CHT 418 - SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

MODULE 2
Syllabus : Collection of solid waste, On-site storage methods-containers, their type, size and location,
Collection Systems-Vehicles, Types of collection system –HCS, SCS, Determination of vehicle and labor
requirements, Collection routing, route balancing and transfer stations, Transfer methods, Processing
methods.
HANDLING AND SEPARATION OF SOLID WASTE
The handling and separation of solid wastes at the source before they are collected is a critical step in the
management of residential solid waste.
Waste Handling
In general, handling refers to the activities associated with managing solid wastes until they are placed in the
containers used for their storage before collection or return to drop-off and recycling centers.
Separation
The separation of solid waste components at the source of generation is one of the most positive and
effective ways to achieve the recovery and reuse of materials.
Indicative List for Segregation of Household Wastes
BASIC SEGREGATION
Wet waste (green bin) Dry waste (Blue bin) Domestic Hazardous
With further sub-segregation
Food wastes of all kinds, Paper Containers & Rags Metals Glass E-waste,
cooked and uncooked, cardboard packaging of all Rubber (all kinds) Inerts Hazardous wastes (paint,
including eggshells and & cartons kinds excluding Wood House oil, chemicals and
bones, flower, fruit and those containing Discarded sweepings and solvents, pesticides and
waste including juice, hazardous clothing inerts (not their empty containers),
vegetable peels and materials Furniture garden, yard or Household medical
household garden/plant Compound street waste,
wastes. Soiled tissues, packaging sweepings) Batteries, Lights bulbs,
food wrappers, paper (tetrapak, blisters tube lights and Compact
towels; fish and meat etc.) Plastics Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
Car batteries, oil filters
and car care products and
consumables

Storage of solid waste at the source

Factors that must be considered in the onsite storage of solid wastes includes:
i. The effects of storage on the waste components.
ii. The type of containers to be used
iii. The container location
iv. Public health and aesthetics
Effect of Storage on Waste Components
An important consideration in the onsite storage of wastes are the effects of storage itself on the
characteristics of the wastes being stored. Theses effects of storing wastes include:
a. Biological/microbial decomposition/putrefaction: Causes odor, attracts flies, forms leachate.
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b. The absorption of fluids (spread of moisture over the entire mixture, paper will absorb moisture from
food, garden trimming. If there is no lid, waste can absorb water from rain).
c. The contamination of waste components: motor oils, household cleaners and paint contaminate and reduce
the value of individual components for recycling.

Waste collection containers

Waste collection containers play an important role in waste collection system. Their type, size and location
determine the efficiency of waste collection. The size and type of the containers vary with the location and
source of generation, example; residential colonies with the single family households require small
containers unlike commercial, institutional and industries which require large containers. The size of the
containers determines the handling of the containers (i.e.) small containers can be handled manually while
the larger ones require mechanical handling.

Characteristics of Storage containers:

The size and characteristics of storage container plays an essential role in waste collection. Selection of good
container can save collection energy, increase the speed of collection and reduce the crew size. The
characteristics to be considered while selecting a container include
• Low cost: The containers chosen for waste collection should be cheap and economical so as to
minimize the cost of collection.
• Size and weight: Any collection containers should be of appropriate size to avoid occupational health
hazard. A container should not weigh more than 20 kg. The containers that weigh more than 20 kg
require more collection members as it would be difficult them manually. Further, if they are handled
manually, it will cause muscular strain and ligament tear of waste collector. As mentioned earlier,
single household families can use small sized containers unlike other residential, commercial and
institutional sources. Smaller size containers can be unloaded manually where as large size
containers require mechanical lifting.
• Containers should not be rough: Rough surface facilitates easy attachment of wastes there by leading
to decomposition at the rough surfaces. Further containers with rough surface are difficult to clean.
Example, containers made of wood.
• Containers should not have sharp edges: Sharp edges may cause injury to the waste collector crew.
• Containers should be inert: The containers should be made of inert materials to avoid the reactivity
of waste with the container materials. Example, iron containers should be avoided because the
moisture in the waste will corrode them and lead to rusting.
• Containers should be covered: Covered containers will prevent the entry of rain waste into the
wastes. The rain water will accelerate the rate of decomposition leading to obnoxious odour. It will
also increase the weight of solid waste stored within the container. Covered containers will prevent
the entry of stray animals into the containers.
• Strength and durability: The containers should be strong and durable to avoid frequent breakage. It
should withstand the rough handling by the crew members during manual and mechanical unloading
of wastes. Strong and durable containers will last long and minimize the cost of collection.
• Containers should be provided with wheels to facilitate movement, handle for easy carrying and
hoist and tail for lifting.

