Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.

)
Menschen für Menschen Foundation
Agro – Technical and Technology College
Electrical and Electronics Technology Department
 CHAPTER – THREE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this chapter is to:
❑ Express the transfer function of LTI systems in terms of its Magnitude
and Phase angle.

❑ Deal with steady state response of LTI system to a Sinusoidal Input Test
Signal of Varying Frequency.
❑ Determine an LTI system design performance specifications in frequency
domain.

❑ Understand the advancement of frequency domain analysis over the time

domain analysis.
Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 1
3.1. Introduction
❑ Frequency-response methods were developed in 1930s and 1940s by
Nyquist, Bode, Nichols, and many other.

❑ The frequency response of a system is the steady-state response of the

system to a sinusoidal input signal.

❑ For analysis of many systems frequency response is of importance since

most of the input signals are either sinusoidal or composed of
sinusoidal components (harmonics).

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 ❑ The starting point for frequency response analysis is the determination of
system transfer function.

❑ The analysis involves examining the transfer function 𝑇(𝑠) when 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and
graphically displaying 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) as 𝜔 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞.

❑ For a stable, linear, time-invariant (LTI) system, the steady state response to a
sinusoidal input is a sinusoid of the same frequency but possibly different
magnitude and phase.

❑ If input is 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 and steady-state output is 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜑), then the

𝐵 𝑗(𝜑−𝜃)
complex number 𝑒 is called the frequency response of the system at
𝐴
frequency 𝜔𝑜 .
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Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 4
 ❑ Let us consider the transfer function of a first-order system

❑For frequency response analysis we replace 𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑗𝜔.

❑ The system is subjected to sinusoidal input and therefore, we take

The output is

❑ The magnitude of output is

❑ The magnitude of input

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 ❑ The dimensionless ratio of output to input is given as

❑ The phase angle is

❑ Time lag

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 ❑ As 𝜔 increases from 0 to ∞, the magnitude gradually decreases from 1 to 0 and the
angle of lag increases from 0 to –90°.

❑ Thus, higher the frequency, higher is the attenuation (decay) of the output
and greater is the angle of lag between output and input.

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3.2. Frequency Response Specifications
❑ Let us consider a second-order system

Where 𝜁 - The damping ratio and

𝝎𝒏 - The undamped natural frequency of
oscillations
❑ For the sinusoidal transfer function, we will put 𝑠 = 𝑗𝝎 in the above
expression.

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 8

 (1)

-
(2)
From equations (1) and (2), it is seen that

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a) Resonant Frequency ωr
❑ It is the frequency at which resonant peak occurs, that is, the
maximum value of Mr occurs.

❑ High value of 𝝎𝒓 indicates that the time response of the output

is faster.
❑ Resonant frequency is inversely proportional to peak time.

❑ At resonant frequency 𝝎𝒓, the first-order derivative of the magnitude

is zero.

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 ❑Since the magnitude depends on the normalized frequency u , the above equation
is written as
Where ur is the normalized resonant frequency

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b) Resonant peak Mr
❑ The maximum value of M and is denoted as Mr.
❑ The magnitude of resonant peak Mr provides us information about the
relative stability of the system.

❑ Large resonant peak corresponds to large overshoot in the transient

response.
❑ Its value ranges from 1.1 to 1.5
❑ The magnitude at resonant frequency 𝜔r , is known as the resonant peak Mr

❑ Since the magnitude depends on the normalized frequency, the above

equation can be written as

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❑ Substituting the ur in Eqs we obtain

c) Bandwidth BW:
❑ It is the range of frequencies in which the magnitude M expressed in dB does
not drop more than -3dB.
❑ The frequency range 0 ≤ 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑐 in which the
magnitude of is greater than –3 dB

❑ Range ensures proper transmission of signal.

❑ If bandwidth is larger higher frequencies will pass through the systems.
❑ The rise time and the bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other.
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 ❑ Hence, bandwidth is nothing but the cut-off frequency 𝜔𝑐 .
❑ Assuming the magnitude of the system at zero frequency as 1, the cut-off
frequency is derived as

❑The magnitude depends on the normalized frequency.

