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GENETIC MODIFICATION 2

Genetic modification involves transferring genes between organisms using techniques such as restriction enzymes and plasmids to create recombinant DNA. This process can produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs), including bacteria engineered to produce human insulin and crops designed for improved yields and resistance to pests or herbicides. While GMOs offer advantages like reduced chemical use and increased crop yields, concerns exist regarding biodiversity, health effects, and the economic impact on small farmers.

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7 views

GENETIC MODIFICATION 2

Genetic modification involves transferring genes between organisms using techniques such as restriction enzymes and plasmids to create recombinant DNA. This process can produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs), including bacteria engineered to produce human insulin and crops designed for improved yields and resistance to pests or herbicides. While GMOs offer advantages like reduced chemical use and increased crop yields, concerns exist regarding biodiversity, health effects, and the economic impact on small farmers.

Uploaded by

tamara14913
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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GENETIC MODIFICATION

 Genetic modification involves the transfer of a gene or section of DNA from one
organism into the DNA of another organism
 To begin this process, first the gene that is to be inserted is located in the original
organism
 Restriction enzymes are used to cut the required gene out of the DNA
o Different types of restriction enzymes cut the DNA in different locations
(they target different sequences of DNA). This means that specific
enzymes can be selected that will cut out the required piece of DNA
 Cutting DNA with restriction enzymes results in pieces of DNA with ‘sticky ends’
o Sticky ends are short sections of single-stranded DNA; they are 'sticky'
because they will pair together with another sticky end that contains
complementary bases
 A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme
o This ensures that the base pairs of the two sticky ends
are complementary to each other, meaning that they will 'stick' together

o
 The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme
o If two pieces of DNA have complementary sticky ends, DNA ligase will
link them to form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA
Vectors & Recombinant DNA
 Plasmids and viruses can act as vectors for genetic engineering
o They take up pieces of DNA and then insert this recombinant DNA into
other cells
 Viruses transfer DNA into human cells or bacteria
 Plasmids transfer DNA into bacteria or yeast

 The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell


 When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a
recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they
will then all express the gene and make the human protein
 The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce
quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein
Transgenic
 Genetic engineering is a term usually used to refer to the manipulation of the
DNA sequences of an organism
 Scientists have been able to artificially change an organism's DNA by combining
lengths of DNA from different sources
 The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA (rDNA)
 Transgenic means the transfer of genetic material from one species to
a different species
o If an organism contains DNA from a different species it is called
a transgenic organism
 Any organism that has introduced genetic material is a genetically modified
organism (GMO)

Manufacturing Insulin
 The gene for human insulin can be inserted into bacteria which then produce
human insulin
 The insulin can be collected and purified for medical use to treat people
with diabetes

The process of producing insulin from GM bacteria

 The gene for insulin production is located within a human chromosome


 Restriction enzymes are used to isolate or ‘cut out’ the human insulin gene,
leaving it with ‘sticky ends’ (a short section of unpaired bases)
 A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with
corresponding sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found inside bacterial
cells)
 The plasmid and the isolated human insulin gene are joined together by DNA
ligase enzyme
o If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have
been cut by the same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to
form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA
 The genetically engineered (recombinant) plasmid is inserted into a bacterial
cell
 When the bacteria reproduce, the plasmids are copied as well and so a
recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply. All the new
bacteria will express the human insulin gene and make the human insulin
protein
 The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce
quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein
Production of human insulin

 Bacteria are extremely useful for genetic engineering purposes because:


o They contain the same genetic code as the organisms we are taking the
genes from, meaning they can easily ‘read’ it and produce the same
proteins
o There are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and
growth (unlike if animals were used, as they can feel pain and distress)
o The presence of plasmids in bacteria, separate from the main bacterial
chromosome, makes them easy to remove and manipulate to insert
genes into them and then place back inside the bacterial cells

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In an exam you may be asked to apply your knowledge of genetic modification to a new
scenario so it is important to understand how the steps of this process can be applied to
real life scenarios like producing insulin.

Genetic Engineering: Crops


 Genetically modified plants are plants that have had foreign DNA inserted
into their genome
o This is usually done to improve food production in some way
 Crops can be genetically modified (they are known as GM crops)
o Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically modified to
contain a gene from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills
insects, making them resistant to insect pests such as caterpillars. This
can improve crop yields
o Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant
to certain herbicides (chemicals that kill plants), meaning that when the
herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the
crop plant
o Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional
vitamins and improved nutritional value, e.g. ‘golden rice’ contains
genes from another plant and a bacterium which make the rice grains
produce a chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human body,
which could help prevent deficiency diseases in certain areas of the world
o Some have been genetically modified to be drought-resistant (to grow
better in very dry conditions). This can also improve crop yields
o Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations
of wildflowers and insects
o Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have
not been fully explored
Advantages & disadvantages of GM crops table

Advantages Disadvantages
Increased costs of seeds – companies that make GM seeds
Reduced use of chemicals such as
charge more for them to cover the cost of developing them.
herbicides and pesticides – better for the
This can mean smaller, poorer farmers cannot compete with
environment
larger farms
Increased dependency on certain chemicals, such as the
Cheaper / less time-consuming for
herbicides that crops are resistant to – often made by the same
farmers
companies that produce the seed and more expensive to buy
Risk of inserted genes being transferred to wild plants by
Increased yields from the crops as they
pollination, which could reduce the usefulness of the GM crop
are not competing with weeds for
(e.g., if weeds also gain the gene that makes them resistant to
resources or suffering from pest damage
herbicide)
Reduced biodiversity as there are fewer plant species when
herbicides have been used – this can impact insects and insect-
eating birds
Some research has shown that plants that have had genes
inserted into them do not grow as well as non-GM plants

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