Types of storage containers

The types and capacities of the containers depend on:
a. The characteristics and types of solid wastes to be collected.
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b. The type of collection system in use.
c. The collection frequency.
d. The space available for the placement of containers.
Broadly, there are two principle types of collection containers: stationary and hauled/ movable containers.

1. Stationary containers: These are immovable and fixed at the site of storage. The waste
stored in these containers is manually transferred by the waste collection crew. at certain times the
stationary containers are emptied directly into the collection vehicle by mechanical means.
2. Hauled/ movable containers: These types of containers are fixed with wheels to facilitate
its movement to waste processing site, transfer station or directly to the disposal site. These
containers are used for special type of wastes (i.e.) when the wastes need separate treatment and
processing.

Hauled Containers Stationary Containers

Location of containers
A container should be placed in an appropriate location to ease waste collection. The container
should be placed at a distance of 100 to 200 meters. Larger distance between the container and the
source of generation will discourage people from dumping the wastes into the container. The location
of the container will depend on

• The width and length of the lane/ road.

• Ease of collection vehicle to reach the containers
• The amount of waste generation and type of source generation example, commercial,
residential, institutional etc.
• Traffic congestion

In narrow roads, the collection containers can be placed equidistantly at a distance of 100 meters.
The containers can be placed alternatively on either side of lane. Example, on one side the distance
between two collection containers can be 200 meters while on the other side of the lane, the distance
can be 100 meters. In case of narrow streets with low traffic congestion, the containers can be placed
at a longer distance. A resident will fail to walk 50 meters to dispose the waste into the containers.
Another disadvantage of placing the container at short distance would be increased fuel consumption
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 of collection vehicle. Stoppage at every 50 meters will increase the fuel consumption of the
collection vehicle. It is always better to place the collection container at the end of the street, this
would minimize the collection and the transportation cost.

WASTE COLLECTION
• The term “waste collection” includes not only gathering of solid waste from the various
sources but also the hauling of these wastes to the location where the content of collection
vehicles are emptied.
• The unloading of the collection vehicle is also considered part of the collection operation.
• The gathering or picking up of solid waste will vary with the characteristics of the facilities,
activities of the location where wastes are generated, and the methods used for onsite storage
of accumulated wastes between collections.
• There are two types of collection:
1. Primary collection also termed as collection services - collection of solid waste from the
source of generation and transportation of waste to the final disposal site
2. Secondary collection also termed as collection systems - collection of waste from communal
bins, storage points or transfer station, and transportation to the final disposal site
PRIMARY COLLECTION/ COLLECTION SERVICES
• Primary collection is the collection of solid waste from the source of generation.
• The collection points can be located outside individual household or communal containers serving a
number of households/apartments.
• Depending on the collection vehicle and the distance to the waste treatment/disposal site, the waste
may be taken to the disposal site or to a transfer station.
• Based on the availability of service
1. Communal system
2. Block Collection
3. Kerbside/alley
4. Door to door collection
Communal System
• The principal disadvantage of this system is that containers/collection points are located in a public
place (lacking ownership by the public) which, in many situations, leads to indiscriminate disposal of
waste outside the container.
• Thus, the actual economy of this system mostly depends on public co-operation
• It is therefore essential to pay more attention to improving the design, and operation and
maintenance practices of a communal system to increase public acceptance, and to optimize the
productivity of this system
• The use of portable storage containers maximizes the productivity of labour and vehicles of such
collection system
Block Collection
• Waste generators are responsible for bringing their waste to collection vehicles
• This system has low to medium labour and vehicle productivity, but it minimises the spread of waste on
streets
Kerbside/alley
• This is the most common collection method in industrialized countries and in the wealthier communities of
some developing countries.
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 • Waste generators place the waste containers or bags (sacks) on the kerb or in the alley on a specific day (or
specific days) for collection by external actors.
• A regular and well-organized collection service is essential so that generators know exactly when to leave
out their waste.
Door to door collection
• This is more common in industrialized countries, but an increasing number of micro-enterprises
and/or community-based organizations are forming in wealthier communities in many developing
countries to perform this task.
• This system has yet to receive public attention, but as with the use of bags for waste it maximizes the
productivity of crew, as retrieval of containers is not required

Communal System Curb services

Alley Services Door-to-door services

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 Comparison of various methods of collection

Backyard services
• The wastes are stored in containers or sealed bags in the backyard of the house.
• It is then collected by the collection crew.

