PURNEA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

PURNEA
(Affiliated To B.E.U. PATNA)

A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT ON

Power Quality Improvement Using TSC FACTS Device

Submitted to the PURNEA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PURNEA (BIHAR) towards

the partial fulfilment for the Award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
Engineering.

Session: 2020-2024
BIHAR ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY, PATNA

Submitted To:-
Prof. Manoj Kumar Rajak
(Head of Department of Electrical Engineering)

Submitted By:- Under the supervision of

Chandra Kishore Narayan Dr. Ajay Kumar
Reg. No.:- 20103131030 Assistant Professor (PCE, Purnea)

i
 DECLARATION

I am Chandra Kishore Narayan, a student of Bachelor of Technology (2020-24), hereby

declare that the work which is being presented in the report entitled the “POWER
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING TSC FACTS DEVICE”, being submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electrical Engineer. The
work has been carried out at Purnea College of engineering, purnea (Affiliated to BEU
Patna) and is an authentic record of our work carried under the supervision and guidance of
Project guide (Dr. Ajay Kumar).

………………………………….
Chandra Kishore Narayan
Reg. No.:- 20103131030
Name of Student and Signature

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled “POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING
TSC FACTS DEVICE”, submitted by Chandra Kishore Narayan in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in, Purnea College
of Engineering, Purnea. The work is comprehensive and fit for final evaluation.

Date:-

…………………………. ..…………………………..
Dr. Ajay Kumar Prof. Manoj Kumar Rajak
Name of Guide and Signature Signature of HoD E.E.

……….……………………………..
Signature of External Examiner

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all those who have contributed to the
successful completion of this project report.

First and foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my project supervisor, Assistant

professor Piyush Kumar, for their unwavering support, guidance, and valuable insights
throughout the entire project.

I would also like to thank my fellow team members, Abhinav Kumar, Ritesh Kumar
Raushan, Anish Kumar, Aditya Kumar and Vimal Kumar for their dedication, hard work
and collaborative spirit.

I am grateful to Assistant Professor Dr. Ajay Kumar for providing valuable feedback and
suggestions that have helped refine the contents of this report.

I would like to acknowledge the support and cooperation received from Purnea college of
Engineering, Purnea as well as the resources and facilities provided, which have
significantly contributed to the successful execution of this project.

Last but not least, I would like to express my deep appreciation to my family and friends for
their understanding, encouragement, and patience throughout this project journey. Their
unwavering support has been a constant source of motivation.

Each of the above individual’s contributions has played a crucial role in shaping this report
and enhancing my learning experience. I am truly grateful for their involvement and support.

I hope our work will be praised and the efforts render faithful result.

iv
 ABSTRACT

During the design of modern power systems for efficient operation and continuous power
supply to various load center one has to consider the growth in the use of power electronics
that has caused a greater awareness of power quality. Normally the power is generated by
conventional form of energy either by non-conventional form of energy. The generated
power can be transmitted by different types based on the type of transmission network
preferred. While transmitting the power, due to some power quality problems like sag or
swell will arise and there will be a drop in voltage that produces the oscillating waves that
results in low power factor which can cause equipment to fail, shut down, blown up fuses or
tripping of breakers due to large current imbalances. In earlier days to overcome this,
mechanical circuit breakers are used as solver where it is made up of relays and contractors
that compensating is not reliable.
This project aims at achieving FACTS by using TSC (Thyristor Switch Capacitor). The
FACTS device has many advantages over the mechanical switch operated capacitors in the
aspects of faster control, improved system performance and system voltage stability. The
project requires an operational amplifier that generates lag time between zero voltage pulse
and zero current pulse. This lag time is given to two interrupt pins of microcontroller of 8051
family. The programmed microcontroller then initiates shunt capacitors for compensating the
current. SCRs arranged in series interfaced with microcontroller through optical isolation are
used for switching capacitor.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO.

Acknowledgement iii

Abstract v

Table of Contents 1-3

List of Figures 4

List of Abbreviation 5

Hardware & Software Specification 6

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 7-8

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Overview

1.3 Literature Overview

1.4 Objectives

CHAPTER 2: POWER QUALITY & POWER FACTOR 09-16

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Linear and Non-linear load

2.2.1 Linear load

2.2.2 Non-linear load

2.3 Major Quality Problems

2.3.1 Short duration Voltage variation

2.3.2 Long Duration Voltage variation

2.3.3 Voltage Fluctuations

2.3.4 Waveform Distortion

2.4 Power Factor Improvement

2.4.1 Alternating current circuits

2.4.2 Capacitors for power-factor improvement
2.4.3 Location of power-factor improvement capacitor banks

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 2.5 Power Factor Correction
2.5.1 Power factor in linear circuits
2.5.2 Power factor correction of linear loads
2.5.3 Non-linear loads
2.5.4 Distortion power factor
CHAPTER 3: THYRISTOR SWITCH CAPACITOR 17-19
3.1 Reactive Power Compensation Principles
3.2 Static VAR Compensation
3.3 Thyristor-Switched Capacitors
3.4 V-I Characteristics for two TSCs and a TCR
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY 20-29
4.1 Hardware implementation
4.1.1 Transformer

4.1.2 Relay Driver ULN2003

4.1.4 Thyristor [TSR]

4.1.5 Liquid Crystal Display {LCD}

4.1.6 Inductive Load

4.2 Research Design

4.3 Hardware Testing

4.4 Power on Test

4.5 Description

4.5.1 Power Supply

4.5.2 Standard Connections to 8051 Series Micro Controller
4.5.3 Reset

4.5.4 External Access (EA)

4.6 Comparator

4.7 SCR In Anti Parallel

4.8 Operation Explanation

4.8.1 Connections
4.8.2 Working

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 4.8.3 Description of ZVS
4.9 Circuit Explanation
4.10 Power Factor Test Layout

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 30-31

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Result
5.2.1 Normal Mode
5.2.2 Compensated Mode

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 32

6.1 Conclusion

6.2 Future Scope

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES 33

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 List of Figure
Figures Page No.

