Computation of Areas and Volumes

Dr. Vishisht Bhaiya

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
SVNIT- Surat
 CONTENTS
 Areas from field measurements and plans
 Different methods
 Trapezoidal and Simpson's rule
 Planimeter
 Volume by trapezoidal and prismoidal formula
 Calculation of earthwork in cutting and embankment for civil
engineering works
 Mass haul diagram
 Volume by spot levels
 Capacity of reservoir
Introduction (Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I,
2015):
 One of the primary objects of land surveying is to determine the area
of the tract of the land surveyed.
 By the term "Area" is meant the area of a tract of land as projected
upon a horizontal plane.
 It is not the actual area of the surface of land.
 The units of area commonly used are (1) the hectare, and (2) the square
metre.
 The former is used in rural lands, while the latter for urban lands.
 Areas may be determined (1) by the direct use of the field notes, and
(2) from the previously plotted plan.
 In the former method it is not necessary to draw a plan to scale.
 The accuracy of the results will solely depend upon that of the field
work, since errors of plotting and scaling are eliminated.
(1) Computation of Areas from Field Notes (Kanetkar and Kulkarni,
Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015) :- When conducting a survey with the
object of calculating the area directly from the field measurements, the survey
lines should be so arranged as to include the whole of the area.
• The altitudes of the large triangles should be measured to simplify
calculations.
• The calculations consist of two parts, viz. (a) calculations of the area of the
skeleton of the survey, and (b) that of the area enclosed between the survey
lines of the skeleton and the boundaries of the survey.
(a) Areas of Skeletons (Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling,
Part-I, 2015) :- The areas of skeletons may be determined:
(1) By geometry or (2) co-ordinates, according as the survey has been made with
the chain only or by traversing.
(1) By geometry :- The areas of the triangles forming skeletons may be
calculated by the following formulae.
(i) Area (∆) = , where a, b, and c are the sides of the
traingle, and s is the semi-perimeter = 1
2
1
(ii) Area (∆) =2
.
where b is the length of any side and h the perpendicular distance f the opposite
vertex from this side.
(I) Areas by co-ordinates:-
Rule
(1) Number the stations of the traverse in the serial order.
(2) Multiply each ordinate by the difference between the following abscissa
and preceding abscissa with always subtracting the preceding from the
following (or always subtracting the following from the preceding).
(3) Find the sum of the products. This sum equals twice the area of the traverse.
(4) Half this sum gives the area of the traverse.
area = 1 1 2 2 3 1 3 4 2 1 , 1
2
in which x1, x2, x3, etc. abscissas.
y1, y2, y3, etc. ordinates.
1. Arrange the coordinates in the following determinant forms.
2. Find the sum of the products of the coordinates joined by full lines, and the
sum of the products of the coordinates joined by broken lines.
3. Find the difference between these two sums, which gives twice the area of
the traverse.
4. Half this difference gives the required area.
Note :- x co-ordinate = abscissa, along the x axis(east and west line)
y co-ordinate=ordinate, along the y axis (north south line).
(II) Area from Latitudes and Double Meridian distances(D.M.D.):- (Fig.5.51)
The meridian distance of a line, also called longitude, is the perpendicular
distance of the midpoint of the line from the reference meridian.
The double meridian distance (DMD) or double longitude of a line is
equal to the sum of the meridian distances of the two ends of the line.
Rule: For finding the DMD (or double longitude)
a) The DMD of the first line is equal to the departure of the line.
b) The DMD of each succeeding line is equal to the DMD of the preceding line
plus the departure of the preceding line plus the departure of the line itself.
c) The DMD of the last line is numerically equal to the departure of the last line,
but with opposite sign.
• Rule :
1. Multiply each DMD by the latitude of that line.
2. Find the algebraic sum of these products. The algebraic sum gives twice the
area.
3. This sum divided by two is equal to the area of the traverse.
Note: (i) Due regard should be paid to the signs.
(ii)It is assumed that the reference meridian passes through the most westerly station
of the traverse. The most westerly station is the station at which the departures
change from west to east, or the latitudes change from south to north
(iii) The negative sign of the area has no significance. The rules for the DMD or
double longitude may be derived as follows
• Referring to fig.5.52, let AN be the reference meridian through the most
westerly station A. Then,
• fg = MD or longitude of AB
• hk = MD or longitude of BC
• mn = MD or longitude of CD
• pq = MD or longitude of DE
• rs = MD or longitude of EA
• bB = departure of AB
• tC = 2vC= departure of BC
• wD = 2xD= departure of CD
• zD = departure of DE
• eE = departure of EA
(i) Now fg = 1 Bb or 2fg = Bb.
2
DMD of AB = departure of AB.
(ii) hk = 1(Bb+ Cc): but Cc = ct + 1C and ct = Bb.
2
D.M.D. of BC = D.M.D. of AB+ departure of AB+ departure of BC.
(iii) mn = 1 1
2 2
But Vtc = hk; wd= Cc = VC+Vc.
Therefore, mn = 1
2
= 2hk+2VC+wD
Therefore, D.M.D. of CD = D.M.D of BC+ departure of BC+ departure of CD.
(iv) pq= 1 1
2 2
But Dd = dx = dx+xD and dx = mn.
Therefore, pq= 1
2
Therefore, D.M.D. of DF= D.M.D. of CD + departure of CD+ departure of DE.
(v) rs = 1
2
Therefore, D.M.D. of EA= departure of EA with opposite sign.
(III)Area from Departures and Total Latitudes : (Fig.5.53)
Any station may be taken as the reference station from which the total
latitude of the others may be calculated.
• Rule:
i. Find the total latitude of each station of the traverse.
ii. Find the algebraic sum of the departures of the two lines
meeting at that station.
iii. Multiply the total latitude of each station by the
corresponding algebraic sum of the departures.
iv. Find the algebraic sum of these products. This sum equals
twice the area of the traverse.
v. Take half the sum, which gives the required area.
Example 1: The following table gives the latitudes and departures of the sides
of a closed traverse ABCD. Compute its area.

