PLAIN SIDE RULED SIDE

Experiment No 1

Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex lens by no parallax method

Apparatus required: (a) A lens holder (b) A convex lens (c) Two optical pins (d) An
optical bench

Theory: For an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin convex lens of
focal length f , a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at a distance
Observations and observation table:
v from the optical centre. The relation between these distances is:
(i) L.C. of the optical bench = ---------- cm 1 1 1
(i) Rough Focal length of lens ( By distance focusing = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
method)= -------- cm( one dp)
According to the new cartesian sign convention u is negative but v is positive. Therefore the
(ii)
equation takes the following form for magnitudes of u and v.
S.No Position of Position of p=uv ( q = u+v f 1 1 1
2 𝑢𝑣 = +
object from image from in cm ) ( in cm) = 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
𝑢+𝑣
lens (u) in lens (v) in 𝑢𝑣
cm. cm.
( in Or f=
cm) 𝑢+𝑣
When an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of a thin convex lens at a distance equal to 2f, a
1
real and inverted image of same size as that of the object is formed at a distance equal to 2f
2 on the other side of the lens If the object’s position lies in between distance 2f and distance f
3 from the optical centre of the lens then a real, inverted and magnified image is formed at a
4 point beyond 2f from the optical centre on the other side of the lens. Thus, by measuring the
5 distances u and v, the focal length of the convex lens can be determined using Equation
6 mentioned above.
Result:
Calculations: 1. The mean focal length of the given convex lens is ____________cm.
∆𝑝 2. The slope of graph of P vs q is :______________ ( unit)
(i) From graph, slope of graph = S =∆𝑞, (correct units and three Precautions :
significant figures). 1. The lens, object pin , and image pin must be arranged co-linearly.
(ii) From table, mean of focal length = ___________ ( one dp 2. The optical bench must be levelled before taking the readings.
and unit) 3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be
distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the
image needle and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing
the parallax
 Exp 2: Focal length of a lens by no parallax method

Plain side Ruled side

Experiment 2-
Aim: To determine the focal length of the given convex lens by no parallax method.

Apparatus required:
(a) A lens holder
(b) A convex lens
(c) Two optical pins
(d) An optical bench
Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens=_________ cm Theory : The focal length of lens is given by
1 1 1
(ii) Least count of the optical bench= _________ cm = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Observation table: Multiplying throughout by v
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
S.No Object distance Image distance x= v (cm) y=𝑢 + 1 = 1−
(u) in cm (v) in cm 𝑓 𝑢
1
2 Result: (i) The slope of y vs x graph is =__________
(ii) The value of focal length as calculated using formula= _______
3
4
Precautions :
5
1. The lens, object pin , and image pin must be arranged co-linearly.
6 2. The optical bench must be levelled before taking the readings.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
Calculation: 4. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be
(iii)
∆𝑦
From graph, slope of graph = S =∆𝑥 , (correct units and three distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
significant figures). 6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the image
1
(iv) Focal length of lens F= 𝑆 ( one d.p and unit) needle and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing the parallax
 EXP 3: resistance per unit length of wire
RULED SIDE
Aim: To determine the resistance per unit length of the material of the given wire.

Apparatus required:
(a) A 100 cm long uniform metallic wire AB stretched along a metre scale and
provided with terminals at both ends.
(b) A resistance box R.B.,
(c) A voltmeter of range 0-3V,
(d) An ammeter of range 0 - 1A,
Observations: (e) A 2 V dc power supply ‘E’,
(i) L.C. of voltmeter = (f) A plug key ‘K’,
(ii) L.C.of ammeter = (g) A jockey ‘J’ and
Observation table: (h) A few connecting wires.
S.No Resistance R Reading of Reading of r = V/I
(in ohm) voltmeter , V ammeter , I ( ( in ohm) Theory: According to Ohm’s law, V= IR
( in volt) in ampere) Hence the slope of V vs I graph gives the resistance of the wire
1 R = S=ΔV/ΔI
2 When resistance is divided by length L= AC, it gives the resistance per unit length of the
3 wire.
4 Result: (i) The resistance per unit length as calculated from the slope of graph =
5 (ii) The mean resistance per unit length of wire, K, is=______________
Calculations: Precautions:
(i) Mean resistance per unit length of wire = (i) The connections must be neat and tight
(ii) From graph, Slope S= (ii)Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
(iii) Hence, from graph , resistance per unit length = (iii)The movement of the jockey should be gentle and not slided over the wire.
(iv) The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken, to avoid
overheating of wire
 EXP-4: Metre bridge/wheatstone bridge
Aim: To calculate the value of unknown resistance using Wheatstone
Bridge