1. Fig: 2.1 waveforms for inductive load--------------------------------------------------12

2. Fig: 2.2 waveforms for capacitive load-------------------------------------------------12
3. Fig: 3.1 Basic Diagram of a TCR--------------------------------------------------------17
4. Fig: 3.2 Basic Diagram of a TSC-------------------------------------------------------- 18
5. Fig: 3.3 V-I Characteristics---------------------------------------------------------------19
6. Fig: 4.1 Transformers----------------------------------------------------------------------20
7. Fig: 4.2 Microcontroller AT89S52-------------------------------------------------------21
8. Fig: 4.3 Thyristor--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
9. Fig: 4.4 Crystal Display--------------------------------------------------------------------22
10. Fig: 4.5 Inductive Load------------------------------------------------------------------- -22
11. Fig: 4.6 Block Diagram------------------------------------------------------------------ --24
12. Fig: 4.7 Schematic Diagram----------------------------------------------------------- ---25
13. Fig: 4.8 Comparator--------------------------------------------------------------------- --27
14. Fig: 5.1 Power factor in normal mode--------------------------------------------------30
15. Fig: 5.2 Power factor in compensated mode-------------------------------------------31

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 List of Abbreviation

1. A.C. :- Alternating Current

2. D.C. :- Direct Current
3. FACTS :- Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
4. SVC :- Static VAR Compensator
5. VAR :- Volt-Amp Reactive
6. PCC :- Point Of Common Coupling
7. PQ :- Power Quality
8. PLC :- Programmable Logic Controller
9. BJT :- Bipolar Junction Transistor
10. MOSFET :- Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
11. HVDC :- High Voltage Direct Current
12. RMS :- Root Mean Square
13. THD :- Total Harmonic Distortion
14. DPF :- Displacement Power Factor
15. PFC :- Power Factor Correction
16. PF :- Power Factor
17. TCR :- Thyristor Controlled Reactor
18. TSC :- Thyristor Switched Capacitor
19. LCD :- Liquid Crystal Display
20. TSR :- Thyristor Switched Reactor
21. EA :- External Access
22. Op-Amp :- Operational Amplifier
23. TRIAC :- Triode For Alternating Current
24. ZVP :- Zero crossing Voltage Pulses
25. ZVC :- Zero Crossing Current Pulses
26. CT :- Current Transformer
27. SCR :- Silicon Controlled Rectifier
28. ZVS :- Zero Voltage Switching

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 Hardware Specifications
 Op-amps
 LCD
 8051 series Microcontroller
 Opto-Isolator
 Shunt Capacitors
 SCR
 Slide Switches
 Current Transformer
 Choke
 Resistors
 Diodes
 Lamp
 Regulator
 Transformer

Software Specifications
 Keil Compiler
 MC Programming Language: C

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 Chapter 1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Presently, in order to compete in today's markets, products have to be energy
efficient, cost effective and to have low maintenance costs. Thus, the rate of technologies
today employing advanced power electronics is increasing rapidly to meet their aims.
However, the increase of these products constitutes some power quality problems due to
electrical noise generation.
Recently, voltage stability and voltage regulation have received widespread attention
because power systems are interconnected to supply loads of large and distant regions.
Different types of flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) controllers in AC systems can
be used for compensation, voltage control, voltage regulation, voltage stability, controlling
the phase angle, varying the line impedance, reactive power control, steady state stability,
damping system oscillations, and controlling power flow in the transmission line [3]. The
reactive power requirements increase with the increase in line length. AC lines require shunt
and series compensation in long distance transmission mainly to overcome the problems of
line charging and stability limitations. The shunt type of FACTS Controllers is used to either
absorb or inject reactive power into the system and provides reactive power compensation.
Shunt reactors and shunt capacitors are, extensively used for this purpose [2]. With the help
of power electronics the power transmission network can be utilized more effectively. Static
VAR Compensators is a shunt type of FACTS device which behaves like a shunt-connected
variable reactance, which either generates or absorbs reactive power in order to regulate the
PCC voltage magnitude. SVC is based on thyristors without the gate turn-off capability and
includes separate equipment for leading and lagging VARs the thyristor-controlled or
thyristor switched reactor for absorbing the reactive power and thyristor-switched capacitor
for supplying the reactive power by synchronous switching of capacitor banks.

1.2 Overview
In today's world there is great importance of electrical energy as it is the most
famous from of energy and all are massively relying on it. Without supply of electricity life
cannot be imagined. At the same time the quality and continuousness of the electric power
supplied is also very important for the efficient functioning of the end user equipment, many
of the commercial and industrial loads require high quality undisturbed and constant power.
Thus, maintaining the qualitative power is topmost important in today's world. Due to power
electronic devices, there is serious effect on quality and continuousness of electric supply.
Because of power electronics devices there is uninterrupted power supply, flicker, harmonies,
voltage fluctuations etc. There is also PQ problems such as voltage rise/dip due to network
faults, lightning, switching of capacitor banks. With the excessive uses of non-linear load
(computer, lasers, printers, rectifiers) there is reactive power disturbances and harmonics in
power distribution system. It is very essential to overcome this type of problems as its effect
may increase in future and cause adverse effect.
Shunt capacitive compensation - This method is used improve the power factor.
Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags because

7
of lagging load current. To compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current
leading the source voltage. The net result is improvement in power factor. The time lag
between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly generated by suitable operational
amplifier circuits in comparator mode are fed to two interrupt pins of the microcontroller
where the program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly interfaced
to back to back SCR at its output for bringing shunt capacitors into the load circuit to get the
power factor till it reaches 0.95. The microcontroller used in the project is of 8051 family
which is of 8 bit. The power supply consists of a step down transformer 230/12V, which steps
down the voltage to 12V AC. This is converted to DC using a Bridge rectifier. The ripples are
removed using a capacitive filter and it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 780
which is required for the operation of the microcontroller and other components.