Side Latitude in metre Departure in metre

N. S. E. W.
AB 214.8 - 124 -
BC - 245.1 205.7 -
CD - 155.9 - 90
DA 186.2 - - 239.7

Answer:
Rule I: Area of the traverse = 64351.995 sq. m.
Rule II: Area of the traverse = 64351. 995 sq. m.
Rule III: Area of the traverse =64351. 995 sq. m.
(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015)
(b) Areas along Boundaries :- The areas of the irregular strips
may be calculated by multiplying the mean if each successive pair
of adjacent off sets by the distance between them.
Let O1= the offset at chainage x1 along the survey line.
02= the offset at chainage x2 along the survey line.
Mean offset = 1 2

The distance between the offsets = x2 - x1. Then,

Area (∆)= 1 2
2 1
(II) Computation of Areas from Plan (Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and
Levelling, Part-I, 2015) :- Several methods available for determining areas from
the plan are (1) graphical, and (2) instrumental
(1) Graphical Methods :- The graphical methods are those in which the
required data are obtained from measurement on the plan.
In this case the area of the figure is found as a whole, of the areas of the
skeleton and the irregular strips are found separately.
• (a) Entire Areas :- (i) By Division into Triangles :- The most convenient
method is to divide the figure into a number of triangles.
• The base and altitude of each triangle are scaled and its area is found by
multiplying half the base by the altitude.
• When the boundaries are irregular, they are replaced by straight lines termed as
give and take or equalizing lines.
• These lines are so drawn that they exclude as much as they include as shown in
fig.7.2.
• The figure is thus replaced by a polygon as shown in fig.7.1.
(ii) By Division into Squares :- (Fig.7.3).
• In this method a piece of tracing paper ruled out into squares, each square
representing a definate number of square meters or square centimeters, is
placed over the drawing.
• The number of complete squares is then counted and the portions of the squares
broken by the curved boundary are estimated in terms of a whole square.
• The required area is equal to the total number of squares multiplied by the
square meters etc. which each square represents.
(iii) By Division into Trapezoids :- (Fig. 7.4).
• In this method a series of equidistant parallel lines are ruled on a tracing
paper, the constant distance between them representing some round number
of meters or centimeters.
• The tracing paper is then placed over the plan so that the area is exactly
enclosed between two of the parallel lines.
• The figure is thus divided into a number of strips, the curved ends of which
take lines as shown in fig.7.4.
• The sum of the lengths of the rectangles thus obtained, multiplied by the
common breadth gives the required area.
• The length of each strip is scaled by means of the ordinary plotting scale or
the computing scale.
• The computing scale (fig. 7.5) is a device for simplifying the process of
measuring lengths. It carries a sliding cursor with a fine wire upon it at right
angles to the scale. There is no need to draw the give and take lines on the
paper, since the cursor line serves this purpose.
• The sheet of the tracing paper is placed on the plan in a
suitable position and the computing scale on top of it in
the direction of lines.
• With the cursor at zero, scale is adjusted so that wire
equalizes the boundary at the left end of the uppermost
strip as at aa' in fig. 7.4.
• The cursor is then moved along until it equalizes the
boundary at the other end as at bb', and the mean length
of the strip is thus obtained.
• The scale is mechanically transferred to the next strip.
• It is then moved bodily until the wire cuts the beginning
of the strip, equalizing the boundary as at cc’ The cursor
is again moved along to the right until it cuts the end of
the strip, equalizing the boundary as at dd’.
• The reading now gives the combined lengths of the two
strips.
• The process is then continued until all the strips have
been measured and their total length obtained.
(iii) The Trapezoidal Rule (Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and
Levelling, Part-I, 2015) :- (Fig. 7.7 b).
• This rule is more accurate than the first two ones. In this method the area is
divided into a series of trapezoids. The rule may be stated as follows : "To
the sum of the first and the last ordinates, add twice, the some of the
intermediate ordinates. Multiply the total sum thus obtained by the common
distance between the ordinates. One half of this product gives the required
area.”
𝑂0+𝑂1+𝑂2+ / / / / + 2 𝑂 𝑛 − 1 𝑂 𝑛 𝑙
Area (∆)= (3)
2 𝑛
Or
Area (∆)= 𝑑 0 1 2 𝑛, 1 𝑛 (3a)
2
Or
𝑂0+𝑂
Area (∆)=d* 1 2 3 𝑛,1 (3b)
2
Note : When the base line cuts the boundary at one or both ends of the figure,
Oo or On, or both are zero. However, they must not be omitted from the
formula.
• The formula may be derived as follows :-
The trapezoidal rule assumes that the boundaries between the ends of the
ordinates are straight lines. Thus the area enclosed between the base line and the
irregular boundary is divided into a series of trapezoids. In fig. 7.8 let
Oo, O1, O2, …On = the ordinates taken at equal intervals.
d= the common distance between the ordinate.
Now the area of a trapezoid = half the sum of the two parallel sides × the
perpendicular distance between them.
Area of first trapezoid =𝑂𝑜+𝑂1
2
Area of second trapezoid =𝑂1+𝑂2
2
Area of third trapezoid =𝑂2+𝑂3
2
Area of last trapezoid =𝑂𝑛−1+𝑂𝑛
2
By addition we get
Total area (∆) = 𝑑
2 𝑜 1 2 𝑛,1 𝑛
Or
𝑂 𝑜 +𝑂 𝑛
Area (∆) = 1 2 𝑛, 1
2
Simpson's Rule (Kanetkar and Kulkarni,
Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015) :- (Fig.
7.7 a & B).
It may be stated thus : " To the sum of the first and last ordinates, add twice the sum
of the remaining odd ordinates and four times the sum of all the even ordinates.
Multiply the total sum thus obtained by one-third of the common distance between
the ordinates, and the result gives the required area.
Area (∆) = 𝑑 𝑜 1 2 3 𝑛, 2 𝑛, 1 𝑛
3
(4)