❑Hence, the above equation can be written as

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 ❑ Comparing the above equation with the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx +c = 0
we obtain

❑ Hence, solving this quadratic equation, we obtain

❑ Considering only the positive values, we obtain

⇒

❑ Therefore, the cut-off frequency is given by

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d) Cut-off frequency 𝝎c
❑ The frequency at which the gain of the system is 3dB below its zero-frequency
value or 0.707 times the gain of the system at zero frequency.

e) Cut-off rate
❑ The slope of the magnitude curve obtained near the cut-off frequency is called
cut-off rate.
❑ The cut-off rate indicates the ability of the system to distinguish the
signal from noise.
f) Gain crossover frequency 𝝎gc
❑ The frequency at which the gain of the system is unity.
❑ If the gain of the system is expressed in dB, then the gain crossover frequency
is defined as the frequency at which the gain of the system is 0 dB
(since 20 log1 = 0 dB).
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 g) Phase crossover frequency 𝝎pc
❑ The frequency at which the phase angle of the system is −180°

h) Gain margin gm
❑ The factor by which the gain of the system can be increased before the
system becomes unstable.

❑ Mathematically, it is defined as the reciprocal of the gain of the system

at the phase crossover frequency 𝝎pc
❑ The stability of the system is directly proportional to the gain margin of
the system.

❑ The high gain margin results in an unacceptable response and the result
becomes sluggish in nature.
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 i) Phase margin Pm
❑ It is defined as the additional phase lag that makes the system
marginally stable

❑ The addition of phase angle of the system at gain crossover frequency

and 180°.

❑ For a good overall stability of the system, the gain margin of the
system should be around 12dB and the phase margin should be
between 45° and 60°

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 ❑ For comparative study of time response and frequency response of a system,
let us consider a second-order system

Where 𝜁 - The damping ratio and

𝝎𝒏 - The undamped natural frequency of
oscillations
❑ For the sinusoidal transfer function, we will put 𝑠 = 𝑗𝝎 in the above
expression.

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 (1)

-
(2)
From equations (1) and (2), it is seen that

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3.2.1. Frequency and Time Domain Interrelations
❑ The steady-state output of the system when the system is excited by the sinusoidal
input with unit magnitude and variable frequency 𝜔 (i.e., 𝑟 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 is given
by

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❑ For relative stability of the system, the values of peak overshoot and
resonant peak of the system are
❖ Peak overshoot Mp = 10 to15%
❖ Resonant peak Mr = 1 to1.4 = 0 to 3dB
❖ If Mr is greater than 1.5 and the system is subjected to noise signals,
then the system may face serious problems.

I. Variation of Mr and Mp with respect to the variation in ξ

❖ As ξ increases, the value of peak overshoot, Mp gets decreased and it
becomes zero or gets vanished at ξ= 1

❖ The resonant peak Mr will also get vanished as the damping ratio ξ
increases

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 ❖ But the value of ξ at which the resonant peak vanishes is derived as

Fig: Mp and Mr for different values of ξ

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When ξ = 0 :
❑ The Mp gets the maximum value i.e., Mp = 1.
❑ In addition, Mr approaches infinity as ξ decreases to zero.
❑ This concept is shown in Figs.(a) and (b) respectively.

0 0

Fig:
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II. Choosing the value of damping ratio 𝝃 :
❖ The damping ratio ξ should be chosen between 0.4 and 0.707
(i.e., 0.4 <ξ< 0.707) to have a tolerable Mp and Mr

❖ If the chosen ξ is less than 0.4, both Mp and Mr have larger values that are
not desirable for the system.

III. Variations of 𝝎r and 𝝎d with respect to ξ:

❖When the value of ξ is chosen between 0.4 and 0.707, the value of 𝜔r and
𝜔d are comparable to each other.

❖When ξ = 0 , both the values of 𝜔r and 𝜔d approach 𝜔n .

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 ❑When ξ is small, then the values of 𝜔r and 𝜔d are:
❖ 𝜔d will be large and hence the rise time is small.
❖ 𝜔r will be large and the response of the system will be faster.
❖ Here, the value of 𝝎r indicates the speed of the response

Fig:
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 Example 3.1: The open-loop or the feed-forward transfer function of a unity
81
feedback system is given by 𝐺 𝑠 = .
𝑠(𝑠+8)
Determine
a) The resonant frequency
b) The resonant peak

Example 3.2: The closed-loop poles of a system are at 𝑠 = −2 ± 𝑗3.