SECONDARY COLLECTION/COLLECTION SYSTEM

Secondary collection is the collection of waste from communal bins, storage points or transfer
station, and transportation to the final disposal site.
Haul Container System (HCS)
• These are collection systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to a
materials recovery facility (MRF), transfer station, or disposal site, emptied, and returned to either
their original location or some other location.
• Hauled container systems are ideally suited for the removal of wastes from sources where the rate of
generation is high.
• An empty storage container (known as a drop-off box) is hauled to the storage site to replace the
container that is full of waste, which is then hauled to the processing point, transfer station or
disposal site.

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 Advantages
• Useful when the generation rate is high as the containers are large.
• The use of large containers eliminates handling time as well as the unsightly accumulations and
unsanitary conditions associated with the use of numerous smaller containers.
• Another advantage of hauled container systems is their flexibility: Containers of many different sizes
and shapes are available for the collection of all types of wastes.
• It requires only one truck and driver to accomplish the collection cycle.
Disadvantages
• If the containers are not filled, it results in low utilization rate.
Stationary Container System (SCS)
• In the stationary container system, the containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of
generation, except when they are moved to the curb or other location to be emptied.
• The systems vary according to the type and quantity of wastes to be handled as well as the number of
generation points.
There are two main types:
i. Systems in which manually loaded collection vehicles are used.
ii. Systems in which mechanically loaded collection vehicles are used.
• The major application of manual loading collection vehicles is in the collection of residential source-
separated and commingled wastes and litter.
• Manual loading is used in residential areas where the quantity picked up at each location is small and
the loading time is short.
• In this system, containers used for the storage of waste remain at the point of collection. The
collection vehicles generally stop alongside the storage containers, and collection crews load the
waste from the storage containers into the collection vehicles and then transport the waste to the
processing, transfer or disposal site

Advantages

• The vehicle doesn’t travel to the disposal area until it is full, resulting in higher utilization rate.

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Disadvantages

• Not suited for heavy industrial wastes and bulk rubbish as it may damage the relatively delicate mechanism
of the trucks.
• Difficult to service in locations where high volumes of rubbish are produced because of the space
requirements for the large number of containers
• In manual systems, the manpower required is more.
• Special attention should be given to the design of collection vehicle for the use of single collector- driver.

Definition of terms
The activities involved in the collection of SW can be resolved into four unit operations: pickup, haul,
at-site, and off-route.

WASTE COLLECTION VEHICLE

The collection vehicles are of different types, classified based on their size, and compaction. Three types of
collection vehicles viz. small-scale collection and muscle powered vehicles, non-compactor trucks and
compactor trucks. The selection of collection vehicle depends upon the nature and density of wastes, terrain
or location of the area, density of population, strength and capability of collection crew.
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 1. Small scale collection and muscle powered vehicles
These vehicles are commonly used in rural and hilly terrain. Vehicles such as rickshaw, bullock carts and
tricycles manually are usually used for this purpose. These vehicles are comparatively low cost and easy to
construct and maintain. These vehicles are appropriate for areas with dense population having narrow streets
with comparatively less quantity of waste generation. Restricted travel range of these vehicles and exposure
of weather which influence humans and animals are some of the disadvantages associated with these waste
collection vehicles.
2. Non compactor trucks
Non compactor trucks are known to be relatively more efficient and affordable. These vehicles are generally
utilized in small cities. These are used for dense waste that has minimum potential for compaction. These
compactor trucks have capacity of in the range of 10-12 m3 and are generally used to cover small distances
of less than 15 km. The non compactor trucks are usually covered to avoid flying of waste material and entry
of rain water into the waste. These trucks are preferred when labour cost is high. Similar to muscle power
vehicles non compactor trucks are also operated by single person.
3. Compactor trucks
These vehicles are provided with compaction system to hydraulically compact the waste. Compaction
increases the capacity of these trucks by 2-2.5 times. The capacity of these vehicles range between 12 to
15m3. The compactor trucks are suitable for narrow roads. However, small collection vehicles such as
tricycles and bullock carts can discharge their waste into these compactor trucks. The vehicles are provided
with lifting mechanism to discharge the waste from stationary containers located at the source of generation.
The emptying of the containers can be done from the rear, front or sides of the vehicles. The compactor
trucks can carry waste directly from the source of generation to waste processing site.
There are three main types of vehicles used in hauled container systems:
1) Hoist truck
With the advent of large capacity mechanically loaded collection vehicles, this system has applications
limited to :
▪ Waste collector dealing with a few pickup points with considerable amount of wastes are
generated.
▪ For the collection of bulky items and industrial rubbish such as scrap metal and construction
debris that are not suitable for collection with compaction vehicles.
2) Tilt- frame container
• Also called drop or debris boxes
• Ideally suited for all types of solid waste and rubbish where the generation rate warrants the use of
large containers.
• Usually used at apartment complexes, commercial services and transfer stations.
• Due to its large hauling capacity, they are popular among private collectors servicing commercial
accounts.
3)Truck tractor trash-trailer
• Better for the collection of especially heavy rubbish, sand, timber and metal scrap.
• Usually employed for collection of demolition wastes at construction sites.