Note :- 01, 03, O5, etc., (the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., from the end) are even ordinates, and
02, 04, O6, etc., (the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc., from the end) are odd ordinates.
Note :- This method necessitates an even number of the divisions of the
area, i.e. the total number of ordinates must be odd. If there be an odd number of
divisions resulting in an even number of ordinates, the area of the last division must
be calculated separately, and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson's
rule to the remaining divisions.
• When one or both of the end ordinates (Oo or 0, or both) are zero, they must not be
omitted from the formula.
• The derivation of the formula is as follows :-
• Simpson's rule, also called the parabolic rule, assumes that the boundaries between
the ordinates are the arcs of a parabola. In fig. 7.9 let
• Ap (OO), Br’ (O1), Cq(O2) = any three consecutive ordinates taken at equal distances
d apart.
• The required area (∆)= the area (Apr'qC) enclosed between the base line AC, the
parabolic arc pr'q, and the end ordinates Ap and Cq.
• Through r’ draw p’r’q' parallel to the chord pq.
• Now the area Apr’qC = area of the trapezoid ApqC + area of segment pr’qrp
between the parabolic are pr’q and the chord pq.
• Area of the trapezoid ApqC =𝐴𝑝+𝐶𝑞 = 𝑂𝑜 +𝑂2
2 2
• Area of the segment pr’qrp = 2 * area of the enclosing.
3
2
• Parallelogram pp’q’q = (rr’ * AC)
3
• Where rr’ = Br’-Br = O1- 𝑂𝑜+𝑂2
2
; and AC = 2d.
𝑂𝑜+𝑂2 2 𝑂𝑜+𝑂2
• Therefore, the required area 1 (∆) = 1
𝑑 2 3 2
3 𝑜 1 2

• Similarly, the area for the next two divisions = 𝑑 2 3 4

3
And so on. Adding these partial areas, we have
The total area (∆) = 𝑑 𝑜 1 2 3 𝑛, 2 𝑛, 1 𝑛 .
3
Comparison of Rules: The results obtained using Simpson's rule are greater or
less than those obtained by using the Trapezoidal rule according as the curve of
the boundary is concave or convex towards the base line. The results obtained by
using Simpson's rule are more accurate and, therefore, where great accuracy is
required, it should be invariably used.
For the application of the Trapezoidal and Simpson's rules, the interval
between succussive ordinates must be uniform throughout the length of the base
line. If it is not the same, the base line may be divided into different sections,
each having the same interval. The areas of these sections should be calculated
separately and the results added to obtain the required area.
Example 1: the following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 m intervals
from a survey line to an irregular boundary line:- 3.82, 4.37, 6.82, 5.26, 7.59,
8.90, 9.52, 8.42, and 6.43 m. calculate the area in sq. meter enclosed between
the survey line, the irregular boundary line and the first and last offsets by the
application of (a) Simpson’s rule, (b) the trapezoidal rule, and
Answers:
(a) Simpson’s rule = 553.03 sq. meter
(b) Trapezoidal rule = 560.05 sq. meter