Determine
a) Bandwidth
b) Normalized peak driving signal frequency
c) Resonant peak for such a system
d) Resonant frequency
e) Plot the magnitude curve
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 Quiz 1(5%): Consider a unity feedback system as shown in Fig. below.

Determine
a) The value of 𝐾 that satisfies the frequency domain specifications as
𝑀𝑟 = 1.04 and 𝜔𝑟 = 11.55 𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec.
b) For the determined values of K, determine settling time and bandwidth
of the system.

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3.4. Graphical Representation of Frequency Response
❑ Determining the magnitude and phase angle of a system for different
frequencies from 0 to ∞ by using tabulation method becomes more
complicated when a greater number of poles and zeros exist in the system.

❑ An alternative method that eliminates the difficulty is the Graphical

Representation of Frequency Response.
3.4.1. Graphical Methods:
❑ There are different graphical methods by which the frequency
response can be represented.
❖ Bode Plot
❖ Polar and Nyquist Plot
❖ Constant M and N Circle
❖ Nicholas Chart
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3.4.2. Bode Plots
❑ It is a graphical method, used for system analysis in frequency domain.
❑ The Bode plot of the function T(jω) is composed of two plots:
I. The magnitude of T(jω) plotted in decibels (dB) versus log10(jω).
II. The phase of T(jω) plotted in degree versus log10(ω).
❑ Feature of the Bode Plots
❖ Since the magnitude of T(jω) in the Bode plot is expressed in dB,
products and division factors in T(jω) become additions and
subtraction, respectively.
❖ The phase relations of T(jω) are also added and subtracted from
each other algebraically.
❖ The Bode plots of T(jω) can be approximated by straight-lines
segments, which allows the simple sketching without detailed
computation.
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❑ How to draw Bode plots?
❖ Both the magnitude and phase plots are sketched on semi log paper

❑ A semi-log graph has one axis

with a linear scale and the other
axis with a logarithmic scale.

❑ Each cycle represents a

multiplication of 10

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 ❑ In order to simplify the Bode plot, it is convenient to use the so-called Bode
form
𝐴 𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 …(𝑠+𝑧𝑚 )
❑ Given: The open loop T.F: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠𝑞 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 …(𝑠+𝑝𝑚 )(𝑠2 +𝑎𝜔𝑜 𝑠+𝜔𝑜 2 )

Where A, m, q and n are real constants

❑ The Bode form can be expressed as:

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3.4.3. The Open-Loop Transfer function 𝑮 𝒋𝝎 𝑯 𝒋𝝎

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Factor 1: The Bode Plot for a Constant Gain K Factor

❑ The magnitude and phase angle of

the constant K are
Magnitude in dB = 20 log K
For K=4, 20log4=12.04
For K=1/4, 20log1/4=-12.04
Phase angle = 0°

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Factor 2: The Bode Plot for a Derivative Factor

Magnitude plot
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑗𝜔
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜔

Phase plot

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Factor 3: The Bode Plot for an Integral Factor

Magnitude plot

Phase plot

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 Factor 4: The Bode Plot for a First order Factor

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Factor 5: The Bode Plot for a Second order Factor

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 The Bode Plot for a Second
order factor

Magnitude plot

Phase plot

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Bode Plots for

Bode Plots of (𝒔) 𝟏

Bode Plots of ( )
𝒔

𝟏
Bode Plots of (𝟏 + 𝒔/𝒂) Bode Plots of (𝟏+𝒔/𝒂)
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Example 3.1: Draw the Bode plot for a
system transfer function T(s)
The Bode Magnitude plot

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❑ The Bode phase plot

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Example 3.2: Draw the Bode plot for a
system transfer function T(s)

Fig: Bode Mag Plot

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❑The Bode phase plot

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3.4.4. Determination of Frequency
Domain Specifications from Bode Plot

Gain crossover frequency

𝜔𝑔𝑐 = The frequency at which M = 0
Phase crossover frequency
𝜔𝑝𝑐 = frequency at which 𝜙 = -180°
Gain margin

Phase margin

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3.4.5. Stability of the System
❖ The stability of the system is easier to determine using Bode plot once the
frequency domain specifications are obtained.
❖ The stability of the system can be analyzed on the basis of crossover
frequencies (𝝎𝒑𝒄 and 𝝎𝒈𝒄 ) or Gain and Phase margins.