1.3 Literature Review

Now a day's power quality has become the most essential factor for both power
suppliers and consumers due to the degradation of the electric power energy market.
Efforts are being made to improve power quality. Today in this modern world power
quality has become a great issue. As many industries and for domestics use, we need a
voltage and current free from all types of harmonics and unbalances. Due to problems
in power quality, there is development of many methods to improve power quality by
using active power filters

Nowadays the power system has become very complex consisting of several power plants,
transmission system distribution system and loads of different types. We can achieve
operational and economic efficiency of such a system by using flexible ac transmission. A
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is a system composed of static equipment used
for the ac transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to change controllability and increase
power transfer capability of the network. It is normally a system which is based on power
electronics. Increase in power production and its transmission and distribution as reflected
itself in a higher level of complexity.

1.4 Objective
Objectives of facts controllers

The main objectives of FACTS controllers are described as follows:-

 Damping of oscillations that threaten the security or limit the usable power capacity.
 Reduces the line voltage drops and the transmission power angle.
 To mitigate sub synchronous resonance and improve system stability
 To minimize short circuit currents and to limit load- dependent voltage drops.
 Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to the emergency control.
 Regulation of electric power flows in well-defined transmission routes.
 To improve terminal performance of connected HVDC Converter.
 To improve the power factor of transmission line.

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 Chapter 2.

POWER QUALITY AND POWER FACTOR

2.1 Introduction

In our day-to-day life, and in many industries, there is a huge use of power electronic devices,
Programmable logic circuits (PLC), semiconductor devices, and adjustable speed drives due
to this there are power quality problems. There are also many external and internal factors
that affect the quantity and quality of power delivered. Many network faults, switching of
capacitor banks, voltage sag/swell, lightning, and harmonics also cause power quality
problems. Mainly loads work at 50 Hz and 60 Hz frequencies. But there are many loads
which work at integer multiple of 50 Hz and 60 Hz frequencies. Because of these loads there
is harmonics in power system.

2.2 Linear and Non-linear loads

2.2.1 Linear load

The loads which have current and voltage waveform sinusoidal are linear
loads. The current at any time is proportional to voltage. Linear load only changes relative
timing (phases) between current and voltage there is no change in shape of current waveform.
According to Ohm's law
V(t)
I(t) = ----- (2.1)
R

According to this law if waveform of voltage is sinusoidal then the waveform of current will
also be sinusoidal.
Linear loads are capacitor and inductor. If capacitor is in load-side then the current will lead
voltage. If inductor is in load-side then voltage will lead. So, waveforms in both cases will be
out of phase.

2.2.2 Non-Linear loads

In non-linear loads, the shape of current waveform changes its shape from
original shape. Non- linear loads produce harmonies with original fundamental component of
AC current. Non-linear loads examples are power electronics devices like BJT, MOSFET.

Power Quality
2.3 Major power quality problems
 Short duration voltage variation
 Long- Duration voltage variation
 Voltage Fluctuations

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2.3.1 Short duration voltage variation

Due to the fault, there is voltage rise (swells), voltage dip (sag), or complete loss of voltages
(interruptions) which are temporary for certain interval of time depending upon the type of
fault occurred and location of fault. The duration is around 1 min for short voltage variation.
Also, if duration of fault is for few milliseconds, then it is short duration voltage variation.

 Voltage sag: - Voltage sag is also called voltage dip. The R.M.S. line voltage
decreases to 10% to 90% of nominal line voltage. The time interval for voltage dip is
about 0.5 cycles to 1 min. The equipment which causes voltage dip is induction motor
starting etc [1].
 Voltage swell: - Voltage swell is also called voltage rise. The rms line voltage
increases from 1.1% to 1.8% of nominal line voltage. The duration for voltage rise is
around 0.5 cycles to 1 min. The voltage swell is caused due to energizing the large
capacitor bank and shutting down the large loads [1].
 Interruption: - Interruption is degradation in current or line voltage up to 0.1 Pu of
the nominal value. It is for the time period of 60 seconds and not going beyond it. The
cause of interruption is failures in equipment, faults in power systems, control
malfunctions.

2.3.2. Long- Duration voltage variation

The long duration voltage variations are caused because of sustained interruptions, under
voltages and over voltages.
 Sustained interruption: - When there is zero supply voltage for an interval of time
more than 60 sec, it is considered as sustained interruption in case of long duration
voltage variation.
 Under voltages: - It is the reduction in rms ac voltage to lower than 90% at power
frequency for a time interval 60 sec or may be greater than it. The switching off of
capacitor banks and switching on of loads cause under voltage as far as voltage
regulation device on the system bring back the voltage to the given tolerance limits.
The under voltage is also caused due circuits which are overloaded.
 Over voltages: - It is the rise in rms ac voltage to more than 110% at power
frequency for a time interval of more than 60 sec. Over voltages are caused due to the
wrong tap settings of transformers and switching of loads.