(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015)

Example 2: the following offsets were taken from a survey line to a hedge
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 55 70

Offset (m) 3.29 4.05 6.23 5.75 4.76 5.26 4.32 3.92 2.91

Find the area between the survey line and the hedge by using (a) Simpson’s rule,
(b) the trapezoidal rule.
Answers:-
(a) Simpson’s rule = 314.47 sq. meter
(b) Trapezoidal rule = 311.4 sq. meter

(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015)

Example 3: A series of offsets were taken from a chain line to a curved boundary
line at intervals of 10 m in the following order:
0, 2.82, 3.96, 6.42, 8.61, 8.90, 5.25, 0 m.
Compute the area between the chain line, the curved boundary line and the end
offsets by using (a) Simpson’s rule, (b) the trapezoidal rule.

Answers:
(a) Simpson’s rule = 369.42 sq. meter
(b) Trapezoidal rule = 359.60 sq. meter

(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015)

 Instrument Method
(Kanetkar and Kulkarni,2015)
• This method consists of determining the area of a given figure
by the use of a planimeter.
• It is the best and most expeditious method, and gives results
far more accurate (within 1 percent) than those obtained by
any other method except direct calculation from the field
notes.
• There are two types of planimeters (i) the Amsler polar
planimeter and (ii) the Rolling Planimeter, the former being in
most common use.
• The planimeter (fig 1 (a) and (b)) is most useful in
determining the areas of figures plotted to scale, especially
when the boundaries irregular or curved such as river
boundaries etc.
Figure 1 (a) and (b)
 Instrument Method

• It consists of two arms hinged at a point (pivot point).

One of the two arms is called anchor arm and is of fixed
length.
• It carries a needle point called the anchor point, which is
fixed in the paper and held in position by a small weight,
which is detachable.
• The other arm, called the tracing arm, is of an adjustable
length and carries a tracing point, which is moved
around the boundary of the area to be measured.
• The total normal displacement is measured by a wheel
whose axis is parallel to the tracing arm (whose plane is
perpendicular to the tracing arm).
 Instrument Method
 The wheel may be placed between the tracing point
and the pivot point, or beyond the pivot point away
from the tracing point.
 The wheel carries the graduated drum divided into
100 parts, the tenths of a part being read on the
vernier.
 The complete revolutions of the wheel or roller are
read on the counting disc or dial to which the wheel
is geared.
 The counting disc is divided into ten equal parts and
advances one line at every such turn of the wheel,
and performs one revolution at every 10 turns of the
wheel.
 Instrument Method
Each complete reading is, therefore, a figure of 4
digits, the units being read on the counting disc, the
tenths and hundredths on the drum, and the
thousandths on the vernier.
When the zero of the wheel is opposite the zero of the
vernier, mark of the counting disc should be opposite
the index mark. This never happens exactly owing to
the inperfections of the worm-wheel gear.
On the front and back of the tracing arm, several
divisions are marked.
The number of units of area per unit of reading, and
nature of unit and scale are marked to the right of
each division.
The figures on the top of the arm just over the
divisions correspond to the values of constant (C) of
the instrument for the corresponding scales.
The planimeter rests on three points, viz. the anchor
point, the tracing point, and the periphery of the wheel.
 As the tracing point is moved, around the outline of
the figure, the wheel partly rotates and partly slips or
slides.
The normal component of the motion causes rotation,
while the axial component of the motion causes slip
without affecting the reading.
The amount of rotation of the wheel measures the total
normal displacement, and thus area of the figure.
 Instrument Method
 The recording mechanism in the modern planimeter (fig.
2) is completely built in for protection against accidental
damage and dust.
 The measuring wheel and its axle are of stainless nickel
alloy steel and run in point bearings. T
 The vernier roads to four digits.
 The Pole Arm is linked with the recording mechanism by
ball and socket joint.
 The pole consists of a steel needle held in position by a
weight.
 The Tracer Arm can be supplied with either Tracer Point
or Magnifier (Power about 2 x ) having a central mark for
precise tracing Tracing of the contour lines.
 The graduations on both arms as well as on the recording
drums are engraved jet black on white plastic lacings.
Figure 2
 Use of the Planimeter
The method of using the Planimcter is as follows :
i. Set the index mark on the bevelled edge of the slide
to the scale to which the figure is drawn.
ii. Fix the needle or anchor point firmly on the paper
outside or inside the figure according as the figure is
small or large.
iii. Move the tracing point always in the clockwise
direction around the figure so as to see that all
points in the boundary can be reached without any
difficulty, and at the same time observe the dial in
order to see whether the total rotation of the whole
is in a forward or a backward motion.
 Use of the Planimeter
iv. Mark a definite point on the outline of the figure and set
the tracing point exactly at it.
v. Read the dial and wheel, and record it as the initial
reading (I.R.); alternatively, set the dial and wheel to
zero.
vi. It is much easier to note a reading than to set the dial
and wheel to zero. No attempt should, therefore, be
made to set them to zero.
vii. Move the tracing point exactly around the outline
always in a clockwise direction until it again reaches the
starting point exactly. Again read the dial and wheel,
recording it as the final reading (F.R.).
viii. Note the number of times the zero mark of the dial
passes the fixed index mark in a clockwise or counter-
clockwise direction, While the tracing. point is moved
along the outline of the figure.
 The area of the figure may then be obtained by the
formula,
Area (∆) = M (F. R.- I. R. 10 N +C)
M = the multiplier whose value is marked on the tracing arm
next to the scale division (the number. of units of area per
revolution of the roller or wheel).
F.R. = the final reading.
I. R. = the initial reading.
N = the number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the
fixed index mark.
C = the constant marked on the top of the tracing arm just
above the scale division.
 Zero Circle
(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and Levelling, Part-I, 2015)