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 Tilt- frame container Truck tractor trash-trailer

Mechanically loaded Manually loaded

Representative data on the capacities of containers available for use with various collection systems
Vehicle Container Type Container
capacities (yd3)
Hauled container systems
Hoist truck Used with stationary compactor 6-12

Tilt-frame Open top, also called debris boxes 12-50

Used with stationary compactor 15-40
Equipped with self-contained compaction mechanism 20-40

Truck- tractor Open-top trash trailers 15-40

Enclosed trailer-mounted containers equipped with self- 20-40
contained compaction mechanism
Stationary container systems
Compactor mechanically loaded Open top and enclosed top and side loading 1-8

Compactor, manually loaded Small plastic or galvanized metal containers, disposable 20-55(gal)
paper, plastic bags

Determination of vehicle and labor requirements for Haul Container

System

1) Pickup (Phcs) - It refers to the time spent in-

• Picking up the loaded container (pc)
• Redeposition of the container after it has been emptied (uc)
• Driving to the next container after an empty container has been deposited (dbc)

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 2) Haul (hhcs)
• hhcs - The time required to reach the location where the waste will be emptied, starting when the
container has been loaded on the truck and continuing through unloading until the truck arrives at
the location where the empty container is to be redeposited.
• It neither includes actual picking up of the loaded container or redeposition of the empty container
nor the time spent at the location where the waste is unloaded.
3) At-Site (s)
▪ The time spent at the site (landfill, MRF, transfer station) where the system is unloaded.
▪ It also includes the time spent waiting to unload as well as the time spent unloading the wastes from the
container (HCS) or collection vehicle (SCS).
4) Off-Route (w)
▪ This refers to the time spent on all non-productive activities; typically, 15%.
▪ Many of the activities associated with off-route times are sometimes necessary or inherent in the operation
and therefore they may be subdivided into two categories:
Necessary – Includes:
▪ Time spent in check in, check out, meeting, breaks.
▪ Time lost due to unavoidable congestion.
▪ Time spent on equipment repairs, maintenance.
Unnecessary – Includes:
▪ Time spent in personal errands
▪ Extended coffee breaks.
▪ Container (HCS) or collection vehicle (SCS).

Time per trip

Thcs (h/trip) = (Phcs + s + h)

The time required for a trip is the sum of the pickup time (Phcs ) , the time on site (s) and the haul
time (h).

The pickup time (h/trip) may be expressed as follows:

Phcs = pc + uc + dbc
pc = time required to pick up loaded container (h/trip)
uc = time required to pick up empty container (h/trip)
dbc = time required to drive between container location

The pickup (Phcs) and at-site (s) times are relatively constant but haul time depends on haul speed
and distance. From an analysis of a considerable amount of haul data for various types of collection
vehicles, from figure right, it has been found that --
The haul time (h/trip) may be expressed as a function of the distance travelled:

h = a + bx
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 a = empirical haul-time constant (h/trip)
b = empirical haul-time constant (h/m)
x = average round-trip haul distance (m/trip)

Number of trips

Nd = [ H (1-w) – (t1 + t2 )] / Thcs

Nd = No. of trips per day (trips/d) H = length of work day (h/d)

w = off-route factor, expressed as a fraction
t1 = time to drive between dispatch station (garage) to first container location to be serviced for the
day (h)
t2 = time to drive between last container location to be serviced for the day to the dispatch station
(garage) (h)
Thcs = pickup time per trip,(h/trip)

Determination of vehicle and labor requirements for Stationary Container

System
Pickup (Pscs)
Pscs : It refers to the time spent in loading the vehicle, beginning with the stop to load the first container
and ending when the last container has been loaded.
Haul (hscs )

• hscs - The time required to reach the location where the full vehicle will be emptied and continuing
until the truck arrives at the location where the first container will be emptied for the next route.
• It neither includes actual picking up of the loaded container or redeposition of the empty container
nor the time spent at the location where the waste is unloaded.