2.3.3 Voltage Fluctuations

Fluctuations in voltage are irregular or repeated variations in magnitude of source voltage due
to sudden change in real and reactive power drawn by the load. The characteristics of voltage
fluctuation depend upon type of loads.
10% of nominal supply voltages. The Lamp flicker is the effect of voltage fluctuations. Loads
that cause fluctuations in voltages are furnaces, arc welders, air conditioner units, rolling
mills, cycloconverter C, and equipment with excessive. Motor speed changes.

10
2.3.4 Waveform Distortion

A power system network tries to generate a sinusoidal voltage and current waveform but due
to certain problem it is not able to generate the sinusoidal nature waveform and distortions
occurs.
There are many causes of waveform distortion:-

(i) DC Offset: - A DC offset is a presence of DC voltage or current in an AC power

system. Due to DC offset the signal shifts from its actual reference position.

(ii) Noise: - In signal processing, noise is a general term for unwanted (and, in general,
unknown) modifications that a signal may suffer during capture, storage,
transmission, processing, or conversion. Sometimes the word is also used to mean
signals that are random (unpredictable) and carry no useful information; even if they
are not interfering with other signals or may have been introduced intentionally, as in
comfort noise. Noise reduction, the recovery of the original signal from the noise-
corrupted one, is a very common goal in the design of signal processing systems,
especially filters.

(iii) Notching: - Notching is voltage disturbances caused periodically due to transfer of

current from one phase to another when power electronics equipment is commutated.

(iv) Harmonics: - The harmonies are sinusoidal currents and voltages which operate at
frequencies that are integer multiple of fundamental frequency. The 50 Hz and 60 Hz
are fundamental frequency. The harmonics are caused due to non-linear loads.

Power Factor
Power Factor is a measure of how effectively incoming power is used in your electrical
system (energy efficiency) and is defined as the ratio of Real (working) power to Apparent
(total) power. Real Power (kW) is the power that actually powers the equipment and
performs useful, productive work.

2.4 Power Factor Improvement

2.4.1 Alternating current circuits

Unlike Director Current Circuits, where only resistance restricts the current flow, in
Alternating Current Circuits, there are other circuits aspects which determines the current
flow; though these are akin to resistance, they do not consume power, but loads the system with
reactive currents; like D.C. circuits where the current multiplied by voltage gives watts, here
the same gives only VA.

Like resistance, these are called “Reactance”. Reactance is caused by either inductance or by
capacitance. The current drawn by inductance lags the voltage while the one by capacitance
leads the voltage. Almost all industrial loads are inductive in nature and hence draw lagging

11
wattles current, which unnecessarily load the system, performing no work. Since the
capacitive currents is leading in nature, loading the system with capacitors wipes out them.

Fig: 2.1 waveforms for inductive load

Fig: 2.2 waveforms for capacitive load

2.4.2 Capacitors for power-factor improvement
Whatever the power factor is, however, the generating authority must install machines
capable of delivering a particular voltage and current even though, in a particular case, not all
the voltage and current products is being put to good use. The generators must be able to
withstand the rated voltage and current regardless of the power delivered. For example, if an
alternator is rated to deliver 1000A at 11000 volts, the machine coils must be capable of
carrying rated current. The apparent power of such a machine is 11 MVA and if the load
power factor is unit this 11 MVA will be delivered and used as 11 MW of active power i.e.
the alternator is being used to the best of its ability. If, however, the load power factor is say,
0.8 lagging, then only 8.8 MW are taken and provide revenue, even though the generator still
has to be rated at 1000A at 11 kV. The lower the power factor, the worse the situation
becomes from the supply authorities’ viewpoint. Accordingly, consumers are encouraged to
improve their load power factor and in many cases are penalized if they do not. Improving
the power factor means reducing the angle of lag between supply voltage and supply current.

2.4.3 Location of power-factor improvement capacitor banks

Any installation including the following types of machinery or equipment is likely to have
low power factor which can be corrected, with a consequent saving in charges, by way of
reduced demand charges, lesser low power factor penalties.
1. Induction motors of all types (which from by far the greatest industrial load on a. c.
mains).
2. Power thyristor installation (for D.C. motor control and electro-chemical processes).
3. Power transformers and voltage regulators.
4. Welding machines

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 5. Electric-arc and induction furnaces.
6. Choke coils and magnetic system.
7. Neon signs and fluorescent lighting.
Apart from penalties like maximum demand charges, penalty for low power factor, the
factory cabling and supply equipment can be relieved of a considerable wattles or reactive
load, which will enable additional machinery to be connected to the supply without enlarging
these services. Additionally, the voltage drop in the system is reduced.
The method employed to achieve the improvements outlined involves introducing reactive
kVA (kvar) into the system in phase opposition to the wattles or reactive current mentioned
above the effectively cancels its effect in the system. This is achieved either with rotary
machines (synchronous condensers)

2.5 Power Factor Correction

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power
flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number
between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is
the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the
product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned
to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn
from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load
with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other
equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities
will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low
power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of
the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built
into power-consuming equipment.

2.5.1 Power factor in linear circuits

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase),
changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the loads is
consumed. Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy
storage in the loads result in a time difference between the current and voltage waveforms.
During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the
load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields, and then returned to the
power grid a fraction of a second later in the cycle. The "ebb and flow" of this nonproductive
power increases the current in the line. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will use higher

13
currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. A
linear load does not change the shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the
relative timing (phase) between voltage and current.

Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, strip heaters, cooking
stoves, etc.) have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements
(electric motors, solenoid valves, lamp ballasts, and others) often have a power factor below
1.0.