• Zero circle or circle of correction is circle round the

circumference of which if tracing point is moved no rotation of
wheel will occur but while will slide on the paper without
changing the reading.
• This condition is attained when line joining anchor point and
wheel is perpendicular to line joining wheel and tracing arm.
The anchor point will be centre of the zero circle and line
connecting anchor point and tracing point will be radius of
zero circle.
• Area of zero circle is to be added to the recorded results when
the location of anchor point is within the figure as the
planimeter records the area of angular space between given
figure and zero circle.
 Formulae for area of zero circle

When wheel is placed beyond the hinge away from the tracing
point:
• A is anchor point, T is tracing point, H is pivot point and W is
wheel. Lines AW and TW are right angled to each other. So that
angle AWT is 900. AT is the radius of the zero circle.
• From triangle ATW
AT2 = TW2 +AW2 (1)
From triangle AWH
AH2 = HW2 +AW2
AW2 = AH2-HW2 (2)
Put equation 2 in equation 1
AT2 = TW2 + AH2-HW2
R’2 = (L+L1) 2 + R2- L 12 = L2+2LL 1+R2
R’= (L2+2LL1+R2)1/2
Area of zero circle = R’2 = (L2+2LL1+R2)
When the wheel is located between the hinge and tracing point:
• A is anchor point, T is tracing point, H is pivot point and W is
wheel. Lines AW and TW are right angled to each other. So that
angle AWT is 900. AT is the radius of the zero circle.
• From triangle ATW
AT2 = TW2 +AW2 (1)
From triangle AHW
AH2 = HW2 +AW2
AW2 = AH2-HW2 (2)
Put equation 2 in equation 1
AT2 = TW2 + AH2-HW2
R’2 = (L-L1) 2 + R2- L12 = L2-2LL 1+R2
R’= (L2-2LL1+R2)1/2
Area of zero circle = R’2 = (L2-2LL1+R2))
 Note :
• Use plus sign when the zero mark of the dial passes the
fixed index mark in a clockwise direction. Then ∆ = M
(FR. -I.R. + 10N + C).
• Use minus sign when in a counter-clockwise direction
Then ∆ = (FR. – IR. – 10 N + C).
• The constant C is to be added only when the anchor point
is fixed inside the figure.
• When the anchor point is inside the figure, Some
confusion between positive and negetive results arises.
• In order to avoid it, it must be remembered that in the
case of clockwise rotation, the net rotation of the wheel is
always forward, if the area of the figure is greater than
that of the zero circle while it is always backward, if the
area of the figure is less than that of the zero circle.
 Planimeter Numericals

1. The following readings were obtained when a figure was traversed

clockwise with the anchor point outside and with the tracing arm to
the natural scale giving a multiplying constant 100 sq. cm. The zero
of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark once in the
clockwise direction. Initial reading is 9.478 and final reading is
1.536. Calculate the area of the figure. (Answer: 205.8 sq. cm)

2. Calculate the area of figure traversed clockwise with the anchor

point inside and the tracing arm set to give M the multiplying
constant = 100 sq. cm and additive constant C = 20.00. Initial
reading = 3.436, final reading = 8.945. The zero mark of the dial
passed the fixed index once in reverse direction. (Answer:1550.9
sq. cm.)
3. The following readings were obtained when the perimeter of
rectangle 250 mm x 750 mm was traversed clockwise with the
anchor point inside and the tracing arm set to natural scale (M
for 1 vernier unit = 10 sq. mm). Initial reading is 8989 vernier
units and final reading is 239 vernier units. The zero of
counting disc passed the fixed mark twice in the reverse
direction. Find the area of the zero circle. (Answer: 275200 sq.
m)