➢ At-site and Off-route as same as same in haul system

Mechanically loaded collection vehicle

Tscs = (Pscs + s + a + bx)

where, Tscs = time per trip (h/trip)
Pscs = pickup time per trip (h/trip)
s = at-site time per trip (h/trip)
a = empirical constant (h/trip)
b = empirical constant (h/trip)
x = average round-trip haul distance (mi/trip)
Pickup time per trip (h/trip)

Pscs = Ct (uc) + (Np - 1)(dbc)

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 Ct = number of containers emptied per day (containers/trip)
uc = average unloading time per stationary container (h/container)
Np = number of container pickup location per trip (location/trip)
dbc = time required to drive between container location (h/location)
The pickup time depends upon the number of containers multiplied by the unit loading time plus the
number of locations times the driving time between the locations.
No. of trips per day

Nd = Vd/ vr
where, Nd = number of collection trips required per day (trips/d)
Vd = average daily quantity of waste collected (yd3/d)
v= volume of collection vehicle (yd3/trip)
r = compaction ratio

Time required per day

H = [(t1+ t2) + Nd Tscs] / (1 - W)
where, t1 = time to drive from dispatch station to the location of the first container to be picked up on the
first route of the day, h
t2 = time to drive from the approximate location od the last container pickup on last route of the day to the
dispatch station, h
Other terms as usual
Manually loaded collection vehicle

Np = 60Pscs n / tp
Np = number of pickup locations per trip (locations/trip)
60 = conversion factor from hour to minutes
Pscs = pickup time per trip (h/trip)
n = number of collectors (labors), collectors
tp = pickup time per pickup location (collector-min/location)

Collection routes
Collection routes must be laid so both the work force and the equipments are used effectively. In
general, the layout of collection routes is a trial –and error process. There is no fixed rules that can be
applied to all situations. Some of the factors that should be taken into consideration when laying out routes:
1. Existing company policies and regulations such as the point of collection and frequency of
collection.

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 2. Existing system conditions such as crew size and vehicle types
3. Waste generated at traffic-congested locations, should be collected as early in the day as
possible.
4. Sources at which extremely large quantities of wastes are generated should be serviced during
the first part of the day,
5. Scattered pick-up points where small quantities of solid wastes are generated should, if
possible be serviced during one trip or on the same day.

Layout of Routes
The layout collection routes is a four step-process.
First, prepare location maps on a relatively large scale map of the area to be served, the following data
should be plotted for each solid-waste pick-up point: location, number of containers, collection frequency.
Second, prepare data summaries. Estimate the quantity of waste generated from pick-up locations serviced
each day. Where the stationary system is used, the number of pick up cycle must also be determined

Third, lay out preliminary collection routes starting from the dispatch station. A route should be laid out
that connects all the pickup locations to be served during each collection day. The rout should be laid out
so that the last location is nearest the disposal site.
Fourth, develop balanced routes. After the preliminary collection routes have been laid out, the haul
distance for each route should be determined. In some cases it may be necessary to readjust the collection
routes to balance the work load and the distance traveled. After the balance, routes have been established
they should be drawn on the master map.

Collection vehicle Routing Schedule

A master schedule for each collection route should be prepared for use by the engineering department and
the transportation dispatcher. A schedule for each route, on which can be found – the location and order
of each pickup point to be serviced, should be prepared for the driver. In addition, a route book (register)
should be maintained by each truck driver.

TRANSFER STATION
➢ A transfer station is a processing site where waste is deposited temporarily.
➢ In transfer stations, local waste collection vehicles deposit the waste cargo prior to their loading
into larger vehicles.
➢ The larger vehicles then transport the waste to the treatment/recycling facilities or disposal sites.
➢ Transfer and transport, in solid waste management, refers to the means, facilities and appurtenances
used to effect the transfer of wastes from one location to another.

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NEED FOR TRANSFER OPERATIONS

➢ Transfer operations are an integral part of all types of MRFs.