A. Based on Crossover Frequencies

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 B. Based on Gain Margin and Phase Margin

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Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 48
3.4.6. Relative Stability
❑ A transfer function is called minimum phase when all the poles and zeros are
LHP and non-minimum-phase when there are RHP poles or zeros.

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 Example 3.3: For the system shown in Figure below, determine the Gain margin,
Phase margin, Phase-crossover frequency, and Gain-crossover frequency.

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Solution:
❑ The Bode plot for this system is
shown in Fig

❑ The gain margin = 9.929

❑ The phase margin = 103.7 degree

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 ❑ Bandwidth and Cutoff
Frequency

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3.4.7. Polar and Nyquist Plots
❑ Nyquist used polar plots to study the stability of control system way back in
1932 and as a mark of respect to him polar plots are also called Nyquist
plots.
❑ The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function T(jω) is a plot of the
magnitude of T(jω)Vs the phase of T(jω) on polar co-ordinates as ω is varied
from 0 to ∞.
|T(jω)| Vs angle T(jω) as ω → 0 to ∞.
❑ Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
❑Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
❑Radial lines represents the phase angles.
❑In polar sheet:
▪ +ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 00
▪ -ve phase angle is measured in CW from 00
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 Sketching Polar plot
❑ To sketch the polar plot of T(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0
to ∞, there are four key points that usually need to be known:
❖ The start of plot where ω = 0
❖ The end of plot where ω = ∞
❖ Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(T(jω)) = 0, and
❖ Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(T(jω)) = 0.
Procedure to Sketch polar plot
❑ Express the given expression of OLTF in (1+sT) form.
❑ Substitute s = jω in the expression for G(s)H(s) and get G(jω)H(jω).
❑ Get the expressions for magnitude |G(jω)H(jω)|& angle G(jω)H(jω).
❑ Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different values of ω
ranging from 0 to ∞.
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 ❖ Usually, the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and around
corner frequencies.
❖ Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.
❖ Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve.
❖ Write the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.

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 Example 3.4: The loop transfer function of a system is
Sketch the polar plot for the system.

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Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 57
 The polar plot of the given system using Table given above is shown in Figure below

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 3.4.8. Nyquist Plot and Stability Criterion
❑ By the Cauchy’s Principle of Argument:
Z=N+P.
Where
Z is the number of unstable closed-loop poles (zeros of F(s))
P is the number of unstable open-loop poles (poles of F(s))
N is the number of clockwise encirclements of −1+j0 on
the GH-plane

❖ A feedback system is stable if and only if N=−P , i.e. the number of the
counterclockwise encirclements of –1+j0 point by the Nyquist plot in the GH-
plane is equal to the number of the unstable poles of the open-loop transfer
function.

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Implication of Nyquist Stability Criterion
❖If the open-loop system is stable(P=0), the closed-loop system is stable if and
only if the Nyquist plot does not encircle –1+j0 point.
❖If the open-loop system has P unstable poles, the closed-loop system is stable if
and only if the Nyquist plot encircles –1+j0 point P times counterclockwise.
❖If the Nyquist plot passes through −1+j0, then the system has a closed-loop
pole on the imaginary axis (Critically stable).

Procedure for Determining Stability using Nyquist Stability Criterion

❖Draw the Nyquist Plot.
❖Determine the clockwise encirclement N.
❖From the open-loop transfer function, find the number of unstable open-loop
poles (P).
❖Stable if N=−P.
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Example 3.5: The open-loop transfer function of a system is given as
Examine the stability of the system by applying
Nyquist stability criterion.
Solution
For drawing the Nyquist plot, we put 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the transfer function as

Instructor: Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.) 61

 The Nyquist plot is symmetrical about the real axis
since
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺 −𝑗𝜔 𝐻(−𝑗𝜔)

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Exercises
1.

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 2.

3. Use the Nyquist criterion to determine the range of 𝐾 > 0 for the stability of the
system in Figure below.

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 4.

Reading Assignment
❖Determination of closed loop transfer function from Bode and Nyquist plot.
❖M and N Circle method for system stability
❖Nichols Chart method for system stability
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 Thank you for your
Attention

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