Apparatus required:
(a) A 100 cm long and uniform metallic wire AB attached to a
metre scale on a wooden board. It is provided with binding terminals
at its ends.
(b) A 50 cm long and uniform wire ‘r’ wound on a wooden frame.
(c) A resistance box R.B. of range 0 to 10 Ω.
(d) A jockey J
(e) A plug key K
(f) A 4 V d.c. source E
Observations: (g) Central zero galvanometer G
(i) Value of terminal voltage = _________V (h) A few connecting wires.
(ii) Least count of meter bridge scale = _____________ cm
Observation Table : Theory: According to Wheatstone bridge, at balancing length,
𝑅 𝑙
=
𝑟 100−𝑙
S.No Resistance x ( Balancing Y = 100/l ( r = x (y-1) (100−𝑙)𝑅
in ohm) length l ( in no unit) ( in ohm) = r , substituting y = 100/l and x = R, we get
𝑙
cm) (y-1)x = r
1
2 Result:
3 (i) The mean resistance of the given wire, as calculated using
4 the Wheatstone bridge =_____________ ohm
5
Precautions:
(i) The jockey must be touched at points and not slided over the
Calculations : wire
Mean value of resistance , r0= _________________ (ii) The emf of the source must not exceed 4V
(iii) The connections must be tight.
(iv) The current must be switched off after taking every reading.
 EXP-5: Focal length of a lens by no parallax method
Aim: To determine the focal length of the given convex lens by no
parallax method.

Apparatus required:
(a) A lens holder
(b) A convex lens
(c) Two optical pins
(d) An optical bench
Theory:
Observations: The lens formula relating the object distance u, image distance v and focal
(i) L.C. of the optical bench = ________ length f is
(ii) Rough focal length of the lens= ______ cm 1 1 1
= −
Observation Table : 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
S.No Position of Position of image from m = v/u Applying sign convention,
1 1 1
object from lens lens (v) in cm. = +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
(u) in cm.
Multiplying throughout by v, we get
1 𝑣 𝑣
=1+
2 𝑓 𝑢
3 Substituting( v/u) = m, the eq becomes
𝑣
4 =1+𝑚
𝑓
5 𝑣
Or m=𝑓−1

Calculations from graph : Comparing this equation with standard equation y = mx + C, the graph of
𝑦 −𝑦 m vs v will be a straight line with slope equal to 1/f .
Slope = 𝑥2−𝑥1 = __________ 1
2 1
Or focal length f = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Hence, Focal length of lens = f = 1/S = _________
Result:
(i) The slope S of the graph of magnification (m) versus Image
distance (v) = ________ cm-1
(ii) The focal length of the given lens , f = 1/S= ___________
cm
Precautions:
(i) The optical pins must be of equal heights.
(ii) The optical bench must be properly levelled.
 EXP-6: Wheatstone bridge
Aim: To calculate the value of unknown resistance using
Wheatstone Bridge

Apparatus required:
(a) A 100 cm long and uniform metallic wire AB attached to a metre
scale on a wooden board. It is provided with binding terminals at its
ends.
(b) A 50 cm long and uniform wire ‘r’ wound on a wooden frame.
Observations: (c) A resistance box R.B. of range 0 to 10 Ω.
(i) Value of terminal voltage = _________V (d) A jockey J
(ii) Least count of meter bridge scale = _____________ cm (e) A plug key K
Observation Table : (f) A 4 V d.c. source E
S.No Resistance x ( in Balancing 𝐿 S= y/x (g) Central zero galvanometer G
y = 100−𝐿
ohm) length L ( in ((Ω−1 ) (h) A few connecting wires.
cm) Theory:
1 Theory: According to Wheatstone bridge, at balancing length,
𝑅 𝐿
2 = 100−𝐿
𝑟
3 𝐿
substituting y =100−𝐿 and x = R, we get
4
𝑥
5 =𝑦
𝑟
𝑦 1
Or 𝑥 = 𝑟
Calculations :
𝑺𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = __________ _Ω−1
Result: (i) Average value of resistance , r0= _____________
𝟏 Precautions:
r= Ω (i) The connections must be tight.
𝑺𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
(ii) The key of battery eliminator should be closed first and
then the jockey is touched on wire.
(iii) The jockey must not be pressed or slided on wire but
should be lifted again and again.
 EXP-7: Displacement Method
Aim: To determine the focal length of a given convex lens by
displacement method
Apparatus:

Theory : If the object and image pin are fixed at a separation more than
4f, there will be two possible positions of lens between the pins for
which a focused image of the object pin can be seen at the image pin.
Hence the distance between two pins , x = u+v
Separation between two positions of lens d = v- u
x+d x−d
Solving for u and v, we get, v = 2 and u = 2 .
x2 −d2
Observations: Putting these values in the lens formula and solving for f gives f=
4x
(i) Rough focal length of lens:__________ cm The graph between (x 2 − d2 )/100 and x comes out to be a straight line
(ii) L.C. of the optical bench:_____ cm with slope 4f/100 = f/25
Observation table Hence f = 25S
S.No x L1 L2(cm) d= |L2-L1| x2 (cm2) d2(cm2) (x2-d2)/100
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm2) Result : (i) the slope of y vs x graph is :----------
The focal length of the given convex lens is : __
1
2 Precautions: _______
3 1. The lens, object pin , and image pin must be arranged co-
4 linearly.
5 2. The optical bench must be levelled before taking the readings.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid
and mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image
Calculations: formed will not be distinct.
𝑦 −𝑦
(i) From graph , slope S= 𝑥2−𝑥1 = _________- 5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
2 1 image needle.
(ii) Focal length F = 25 S = _________________ 6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must
touch the tip of the image needle and must not overlap.
This should be ensured while removing the parallax
 EXP-8: focal length of convex using concave
Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave lens using an
auxillary convex lens

