KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA ‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬

Ministry of Education ‫وزارة التعليـــــــــم‬

University of Tabuk ‫جــامـعـة تـبــوك‬
Faculty of Science ‫كلية العلوم‬
Statistics Department ‫قسم اإلحصاء‬

Introduction to Statistics
STAT 1101

‫ كلية العلوم‬- ‫قسم اإلحصاء‬ ‫ هـ‬1445

 Lesson 2

Frequency Distributions and Graphs

‫ كلية العلوم‬- ‫قسم اإلحصاء‬ ‫ هـ‬1445

 Contents
Introduction
Organizing Data
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Grouped Frequency Distributions
Ungrouped Frequency Distributions
Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
Other Types of Graphs (Bar and Pie graphs)
Statistical Computations using Microsoft Excel
‫ كلية العلوم‬- ‫قسم اإلحصاء‬ ‫ هـ‬1445
 Introduction

❑ When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the particular variable
under study.
❑ For example, if a researcher wishes to study the number of people who were bitten by
poisonous snakes in a specific geographic area over the past several years, he or she has to
gather the data from various doctors, hospitals, or health departments.
❑ To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must
organize the data in some meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is
to construct a frequency distribution.
❑ After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so they can be understood by
those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful method of presenting the data
is by constructing statistical charts and graphs.
❑ There are many different types of charts and graphs, and each one has a specific purpose.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 4

 Organizing Data

❑Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the ages of the 50 wealthiest

people in the world.
❑The researcher first would have to get the data on the ages of the people. When
the data are in original form, they are called raw data and are listed below.

❑Since little information can be obtained

from looking at raw data
❑The researcher organizes the data into
what is called a frequency distribution.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 5

 Frequency Distributions

Definition
A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table
form, using classes and frequencies.

❑Each raw data value is placed into a

quantitative or qualitative category called a
class.
❑The frequency of a class then is the number of
data values contained in a specific class.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 6

 Frequency Distributions

❑For example, it can be stated that the majority of the wealthy people in the
study are 45 years old or older.
❑The classes in this distribution are 27–35, 36–44, etc.
❑These values are called class limits.
❑The data values 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35
can be tallied in the first class (here we have only
one person who is 27 years old );
❑ 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 in the second
class (3 people, ages 38,38, and 44);
❑ and so on.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 7

 Frequency Distributions

Two types of frequency

distributions that are
most often used are
the

Categorical frequency Grouped frequency

distribution distribution.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 8

 Categorical Frequency Distributions

Definition

The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be

placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or ordinal-level data.

For example, data such as political affiliation, religious affiliation, or major field of study would
use categorical frequency

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 9

 Categorical Frequency Distributions

Example 2-1
Distribution of Blood Types Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test
to determine their blood type. The data set is

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 10
 Categorical Frequency Distributions

❑Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used.

❑There are four blood types: A, B, O, and AB.
❑These types will be used as the classes for the distribution.
The procedure for constructing a frequency distribution for categorical data
❑Step 1: Make a table as shown below.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 11

 Categorical Frequency Distributions

❑Step 2: Tally the data and place the results in column B.

❑Step 3: Count the tallies and place the results in column C. Then
Find the totals for column C (frequency)

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 12

 Categorical Frequency Distributions

❑Step 4: Find the percentage of values in each class by using the formula
𝒇
% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏
where 𝒇 = frequency of the class and 𝒏 = total number of values.
❑For example, in the class of type A blood, the percentage is
𝟓
% = · 100 = 20%
𝟐𝟓
❑ Find the totals for column D (percent).
For the sample, more people have type O
blood than any other type.
❑It is a good idea to add the percent column to make sure it sums to 100%.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 13
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped into classes that are
more than one unit in width, in what is called a grouped frequency distribution.

❑ For example, a distribution

of the blood glucose levels in
milligrams per decilitre
(mg/dL) for 50 randomly
selected college students is
shown to the left.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 14

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

❑In this distribution, the values 58 and 64 of the first class are called class limits.
❑The lower-class limit is 58; it represents the smallest data value that can be
included in the class.
❑ The upper-class limit is 64; it represents the largest data value that can be
included in the class.