➢ They are necessary when-
o The haul distances to available processing centres/disposal sites are high.
o Processing centres/disposal sites are in remote location and cannot be reached directly from
highways.
TYPES OF TRANSFER STATIONS

➢ Transfer stations are used to accomplish transfer of solid wastes from collection and other small
vehicles to larger transport equipment.
➢ Depending on the method used to load the transport vehicles, they are classified as:
• Direct-load
• Storage load
• Combined direct-load and discharge load
1) Direct-Load Transfer Station
• At direct-load transfer station, the wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied directly into the
vehicles to be used to transport them-
to a place of final disposition.
into facilities such as MRFs.
to compact the wastes into transport vehicles into waste bales that are transported to the disposal site.
• Waste may be emptied onto an unloading platform and then pushed into collection vehicles after
recovery of recyclable materials.

2) Storage-Load Transfer Station

• At storage-load transfer station, the wastes are emptied directly into storage pit from which they are
loaded into transport vehicles by various types of auxiliary equipment.
• The difference between direct-load and storage-load transfer station is that the latter is designed with
a capacity to store waste.
• Different types of storage-load transfer stations are:
Large capacity storage-load transfer station without compaction.
Medium capacity storage-load transfer station with processing and compaction facilities.
3) Combined Direct-load and Discharge-load Transfer Station
• Some transfer stations use both direct-load and discharge-load methods.
• These are multipurpose facilities meant to service a broader range of users than just a single purpose
facility.
• These facilities can be used by various waste collection agencies and by general public (who will
have to pay a certain amount of discharging fee)
• It can also house a materials recovery operation.
SOME ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A TRANSFER FACILITY
Advantages
Lower collection costs
Reduced fuel and maintenance costs for collection vehicles.

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 Increased flexibility in selecting disposal facilities.
Option to separate and recover recyclables or compostables at the transfer site.
Opportunity to shred or bale wastes before disposal.
Disadvantages
Difficulty with siting and permitting, particularly in urban areas.
Construction and operation costs may make them undesirable for some communities.
TRANSFER METHODS
i. Motor vehicles
The motor transport vehicles used must satisfy the following:
Wastes must be transported at minimum cost.
Waste must be covered during the haul operation.
Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic.
Vehicle capacity must be such that the allowable weight limits are not exceeded.
Methods used for unloading must be simple and dependable.
ii. Railroads
They were used commonly in the past.
They can be used to transport solid wastes to landfills located in remote location where highway transport
is difficult but railroad exists.
iii. Ocean-going vessels
Water Transport usage-
They were used to transport wastes to processing location and to seaside and ocean disposal sites (no
longer a common practice).
It is difficult to use barges and boats during high sea, which necessitated the need for storage location,
thus incurring costly storage facilities (limitation).
iv. Pneumatic and hydraulic systems
Hydraulic system
• A truck's hydraulic system is engaged when the collection area is sufficiently filled.
• The hydraulic cylinders move a compression plate to pack and move the waste into the truck body.
• When the body is full, the truck is driven to a transfer station or landfill to unload and repeat the process.
Pneumatic system of transport
• Pneumatic trucks are specialized vehicles with flexible pneumatic tubes controlled and positioned by
attached cranes or booms.
• The engines of these trucks can be used to generate a suction force that applies negative pressure to the
mouth of the tube.

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 PROCESSING METHODS OR UNIT OPERATIONS
SIZE REDUCTION
A process of mechanical reduction of size of collected materials to obtain a uniform final product.
Reduces storage and shipping cost.
It is not a volume reduction process (e.g. shredded paper occupies more space than the parent stock)
Different types -
Shredders usually involve metal parts revolving against one another which include-
(a) hammer mill, (b) Flail mill, (c) Shear Shredder
SCREENING
A process of separation of mixtures of materials of different sizes into two or more size fractions by means
of screen surfaces.
Main objectives are:
Removal of oversized and undersized materials
Separation into light (combustible paper) and heavy (non-combustible, glass) fractions.
Screening devices include- (a) Vibrating screen (b) Rotary Screen (c) Disc screen
DENSITY SEPARATION (AIR CLASSIFICATION)
A process of separation of light materials such as paper and plastic from heavy materials such as
metals based on weight difference in the air stream.
In solid fraction, the light fraction is typically organic while the heavy fraction is typically inorganic.
It is used to separate plastic from commingled situation.
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
A process which separates ferrous metals from the waste stream utilizing magnetic principles.
Separates tin cans from aluminium in a commingled situation.
DENSIFICATION (COMPACTION)
A process which increases the density of any material so that it can be stored and transported more
cheaply as a means of preparing densified refuse-derived fuels (dRDR).
It includes balers and crushers.

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