2.5.1.1 Definition and calculation

AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active power) (P),
measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive
power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes
The power factor is defined as:
In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that
form a vector triangle such that:
If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the
cosine of the angle, and: Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a
dimensionless number between 0 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is
entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the
power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power
factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle. If a
purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity
in step, the power factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single direction
across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors (any type
of wound coil) consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage.
Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power with current
phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle,
which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the
source during the rest of the cycle.
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent
power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more
apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power
at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 = 5 kVA).
This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in the conventional
fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission
processes. Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and
reactive power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The
presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so,
the electric load has a power factor of less than 1.

2.5.2 Power factor correction of linear loads

It is often desirable to adjust the power factor of a system to near 1.0. This power factor
correction (PFC) is achieved by switching in or out banks of inductors or capacitors. For

14
example the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors.
When reactive elements supply or absorb reactive power near the load, the apparent power is
reduced.
Power factor correction may be applied by an electrical power transmission utility to improve
the stability and efficiency of the transmission network. Correction equipment may be
installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their
electricity supplier. A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to
reduce transmission losses and improve voltage regulation at the load.
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by
supplying reactive power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors which act to cancel
the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect
of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. If a load had a capacitive value,
inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are connected to correct the power factor. In
the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said
to supply it, even though the reactive power is actually just moving back and forth on each
AC cycle. The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when
switched on or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a
corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses. In a worst case,
reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant
conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations. As such,
reactive elements cannot simply be applied at will, and power factor correction is normally
subject to engineering analysis. An automatic power factor correction unit is used to improve
power factor. A power factor correction unit usually consists of a number of capacitors that
are switched by means of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that
measures power factor in an electrical network. To be able to measure power factor, the
regulator uses a current transformer to measure the current in one phase.
Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will
switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a
selected value (usually demanded by the energy supplier); say 0.9.Instead of using a set of
switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive
power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. This is referred to
as a synchronous condenser. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates
at a leading power factor and puts VARS onto the network as required to support a system’s
voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The condenser’s
installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the
ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically
variable capacitor. Unlike capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional
to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks.
Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high voltage direct current
transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.

2.5.3 Non-linear loads

A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply),
or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine, or

15
arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current
contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion
power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases
the average power transferred to the load.

Non-sinusoidal components
Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other
form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental
frequency) AC current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent
harmonic currents from entering the supplying system.

In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power
factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is
"displacement power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true
power factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of
importance in practical power systems which contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some
forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power
supplies and other devices.

A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current
drawn by a non-sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified
waveform. The average response is then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS
sensing multimeter must be used to measure the actual RMS currents and voltages (and
therefore apparent power). To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter
designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.

2.5.4 Distortion power factor

The distortion power factor' describes how the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases
the average power transferred to the load.

1 𝐼
Distortion Power Factor = = 𝐼1,rms
√1+𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑖2 2,rms

THDi is the total harmonic distortion of the load current. This definition assumes that the
voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics). This simplification is often a good
approximation in practice. I1, rms is the fundamental component of the current and Irms is
the total current - both are root mean square-values.
The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true
power factor or just power factor (PF).

16
 Chapter 3.

THYRISTOR SWITCH CAPACITOR

3.1 Reactive Power Compensation Principles
Series connection or parallel (shunt) connection are the two ways of the implementation of
the reactive power compensation. Series connected systems are used to filter voltage
harmonics, voltage regulation and harmonic isolation. Whereas parallel connected systems
are generally used for reactive power compensation and to filter current harmonics.

3.2 Static VAR Compensation

In this paper the Static Var Compensator (SVC) (This is nothing but thyristor-controlled
reactor or thyristor-switched capacitor or combination of both) is used as FACTS device. To
provide variable reactive power compensation both during the leading and lagging power
factor conditions the thyristor-controlled static var compensators are used. The output of SVC
which is shunt connected static var generator or absorber is adjusted to exchange capacitive
or inductive current so as to control the various parameters of the electrical power system.
SVC includes separate equipment for leading and lagging var and is based on thyristor
without the gate turn-off capability; the thyristor-switched capacitor for supplying the
reactive power by synchronous switching of capacitor banks and thyristor-controlled or
thyristor switched reactor for absorbing the reactive power. In most cases, a combination of
both will be the best solution. Effective reactance of TCR is varied in a continuous manner by
partial-conduction control of the thyristor valve. In TCR conduction time and current in a
shunt reactor is controlled by a thyristor-based ac switch with firing angle control.

Fig: 3.1 Basic Diagram of a TCR

17
3.3 Thyristor-Switched Capacitors
The thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) type of static compensation is shown in Fig 1. By
using bidirectional thyristor switches the shunt-capacitor bank is split up into small steps, it
can be made switched in and out individually. Fig 2 shows the single-phase branch, consists
of capacitor C and the thyristor switch TY and a minor component, the reactor L, which is
used to limit the rate of rise of the current through the thyristor and to prevent resonance with
the network. The capacitor is switched out through the suppression of the gate trigger pulses
of the thyristor.

Fig: 3.2 Basic Diagram of a TSC

The capacitor in the stand-by state loses its voltage as it is provided by the resistance R and it
is immediately get ready for a new connection, even if it has not been completely discharged.

Static compensators of the TSC type are characterized by having the following properties:

 Stepwise control.
 Very low inrush transients.
 Average delay of one half-cycle (maximum one cycle) in the execution of a command
from the regulator, as seen for a single phase.
 No generation of harmonics.
 Low losses at low-compensator reactive-power output.