❑The numbers in the second column

are called class boundaries.
❑These numbers are used to separate
the classes so that there are no gaps
in the frequency distribution.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 15

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

❑Find the boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from 58 (the lower class limit) and adding
0.5 to 64 (the upper class limit).
Lower limit – 0.5 = 58 − 0.5 = 57.5
Upper limit + 0.5 = 64 + 0.5 = 64.5dary

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 16

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

The class width for a class in a frequency distribution is found by subtracting

the lower (or upper) class limit of one class from the lower (or upper) class
limit of the next class.

❑For example, the class width on the distribution of blood

glucose levels is 7, found from 65 − 58 = 7.
❑The class width can also be found by subtracting the lower
boundary from the upper boundary for any given class. In
this case, 64.5 − 57.5 = 7.
❑ Note: Do not subtract the limits of a single class. It will
result in an incorrect answer (eg. 64-58=6).
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 17
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

To construct a frequency distribution, follow these rules:

1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes.
2. It is preferable but not absolutely necessary that the class width be an odd
number.
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
4. The classes must be continuous.
There should be no gaps in a frequency distribution. The only exception occurs when the class with a zero frequency
is the first or last class. A class with a zero frequency at either end can be omitted without affecting the distribution.
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 18

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

The class midpoint

❑ The class midpoint 𝑿𝒎 is obtained by adding the lower

and upper boundaries and dividing by 2, or adding the
lower and upper limits and dividing by 2
𝑿𝒎 =( lower boundary + upper boundary)/2

𝑿𝒎 = (lower limit + upper limit)/2

❑ For example, the midpoint of the first class in the example

with glucose levels is
(57.5 +64.5)/2=61 or ( 58+64)/2= 61
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 19
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Find the midpoints of each class. Use the frequency distribution given in Example
2–4,

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 20

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Step 1 Determine the classes.
oFind the highest and lowest values.
oFind the range.
oSelect the number of classes desired.
oFind the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up.
oSelect a starting point (usually the lowest value or any convenient number less than the
lowest value); add the width to get the lower limits.
oFind the upper class limits.
oFind the boundaries.
Step 2 Tally the data.
Step 3 Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies, and find the cumulative
frequencies
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 21
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Example 2-2
The following data represent the record high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit
(°F) for each of the 50 states.

Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data, using 7 classes.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 22

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Solution
Step 1 Determine the classes.
oFind the highest and lowest values: H= 134 and L=100.
oFind the range: R= H - L = 134-100 =34
oSelect the number of classes desired: In this case 7 is chosen.
oFind the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up.
𝑹 𝟑𝟒
𝐖𝐢𝐝𝐭𝐡 = = = 𝟒. 𝟗 ≈ 𝟓
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝟕
oSelect a starting point : In this case 100 is used
Add the width to the lowest score taken as the starting point to get the lower limit of the next class. Keep adding until there are
7 classes, as shown, 100, 105, 110, etc.
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Solution
Step 1 Determine the classes.
oFind the upper class limits.
Subtract one unit from the lower limit of the second class to get the upper limit of the first
class. Then add the width to each upper limit to get all the upper limits.

105-1=104
The first class is 100–104, the second class is 105–109, etc.

oFind the class boundaries: Subtracting 0.5 from each lower class limit and adding 0.5 to
each upper class limit.
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Step 2 Tally the data.

Step 3 Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies, and find the cumulative
frequencies
The completed frequency distribution is

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 25

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

The frequency distribution shows that the class 109.5–114.5 contains the largest
number of temperatures (18) followed by the class 114.5–119.5 with 13
temperatures. Hence, most of the temperatures (31) fall between 110 and 119°F.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 26

 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Definition
A cumulative frequency distribution is a distribution that shows
the number of data values less than or equal to a specific value
(usually an upper boundary).

Example: The cumulative

frequency distribution
for the data in the
temperature example is

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 27

 Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

An ungrouped frequency distribution

When the range of the data values is relatively small, a frequency distribution can
be constructed using single data values for each class. This type of distribution is
called an ungrouped frequency distribution.

Example 2-3
The data represent the number of hours 30 college
students said they sleep per night.

Construct the frequency distribution for the data.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 28
 Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

Solution
Step 1 Determine the classes.
Since the range is small (10 − 5 = 5), classes consisting of a single data value can be used. They
are 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and 10.
Note: If the data are continuous, class boundaries can be used. Subtract 0.5 from each class value
to get the lower class boundary, and add 0.5 to each class value to get the upper class boundary.

Step 2 Tally the data.