4. Compute the tracer arm setting so that one revolution of the

wheel equals 100 sq. cm with the following data:
circumference of wheel = 6.35 cm, length of tracer arm = 0.5 x
reading of arm setting. (Answer: 31.50)
• The difference in planimeter reading was 0.984 when the area
of 100 sq. cm was measured by the planimeter with the anchor
point outside. With the same setting of the tracing arm and
with the anchor point outside another figure was traversed
clockwise and difference between readings was 2.264. What is
the area of figure? (Answer: 230.08 sq. cm)
 Extent of Earthwork
(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, 2015)
The plan showing the boundary of earth work (cutting or
filling) may be drawn in order to determine the area of
land covered by earthwork.
There are two cases to be considered, viz (a) one in which
the ground is assumed to be level transversely (i.e. level
section), and (b) the other in which the ground is sloping
transversely (i.e. two-level section).
 Formulae for Volume
(Kanetkar and Kulkarni, 2015)
A Prismoid (Fig. 4) is a solid whose ends are plane
figures, not necessarily of the same number of sides,
lying in parallel planes and whose longitudinal
faces are trapezoids.
Notations:-
, , ……. = the areas of the cross-sections
D = the distance between the cross-sections
V = the volume of a cutting or an embankment.
Trapezoidal fomula (Average End Area Rule):
V= (22)
Dr. K. R. Arora, Surveying, Volume-I, 2019
Prismoidal Rule (Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and
Levelling, Part-I, 2015):
 In order to apply the prismoidal formula, it is necessary
to have an odd number of sections. If there be an even
number of sections, the end strip must be treated
separately, and the volume of the remaining strips
calculated by the prismoidal formula.
 The volume of the last strip may be computed by the
trapezoidal rule or by the prismoidal formula. If the latter
is to be applied, the area halfway between the end
sections of the last strip should be interpolated by
averaging the corresponding linear dimensions of the end
sections and not by averaging the areas of the end
sections of the last strip.
Dr. K. R. Arora, Surveying, Volume−I, 2019
Dr. K. R. Arora, Surveying, Volume−I, 2019
 Numericals

• Figure shows three cross-sections of an embankment at an

interval of 30 m. Calculate the volume between end sections
by (i) trapezoidal rule and (ii) prismoidal rule. (Answer:
Trapezoidal rule: 3915 sq. m, prismoidal rule: 3870 sq. m)

Dr. K. R. Arora, Surveying, Volume−I, 2019

 Volume of Earthwork from Contour Plan
(Arora, 2019)
 The volume of earthwork can also be computed from the
contour plan. The following methods are commonly used.
1. Section Method.
 The section of the ground surface along a line AB (Fig. 6a) can
be drawn from the contour plan by projecting the points of
intersection and marking their levels. Thus the L-section is
plotted.
Figure 6
 Figure 6 (b) shows the L-section along the line AB. The figure
also shows the formation line of the proposed road at the
required gradient.
 The depths of filling or cutting at various sections 1, 2,3. etc.
can be measured from the L-section. The area of cross-section
is determined from the depth at the centre and side slopes as
discussed earlier.
 The volume of earthwork is then computed using the
trapezoidal rule or the prismoidal formula.
2. Horizontal Planes Method.
 In this method, the volume of earthwork is computed by taking
horizontal sections on the contour plan (Fig. 7). The contours
of the proposed formation surfaces are shown by dashed lines.
The full lines represent the original ground surface.
2. Horizontal Planes Method.

Figure 7
 The volume of earthwork can be computed as explained
below.
1. Locate the points of no cut or no fill. These are the points of
intersection of the full-line contour and the corresponding
dash-line contour. The points are marked a, b, d, e, h, and j,
etc. in Fig, 7.
2. Determine the areas entirely in filling (area abcdefa) and the
area entirely in cutting (area dghjked)
3. At various contour elevations, draw the horizontal sections of
the earth fill, ( ) and the earth cut ( ). These
are shown hatched in Fig. 7.
4. Determine the base areas of fills from the horizontal sections
etc. and the base areas of cut from the horizontal
sections etc. The areas can be easily computed with
a planimeter.
 2. Horizontal Planes Method.

 The hatched area enclosed between the 199-contour of the

ground surface and the 199-contour of the formation surface is
the area of the horizontal surface at R.L. 199.0. It represents
filling. On the other hand, the hatched area represents
cutting.
5. Compute the volume of the earthwork between two
successive contours using the trapezoidal formula.

Where h is the contour interval between .

 2. Horizontal Planes Method.

2 3
Likewise,

 For applying the above formulae to the end sections, the

elevations of the end points c and f should be estimated
assuming that the slope of the ground is uniform between
contours. The volume of the end sections is usually determined
by assuming the solids as pyramids.
 2. Horizontal Planes Method.