18
3.4 V-I Characteristics for two TSCs and a TCR

Fig: 3.3 V-I Characteristics

The V-I operating area of the TSC-TCR is defined by the maximum attainable capacitive and
inductive admittances and by the voltage and current ratings of the major power components

19
 Chapter 4.

METHODOLOGY
4.1 Hardware implementation
This step involves material and component selection, hardware installation, and prototyping
design. This project consists of using several electronic components. The main components
used are Relay, Relay DriverULN2003, Transformer, Microcontroller At89S52, Thyristor,
LCD, Inductive Load, etc.

4.1.1 Transformer

The transformer is an electric device which transfers energy by inductive coupling between
its windings. The transformer gives output of 12V, 12V and 0V. This transformer acts as a
step-down transformer. The transformer core is made with the high permeability silicon steel.

Fig: 4.1 Transformers

4.1.2 Relay Driver ULN2003

The ULN2001A, ULN2002A, ULN2003 and ULN2004A are high voltage, high current
Darlington arrays each containing seven open collector Darlington pairs with common
emitters. Each channel rated at 500mAand can withstand peak currents of
600mA.Suppressiondiodesare included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned
opposite the outputs to simplify board layout.

20
 Fig: 4.2 Microcontroller AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes

of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard 80C51
instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in- system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.

4.1.4 Thyristor [TSR]

A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state

device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General
Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power
engineers led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.

Fig: 4.3 Thyristor

4.1.5 Liquid Crystal Display {LCD}

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus.
The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus.
If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the

21
4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data
lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).

Fig: 4.4 Crystal Display

4.1.6 Inductive Load

A load that is predominantly inductive, so that the alternating load current lags behind the
alternating voltage of the load. Also known as lagging load. Any devices that have coils of
wire in there manufacture can be classed as inductive loads. E.g. motors, solenoids and
contactor coils are a few. Example of resistive loads can be baseboard heaters, filament light
bulbs, toasters and stove top elements.

Fig: 4.5 Inductive Load

4.2 Research Design

Provide an overview of Reduction of losses in transmission line and the need for advanced
monitoring and control systems. The next path that unravels is firstly the method to be

22
adopted the system to reduce the losses at its maximum level which further. The project
called “FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION USING TSR’’.

Culminating towards making the said project in its utilization several components have been
unleashed, some of which are mentioned below,

1. Relay
2. Relay Driver
3. ULN2003
4. Transformer
5. Microcontroller At89S52
6. Thyristor
7. LCD
8. Inductive Load

The project requires an operational amplifier that generates lead time between zero voltage
pulse and zero current pulse. This lead time is given to two interrupt pins of microcontroller
of 8051 families. The programmed microcontroller then initiates shunt reactors for
compensating the voltage. SCRs arranged in series interfaced with microcontroller through
optical isolation are used for switching reactor.

4.3 Hardware Testing

In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged
components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".

Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally
with a simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.

An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends
belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the
"right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.

This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong
and rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep
the multimeter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the
ground. We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is
continuation, then you will hear the beep sound.

23
4.4 Power on Test
This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to the
requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test
is performed without microcontroller. Firstly, we check the output of the transformer,
whether we get the required 12 v AC voltage.

Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the
controller.

Fig: 4.6 Block Diagram

Advantages:-

• FACTS increase the reliability of AC grids.

• They reduce power delivery costs.
• They supply inductive or reactive power to the grid and improve transmission quality
and efficiency of power transmission.
• There is fast voltage regulation.

Applications:-

• Grid integration of renewable power.

• Implementation of HVDC converter terminal performance.
• Load compensation.

24
 • Alleviation of voltage instability.
• Limit short circuit current.
• Mitigation of sub synchronous resonance.
• Improvement of system transient stability limit.

Pitfalls:-

• Complexity and Cost

• High Initial Investment
• Limited Voltage Control Range
• Maintenance and Reliability

Fig: 4.7 Schematic Diagram

4.5 Description

4.5.1 Power Supply

The circuit uses standard power supply comprising of a step-down transformer from 230Vto
12V and 4 diodes forming a bridge rectifier that delivers pulsating dc which is then filtered
by an electrolytic capacitor of about 470µF to 1000µF. The filtered dc being unregulated, IC
LM7805 is used to get 5V DC constant at its pin no 3 irrespective of input DC varying from
7V to 15V. The input dc shall be varying in the event of input ac at 230volts section varies
from 160V to 270V in the ratio of the transformer primary voltage V1 to secondary voltage

25
V2 governed by the formula V1/V2=N1/N2. As N1/N2 i.e. no. of turns in the primary to the
no. of turns in the secondary remains unchanged V2 is directly proportional to V1.Thus if the
transformer delivers 12V at 220V input it will give 8.72V at 160V.Similarly at 270V it will
give 14.72V.Thus the dc voltage at the input of the regulator changes from about 8V to 15V
because of A.C voltage variation from 160V to 270V the regulator output will remain
constant at 5V.

The regulated 5V DC is further filtered by a small electrolytic capacitor of 10µF for any
noise so generated by the circuit. One LED is connected of this 5V point in series with a
current limiting resistor of 330Ω to the ground i.e., negative voltage to indicate 5V power
supply availability. The unregulated 12V point is used for other applications as and when
required.

4.5.2 Standard Connections to 8051 Series Micro Controller

ATMEL series of 8051 family of micro controllers need certain standard connections. The
actual number of the Microcontroller could be “89C51” , “89C52”, “89S51”, “89S52”, and
as regards to 20 pin configuration a number of “89C2051”. The 4 set of I/O ports are used
based on the project requirement. Every microcontroller requires a timing reference for its
internal program execution therefore an oscillator needs to be functional with a desired
frequency to obtain the timing reference as t =1/f.

