progesterone are both released from the ovaries and control
events of the menstrual cycle

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The roles of FSH and LH
• FSH is released by the pituitary gland and causes an egg to mature in the ovary
o It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen
• The pituitary gland is stimulated to release LH when oestrogen levels have
reached their peak
o LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to
produce progesterone

Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood during
the menstrual cycle
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Other important hormones in the human body table

Hormone Source Role Effect

Increases the permeability

of the collecting ducts in
Controlling the
the kidneys to water,
ADH Pituitary gland water content of
increasing the
the blood
reabsorption of water back
into the blood

Stimulates the
Causes ovary to
development of egg cells
FSH Pituitary gland develop a mature
in the ovary and the
egg cell
release of oestrogen

Stimulates the release of

Causes ovary to
an egg cell from the ovary
LH Pituitary gland release a mature
(ovulation) and the release
egg cell
of progesterone

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b.

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2.

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