Step 3 Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies, and find the cumulative
frequencies

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 29

 Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

The completed frequency distribution is The cumulative frequencies are

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 30

 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

❑After you have organized the data into a frequency distribution, you can present
them in graphical form.
❑ The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in
pictorial form.
❑ It is easier for most people to comprehend the meaning of data presented
graphically than data presented numerically in tables or frequency distributions.
❑The three most commonly used graphs in research are
1. The histogram.
2. The frequency polygon.
3. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive).

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 31

 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

Constructing a Histogram, Frequency Polygon, and Ogive

✓ Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes.

✓ Step 2 On the x axis, label the class boundaries of the frequency distribution
for the histogram and ogive. Label the midpoints for the frequency polygon.
✓ Step 3 Plot the frequencies for each class, and draw the vertical bars for the
histogram and the lines for the frequency polygon and ogive.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 32

 The Histogram

Definition
The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous
vertical bars (unless the frequency of a class is 0) of various heights
to represent the frequencies of the classes

Example 2-4
Construct a histogram to represent the data
shown for the record high temperatures for
each of the 50 states.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 33

 The Histogram

Solution
✓ Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the horizontal axis, and the y
axis is always the vertical axis.
✓ Step 2 Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
✓ Step 3 Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars for each class.

As the histogram shows, the class with the greatest

number of data values (18) is 109.5–114.5, followed
by 13 for 114.5–119.5.
The graph has one peak with the data clustering
around it.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 34

 The Frequency Polygon

Definition
The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using
lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the
midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.
Example 2-5
Construct a frequency polygon to represent
the data shown for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 35

 The Frequency Polygon

Solution
Step 1 Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding the
upper and lower boundaries and dividing by 2:
𝟗𝟗. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟓
= 𝟏𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝟐 𝟐

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 36

 The Frequency Polygon

Solution
✓ Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the midpoint of each class, and then
use a suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies.
✓ Step 3 Using the midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y values, plot
the points.
✓ Step 4 Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x axis at the
beginning and end of the graph, at the same distance that the previous and next
midpoints would be located

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 37

 The Frequency Polygon

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 38

 The Ogive

Definition
The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for
the classes in a frequency distribution.

Example 2-6
Construct an Ogive for the frequency
distribution of the data of the record high
temperatures.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 39

 The Olive

Solution
Step 1 Find the cumulative frequency for each class.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 40

 The Frequency Polygon

Solution
✓ Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the class boundaries, and then use a

suitable scale on the y axis to represent the cumulative frequencies.

✓ Step 3 Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper class boundary.

✓ Step 4 Starting with the first upper class boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points with

line segments. Then extend the graph to the first lower class boundary, 99.5, on the x

axis.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 41
 The Olive

The Cumulative Frequency plot The Olive

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 42

 Other Types of Graph

In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive,

several other types of graphs are often used in statistics. They are the

bar graph, Pareto chart, time Series graph, pie graph, and the dotplot.
 Bar Graphs

When the data are qualitative or categorical, bar graphs can be used to represent
the data. A bar graph can be drawn using either horizontal or vertical bars.
Definition
A bar graph represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars
whose heights or lengths represent the frequencies of the data.

Example 2-8 Electronics $728

❑ The table shows the average money spent by first-year Dorm decor 344
college students. Clothing 141
❑ Draw a horizontal and vertical bar graph for the data. Shoes 72

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 44

 Bar Graphs

1. Draw and label the x and y axes. For the horizontal bar graph place the
frequency scale on the x axis, and for the vertical bar graph place the
frequency scale on the y axis.
2. Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 45

 Bar Graphs

❑ Bar graphs can also be used to compare data for two or more groups. These
types of bar graphs are called compound bar graphs.
❑ Consider the following data for the number (in millions) of never married
adults in the United States.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 46

 The Pie Graph

Definition
A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges
according to the Percentage of frequencies in each category of the
distribution.
Example 2-11
❑ This frequency distribution shows the
number of pounds of each snack food
eaten during the Super Bowl.
❑ Construct a pie graph for the data..