A crystal ranging from 2 to 20 MHz is required to be used at its pin number 18 and
19 for the internal oscillator. It may be noted here the crystal is not to be understood as
crystal oscillator it is just a crystal, while connected to the appropriate pin of the
microcontroller it results in oscillator function inside the microcontroller. Typically 11.0592
MHz crystal is used in general for most of the circuits using 8051 series microcontroller.
Two small value ceramic capacitors of 33pF each is used as a standard connection for the
crystal as shown in the circuit diagram.

4.5.3 Reset

Pin no 9 is provided with a re-set arrangement by a combination of an electrolytic capacitor

and a register forming RC time constant. At the time of switch on, the capacitor gets charged,
and it behaves as a full short circuit from the positive to the pin number 9.After the capacitor
gets fully charged the current stops flowing and pin number 9 goes low which is pulled down
by a 10k resistor to the ground. This arrangement of reset at pin 9 going high initially and
then to logic 0 i.e., low helps the program execution to start from the beginning. In absence of
this the program execution could have taken place arbitrary where from the program cycle. A
pushbutton switch is connected across the capacitor so that at any given time as desired it can
be pressed such that it discharges the capacitor and while released the capacitor starts
charging again and then pin number 9 goes to high and then back to low, to enable the
program execution from the beginning. This operation of high to low of the reset pin takes
place in fraction of a second as decided by the time constant R and C.

For example: A 10µF capacitor and a 10kΩ resistor would render a 100ms time to pin
number 9 from logic high to low, there after the pin number 9 remains low.
26
4.5.4 External Access (EA)

Pin no 31 of 40 pin 8051 microcontroller termed as EA¯ is required to be connected to 5V for

accessing the program form the on-chip program memory. If it is connected to ground then
the controller accesses the program from external memory. However as we are using the
internal memory it is always connected to +5V.

4.6 Comparator
How an op-amp can be used as a comparator?
Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non-inverting inputs of the op-
amp to give some voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage is given to +Vss and –Vss is
connected to ground. The output of this comparator will be logic high (i.e., supply voltage) if
the non-inverting terminal input is greater than the inverting terminal input of the comparator.

i.e., Non inverting input (+) > inverting input (-) = output is logic high

If the inverting terminal input is greater than the non-inverting terminal input then the
output of the comparator will be logic low (i.e., gnd)

i.e., inverting input (-) > Non inverting input (+) = output is logic low

Fig: 4.8 Comparator

4.7 SCR In Anti Parallel

During the positive half cycle of main current, the current flows from phase to the load
through SCR. During negative half cycle flows from load side to the phase during this time
another SCR comes into picture.

Two SCR’S are connected back to back and are triggered from Opto-isolatorsU9 and
U10. MOC3063 Opto-isolator is a LED-TRIAC combination. Two Opto-isolator input leds

27
are connected in series while their output diac are used for triggering each SCR. One inductor
/choke in series with a bulb of 100W is connected in series with a pair of SCRs U11 and U12
connected in anti parallel .R28 and C7 are used as a snubber network across the SCRs for
inductive nature of load.

4.8 Operation Explanation

4.8.1 Connections
The output of power supply which is 5v is connected to the 40th pin of microcontroller and
gnd to the 20th pin or pin 20 of microcontroller. Port 0.0 of microcontroller is connected to
Pin 2 of Opto-isolator U10. Port 0.5 to 0.7 of microcontroller is connected to Pin 4, 5 and 6 of
LCD display. Port 2.0 to 2.7 of microcontroller is connected to Pin 7 to 14 of data pins of
LCD display. Port 3.1 of microcontroller is connected to output of the OP-Amp (A) LM339.
Port 3.3 of microcontroller is connected to output of OP-Amp (B) LM339.

4.8.2 Working

The output of the regulator 7805 is given to the Microcontroller 40th pin. The
pulsating dc is fed to R11 and R24 Resistor’s. The unregulated voltage is fed to 7812. 7805
output which is 5v is fed to 40th pin of Microcontroller. The output of the 7812 regulator is
12v and is fed to op-Amp. In this circuit we have another bridge rectifier it gives an output as
pulsating dc corresponding to the current flowing across the load. The LCD display is
connected to corresponding pins. Relay driver drive’s relay’s and the contacts of relays
switch ON the shunt capacitors.

4.8.3 Description of ZVS

In order to generate ZVP (Zero crossing Voltage Pulses) first we need to step down the
supply voltage to 12 V and then it is converted into pulsating D.C. Then with the help of
potential divider the voltage of 3 V is taken, which is given to a comparator. The comparator
generates the zero crossing pulses by comparing this pulsating D.C with a constant D.C
voltage of 0.6 V which is taken across a diode.

Similarly for ZVC (Zero crossing Current Pulses) the voltage drop proportional to the load
current across a resistor is taken and is stepped up to generate ZVC same as above. The zero
crossing pulses from a pulsating D.C are shown in the figure.

4.9 Circuit Explanation

This circuit consists of DC power supply unit, zero voltage crossing detectors, Micro-
controller, LCD display, Opto-isolator, SCR and Capacitor. Let us see how it operates. The
required DC power supply for Micro-controller and other peripherals is supplied by the DC
power supply.

For the calculation of the power factor by the Micro-controller we need digitized voltage and
current signals. The voltage signal from the mains is taken and it is converted into pulsating
DC by bridge rectifier and is given to a comparator which generates the digital voltage signal.