Apparatus required:
a) An optical bench with four upright
b) A convex lens and a concave lens
c) Two lens holders
d) One thick and one thin optical needle
e) metre scale

Theory:
A convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from the object
AB to form a real and inverted image A′B′ at position I1 . If a
concave diverging lens L2 is inserted between the lens L1 and point
I1 as shown in figure, for concave lens L2 image A′ B′ behaves as
Observations: virtual object. A real and inverted image A′′ B′′ is formed at point I2
(i) The rough focal length of the given convex lens A=f =10.1 by the diverging lens L2. Thus, for the concave lens L2 the distances
cm________ O′ I1 and O′ I2 would be the distances u and v, respectively. It is
(ii) Distance OA ( constant throughout the exp) = 2f=20.2 important to note that the focal length of convex lens L1 must be
cm____________ smaller than the focal length of the concave lens L2. The second
(iii) Distance c = __20.1_______________ image A′′ B′′ is formed only when the distance between lens L2 and
Observation table : first image A′B′ is less than the focal length of L2.
S.No Distance Distance Distance x=𝑎+𝑏−𝑐 𝑎(𝑐−𝑏)
y = 10 We use the lens formula in this experiment to calculate the focal
OA between between length of the concave lens:
(cm)
(cm) Concave lens concave lens f=uv/(u−v)
(cm2)
and convex and image (a)
lens (b) (cm) (cm) Where,
1 20.2 6.5 30.1 16.5 40.9 f is the focal length of the concave lens L1
u is the distance of I from the optical centre of the lens L2
2 20.2 8.0 26.0 14.0 31.46
v is the distance of I’ from the optical centre of the lens L2.
3 20.2 10.0 18.0 7.9 18.2 From sign convention, the f obtained from the above formula will
4 20.2 12.0 12.0 4.0 9.72 be negative as v > u and u – v is negative.
5 20.2 14.0 8.3 2.3 5.06

27−14 Result : (i) The slope of the y vs x graph = _________

Calculation: (i) The slope of the y vs x graph = _ 12−6 = 2.16 𝑐𝑚___________
(ii) The focal length of the given concave lens =
(ii) Focal length of concave lens = 10 S = 21.6 cm
_________________
Precautions: (i) The lens must be clean.
(ii) The focal length of the convex lens should be lesser
than the concave lens.
(iii) To avoid parallax, a distance of at least 30 cm should
be maintained between the tip of the needle and eye.
 EXP-9: Calculation of emf of cell using potentiometer
Circuit diagram
Aim : To determine emf of the given cell, using a potentiometer.

Apparatus required:
(a) A 100 cm long and uniform metallic wire AB fitted on a wooden
board with terminals at A and B.
(b) A resistance box having a range of 0 to 10 Ω or more. It is
labelled as R.B.
(c) A 4V dc source (an accumulator or an electronic battery). It is
labelled as D.
(d) A dry cell. It is labelled as E.
(e) A central zero galvanometer (G).
(f) A plug key (K).
Observations and observation table: (g) A jockey (J)
(i) LC of galvanometer = _______________ (h) A few connecting wires.
(ii) Voltage of source= ____________
Theory:
𝐸
Observation Table: The current through the wire AB , I = 𝑅+𝑟, where R is the resistance
S.No Resistance (R) in ohm Balancing length (l) in cm of the RB and r is the resistance of wire AB
1 1 49.0 𝐸
Hence pd across wire AB= V= Ir = 𝑅+𝑟 𝑟
2 2 51.1
𝐸 𝑟
3 3 61.0 The potential gradient k = V/L = V/100 = 𝑅+𝑟 100
4 4 63.4 Hence emf e of the dry cell = kl, where l is the balancing length
5 5 72.2 𝐸 𝑟
Or e = (𝑅+𝑟 100) 𝑙
6 6 92.5
When R= 0, l = l0
𝐸 𝑟 𝐸𝑙
Calculations : e = (𝑟 ) 𝑙0= 1000
100
𝑙
As emf of source E = 4 V, e= 250
From graph , intercept l0 = 36.5 cm
𝑙0
Hence emf of dry cell = e = = 1.46 𝑉 Result:
25
(i) The intercept l0 as read from the graph = _________
𝑙0
(ii) The emf of the dry cell= e = = _____𝑉
25
Precautions:
 (i) The emf of battery D should be more than the emf of the
Chart Title primary cell, e .
(ii) Positive terminals of D and e both should be connected at
100 the same point on the potentiometer
y = 8.0914x + 36.547 (iii) Always measure length from point A i.e. the point at
80
which positive terminals of battery are connected and
60 measure this length upto the balance point.
(iv) Switch on the battery eliminator only when readings are
40
taken otherwise the wires may get heated up due to
20 continuous flow of current and may also affect the internal
resistance of the cell.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7