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 47

 The Pie Graph

✓ Step 1 Since there are 360° in a circle, the

frequency for each class must be converted to a
proportional part of the circle. This conversion is
done by using the formula
𝒇
𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐬 = × 𝟑𝟔𝟎°
𝒏
where f = frequency for each class and n = sum of the
frequencies.
✓ Step 2 Each frequency must also be converted to
a percentage. The conversion is done by using the
formula
𝒇
% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏
 The Pie Graph

✓Step 3 Next, using a protractor and a

compass, draw the graph, using the
appropriate degree measures found in
Step 1, and label each section with the
name and percentages.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 49

Statistical Computations
using Microsoft Excel
 Categorical Frequency Table

Example 2-1
Distribution of Blood Types Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test
to determine their blood type. The data set is

Construct a frequency distribution for the data using Excel.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 51
 Categorical Frequency Table

1. In an open workbook, select cell A1 and type

in all the blood types down column A.
2. Type in the variable name Blood Type in cell
B1.
3. Select cell B2 and type in the four different
blood types down the column.
4. Type in the name Count in cell C1.
5. Select cell C2. From the toolbar, select the
Formulas tab on the toolbar.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 52

 Categorical Frequency Table

5. Select cell C2. From the toolbar, select the Formulas tab on the toolbar.
6. Select the Insert Function icon , then select the Statistical category in the
Insert Function dialog box.
7. Select the Countif function from the function name list.
8. In the dialog box, type A1:A25 in the Range box. Type in the blood type “A” in
quotes in the Criteria box. (=COUNTIF(A1:A25,"A"))
9. The count or frequency of the number of data corresponding to the blood
type should appear below the input. Repeat for the remaining blood types.
 Categorical Frequency Table

9. After all the data have been counted, select cell C6 in the worksheet.
10. From the toolbar select Formulas, then AutoSum and type in C2:C5 to insert
the total frequency into cell C6.
 Grouped Frequency Distributions

Example 2-2
The following data represent the record high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit
(°F) for each of the 50 states.

❑ Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using Excel

❑ Construct a Histogram
❑ Construct a Frequency Polygon
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 56
 Making a Grouped Frequency Distribution

1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook.

2. Enter the raw data in column A, one number per cell.
3. Enter the upper class boundaries in column B.
4. From the toolbar select the Data tab, then click Data
Analysis.
5. In the Analysis Tools, select Histogram and click [OK].

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 57

 Making a Grouped Frequency Distribution

6. In the Histogram dialog box, type A1:A50 in the Input Range box and type B2:B8
in the Bin Range box.
7. Select New Worksheet Ply, and check the Cumulative Percentage option. Click
[OK].

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 58

 Constructing a Histogram

6. In the Histogram dialog box, type A1:A50 in the Input Range box and type B2:B8
in the Bin Range box.
7. Select New Worksheet Ply, and check the Chart output option. Click [OK].

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 59

 Constructing a Frequency Polygon

1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook.

2. Enter the midpoints in column A, and frequencies into
column B.
3. Press and hold the left mouse button, and drag over the
Frequencies (including the label) from column B.
4. Select the Insert tab from the toolbar and the Line Chart
option.
5. Select the 2-D line chart type.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 60
 Constructing a Frequency Polygon

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 61

 Constructing a Frequency Polygon

We will need to edit the graph so that the midpoints are on the horizontal axis.
1. Right click the mouse on any region of the
chart.
2. Choose Select Data.
3. Select Edit below the Horizontal (Category) Axis
Labels panel on the right.
4. Press and hold the left mouse button, and drag
over the midpoints (not including the label) for
the Axis label range, then click [OK].
5. Click [OK] on the Select Data Source box.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 62
 Constructing a Ogive

To create an ogive, use the upper class boundaries (horizontal axis) and cumulative frequencies
(vertical axis) from the frequency distribution.
1. Type the upper class boundaries (including a class with frequency 0
before the lowest class to anchor the graph to the horizontal axis)
and corresponding cumulative frequencies into adjacent columns of
an Excel worksheet.

2. Press and hold the left mouse button, and drag over the Cumulative
Frequencies from column B.

3. Select Line Chart, then the 2-D Line option.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 63
 Constructing a Ogive

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 64

 Construct a Pie Chart

Example 2-12
Construct a pie chart for the calls received each
shift by a local municipality for a recent year
using Excel.
Solution
1. Enter the shifts from the data into
column A of a new worksheet.
2. Enter the frequencies corresponding
to each shift in column B.
3. Highlight the data in columns A and B
and select Insert from the toolbar;
then select the Pie chart type.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 65
 Construct a Bar Chart

Example 2-12
Construct a bar chart for the calls received each
shift by a local municipality for a recent year
using Excel.
Solution
1. Highlight the data in
columns A and B and select
Insert from the toolbar;
then select the cluster
column or cluster Bar type.

Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 66