28
Similarly the current signal is converted into the voltage signal by taking the voltage drop of
the load current across a resistor of 10 ohms. This A.C signal is again converted into the
digital signal as done for the voltage signal. Then these digitized voltage and current signals
are sent to the micro-controller. The micro-controller calculates the time difference between
the zero crossing points of current and voltage, which is directly proportional to the power
factor and it, determines the range in which the power factor is. Micro-controller sends
information regarding time difference between current and voltage and power factor to the
LCD display to display them, Depending on the range it sends the signals to the Opto-
isolators that in turn switch ON back to back connected SCRs (power switches) to bring the
capacitors in shunt across the load. Thus, the required numbers of capacitors are connected in
parallel to the load as required. By this the power factor will be improved.

4.10 Power Factor Test Layout

An arrangement with supply source 230V, one lamp, 2 numbers low value resistors of
10R/10W for measuring current ,a choke are all connected in series. Capacitors are
connected in parallel while SCR switches are used to switch the inductor to improve voltage.
A CT is used the primary side of which is connected to the common point of the resistors.
The other point of the CT goes to the one of the common point of supply. The CT connects
across left 10R/10W and the voltage drop proportional to the current is sensed by it to
develop increased voltage at its primary. This voltage is given to the current sensing circuit.
While no inductor are switched the voltage drop across both 10R/10W are same. This voltage
drop is proportional to leading current. Thus the primary voltage from the CT provides
leading current reference to the current sensing circuit. The microcontroller based control
circuit thus receives zero current reference and compares with the zero voltage reference for
calculating the time difference. Microcontroller output develops logic high for appropriate
no. of port pins to feed to Opto-couplers to help switching SCRs for inductor come in parallel
to the inductive load that is the capacitor. So depending on the time difference required no. of
SCR switches are switched, there by switching inductor till the voltage is corrected .

29
 Chapter 5.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction
The designed circuit shows the overall effect of the whole system due to use of FACTS
devices installed locally. Control Strategies can be developed by designing the pattern and
timing of the control input signal of the dynamic FACTS model, as well as where the FACTS
device should be located in the transmission system. The Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is
a shunt device of the Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) family using power
electronics to control power flow and improve transient stability on power grids The SVC
regulates voltage at its terminals by controlling the amount of reactive power injected into or
absorbed from the power system. When system voltage is low, the SVC generates reactive
power (SVC capacitive). When system voltage is high, it absorbs reactive power (SVC
inductive). The variation of reactive power is performed by switching three-phase capacitor
banks and inductor banks connected on the secondary side of a coupling transformer. Each
capacitor bank is switched on and off by three Thyristor switches (Thyristor Switched
Capacitor or TSC) Thyristor-controlled static compensators are act as a good reactive power
absorber as well as generator. Static compensator normally connected through a transformer
and can be used with any system voltage. Thyristor- controlled static compensators can be
utilized for different applications such as, voltage control and regulation, voltage balancing
and stability improvement. It will be more useful to implement it in power systems,
industries, and distribution and transmission systems.

5.2 Result
5.2.1 Normal Mode
In normal mode or without compensated mode, Inductive load is connected through the line
there is a voltage drop. And due to this voltage drop there is low power factor at load end,
which leads to lower power transfer capabilities from sending end to receiving end (load) and
Due to this there are poor power qualities in system.
 In this mode we have recorded 0.65 p.f.

Fig: 5.1 Power factor in normal mode

30
5.2.2 Compensated Mode

In compensated mode, capacitor is connected in series with bidirectional thyristor valve

which is used to inject reactive power (Q) in the line which improve the voltage at receiving
end and this leads to better power transfer capabilities from sending end to receiving end
(load) and due to this there are improvement in power qualities in the system.
 In this mode we have recorded 0.75 to 0.77 p.f.

Fig: 5.2 Power factor in compensated mode

Power Factor Table:-

S. No. Load Firing Angle Power

Factor
1. Normal Mode Minimum 0.65
(without compensated mode)
2. Compensated Mode Maximum 0.77

 Here we have improved the Power Factor (P.F.) by 0.12.

31
 Chapter 6.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 Conclusion:-
In Transmission system frequent load variation is occurred which cause voltage variation at
the load-side and sensitive electronics equipment may be damaged. In this paper the
importance of reactive power control in transmission line has been studied. Thyristor
controlled static compensators can be used for different applications such as, voltage control,
voltage balancing and stability improvement. It will be more beneficial to implement it in
industries, distribution and transmission systems. In an uncompensated power system the
supply voltage decreases with an increase of load. Due to the rise of reactive power demand
the power factor decreases with the load. Hence by TSC-TCR which had been attuned to the
arising load, a successful compensation was reached with a power factor near to unity.

 Future system can be expected to run at higher stress level.

 FACTS could provide means to control and alleviate stress.
 Reliability of existing systems minimizes risk but not risk free.
 Interaction between facts devices need to be studied.
 More demonstration needed.
 R&D needed on avoiding security problems.
 Energy storage can significantly enhance facts controller performance.

6.2 Future Scope:-

 Large scale grid integration of renewable energy sources.

 Implementation of small grids.
 To provide reliable quality power at minimum cost.
 It will be more cost efficient to investigate the performance of combination of UPFC
and FACTS using TSR in large network.

32
 Chapter 7.

REFERENCES
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[2] Singh, Abinash, and Balwinder Singh Surjan. "Power Quality Improvement Using
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[3] Selvakumaran, S., and S. M. Kalidasan. "Power quality improvement in transmission

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[5] Divya, S., and U. Shyamala. "Power quality improvement in transmission systems
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