 Let , be respectively 115, 120 and 110 Let the

elevations of the end points c and f be respectively 199.6 and
196.2
 Volume.
Between 199.6 to 199.0, =

199.0 to 198.0, =

198.0 to 197.0, = 0

197.0 to 196.2, =
Total = 284.83
 3. Equal Depths Method

• The volume of earthwork can be obtained from the contour

plan after drawing the lines of equal depths of cutting and
filling.
• Figure 8 shows a contour plan. The full lines represent the
contours of the original ground surface, and the dashed lines
represent the proposed formation surface.
• At the intersection of a full-line contour with a dash-line
contour, the depths of cutting or filling can be determined.
Thus the points of zero depth, 1 m depth, 2 m depth and 3 m
depth of filling are located. In Fig. 8, the entire area is in
filling.
 3. Equal Depths Method

 In a gerneral case, the points of zero cutting or filling are

located and the limits of the cutting areas and the filling areas
are marked. The lines of equal depths are located separately
for each area.
 Join the points of equal cut or fill. Fig. 8 also shows the lines
of 0, 1, 2 and 3 m fill as thick firm lines.
 The lines joining the equal cut (or fill) represent the horizontal
projections of lines obtained by cutting (or filling) the existing
ground surface by planes parallel to the finished formation
surface.
 These horizontal projections are shown by thick lines in Fig. 8.
The areas bounded by each of these thick lines are determined
with a planimeter.
 3. Equal Depths Method
 The volume between any two successive areas is determined
by multiplying the average of the two areas by the depth
between them.
 For illustration, let the areas at 0, 1, 2 and 3 m depth be,
respectively, 500, 330, 250 and 140 m²,
Volumes. Between 0 and 1 m depth, = = 415

1 m and 2 m depth, = = 290

2 to 3 m depth, = = 195
Total = 900
3. Equal Depths Method

Figure 8
 Mass-haul diagram
• A mass-haul diagram is a plot between the cumulative
volume of earthwork and the distance. It is a continuous
curve whose ordinate represents the algebraic sum of the
volumes of cutting and filling, and the abscissa
represents the distance.
• While computing the algebraic sum of volumes, the
cuttings are usually assumed as positive and the fillings,
as negative.
• In hillside sections, the difference of the volumes of
cuttings and fillings, with its proper sign, is used to
compute the algebraic sum of volumes.
 Mass-haul diagram
• While computing the volumes, due allowance shall be
made for the swelling of the excavated material or for
the reduction in volume due to compaction of the filled
material.
• Generally, the excavated soil increases in volume when
removed from the ground. But when again filled and
compacted, it may occupy less volume than what it
occupied originally in situ.
• An ordinary soil may have an overall decrease
(shrinkage) of about 10 to 20% when fully compacted.
On the other hand, some rocks may have an overall
increase (bulking) of 25 to 35%.
Mass-haul diagram

Fig. 1 Mass-haul diagram

 Procedure for the construction of a mass-haul diagram

1. Divide the length of the road (or railway) into separate reaches.
2. Compute the volume of earthwork for each reach using the
methods already discussed.
3. Plot a longitudinal section of each reach on a suitable scale (Fig.
1).
4. Determine the accumulated volumes at various points, taking the
volume at the starting point as zero.
5. Generally, the mass-haul diagram is drawn below the L-section.
Select a suitable base line for the mass-haul diagram.
6. Plot the cumulative volumes as ordinates and the distance as
abscissa. Keep the distances between the reaches the same as in the
L-section. Plot the positive cumulative volumes above the base
line, and the negative volumes below the base line.
7. Join the ends of the adjacent ordinates by a smooth curve.
 Points to be noted in the mass-haul diagram
1. The mass-haul diagram rises in the case of cuttings, and falls in the case
of fillings.
2. The maximum point occurs at the end of a cut, and the minimum point
occurs at the end of a filling reach.
3. The difference between the ordinates at two points is equal to the volume
of cut (or fill) between the two points, provided there is no maximum or
minimum point between them.
4. The vertical distance between a maximum point and the next minimum
point is equal to the volume of the filling.
5. The vertical distance between a minimum point and the next maximum
point is equal to the volume of the cutting.
6. If the diagram cuts the base line at any two points in succession, the
volume of cuttings between the two points is equal to the volume of
fillings, as the algebraic sum of the volumes is zero.
7. Any horizontal line drawn parallel to the base line and intersecting the
curve at two points is a balancing line. It indicates a length over which
the volume of cuttings is equal to that of filling.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Haul distance: It is the distance between the working face of an
excavation along the route and the tip end of the embankment formed
from the excavated material.
2. Average haul distance: It is the distance between the centre of gravity
of the excavation and that of the embankment.
3. Haul: It is equal to the total volume of the excavation multiplied by the
average haul distance. It is also equal to the area between the mass-haul
curve and the balancing line. If haul is known, the average haul
distance can be obtained by dividing it by the volume. The unit of haul
is 1 station-metre. One station-metre is equal to 1 m³ of material moved
through one station (100 m).
4. Free-haul distance (F.H.D.): It is the distance upto which the hauling
is done by the contractor without charging extra. Generally, the rate
quoted is for excavation and free hauling upto a certain distance, called
free- haul distance.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
5. Overhaul: It is the distance beyond the free haul distance for which
extra payment is made to the contractor.
6. Borrow: It is the material needed for the embankment taken from
borrow pits. If the material available from the excavation is not
sufficient for the embankment, borrow pits are dug to take out extra
material.
7. Waste (spoil): It is the material excavated from cuts but not used for
embankment. When the excavated quantity is greater than that required
for embankment, extra material is dumped in spoil banks.
8. Limit of economical haul (L.E.H.): It is the maximum limit of the
haul distance beyond which it is not economical to use the material
obtained from cuts. Beyond the limit of economical haul, it is more
economical to waste the material or to take the material from the
borrow pits than to haul it.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
The limit of economical haul is obtained from the following relation

For illustration, if free haul distance is 200 m, the cost of excavation is Rs.
3 per m3, and the overhaul is Rs. 2 per station metre, the limit of
economical haul is given by

It may be noted that upto a distance of 350 m, the cost of overhaul is less
than the cost of excavation, but beyond 350 m, the cost of overhaul will be
more. For example, for a distance of 400 m (i.e. 200 m beyond free haul
distance), the cost of overhaul will be Rs. 4 but the cost of excavation is
Rs. 3/-. It would be more economical to take the material from the borrow
pit than to haul it from the cut.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
9. Lead: It is the horizontal distance through which excavated material is
moved from the cut to the required embankment. Generally, a lead of
30 m is included in the cost. The term lead has the same meaning as the
average haul distance. However, the term is general and used for the
horizontal distance moved for bringing any material to the site. For
example, when we say that cement will have a lead of 5 km, we mean
that cement will be brought to the site from a distance of 5 km.
10.Lift: It is the vertical distance through which excavated material from a
cut is moved to the required embankment. Generally, a lift of 1.5 m is
included in the cost. If the embankment is constructed at a higher level
than the cut area, the contractor charges extra for lift. Like lead, lift is
also a general term and is used for the vertical distance moved for
bringing any material to the site. For example, if concrete is to be
deposited at a height of 10 m above the ground level, it will have a lift
of 10 m.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
11. Balancing line: Any horizontal line drawn on the mass-haul diagram is
a balancing line because it balances the volumes of cutting and filling.
There is no difference in the cumulative volume between the two points
where the balancing line cuts the mass haul diagram.
12. Shrinkage factor: It is the ratio of the volume of the compacted soil to
the volume occupied by it in situ conditions. For most soils, a shrinkage
factor of 0.8 is generally taken.
13. Bulking factor: It is the ratio of the volume of the dumped rock to the
volume occupied by it in situ conditions. For most rocks, a bulking
factor of 1.25 is generally taken.
 MOVEMENT OF EXCAVATED MATERIAL

Fig. 3 shows a mass-haul diagram. The balancing lines EF and CF are also
marked.
When the loop of the mass-haul curve cutoff by a balancing line is above
that line, the excavated material must be moved forward to the right in the
direction of the increasing abscissa. However, when the loop is below the
balancing line, the material must be moved backwards to the left in the
direction of decreasing abscissa. The directions of movement are shown by
arrows for loops AEF and CBD.

Fig. 3 Mass-haul diagram

 MOVEMENT OF EXCAVATED MATERIAL
The following points should also be noted.
1. The length of a balancing line intercepted by a loop of the curve
represents the maximum distance involved in disposing off the
excavated material.
2. The area enclosed by a loop of the mass-haul diagram and a balancing
line is equal to haul in that reach.
3. The haul over any length is a minimum when the location of the
balancing line is such that the arithmetic sum of areas cut off by it,
ignoring the sign, is a minimum.
4. Whenever there is a vertical interval between successive balancing
lines, there is waste if the succeeding balancing line is above the
preceding balancing line. The extra material has to be dumped as waste.
On the other hand, if the succeeding balancing line is below the
preceding balancing line, there is borrow. The extra material has to be
obtained from the borrow pits.
 MOVEMENT OF EXCAVATED MATERIAL

5. The best solution from the haul consideration is to minimize the area
between the mass-haul curve and the balancing line. However, it may
result in large waste and borrows, and may not be overall economical.
The true economy can only be achieved by keeping the overall cost of
excavation, hauling, wasting and borrowing to a minimum.
A number of solutions would be possible, depending upon the free-haul
distance, overhaul limit of economic haul, etc. and the solution which
gives the minimum overall cost is the most economical.
6. It is worth noting that the aim is to reduce the overall cost and not to
minimize the volume of excavation.
 COMPUTATION OF OVERALL COST
The mass-haul diagram can be used to compare the various alternatives of
the utilization of the excavated material, and to determine the most
economical alternative. The most economical scheme for distribution of
the excavated material may be found by comparing the cost for different
positions of the balancing lines.

Fig. 4 Mass-haul diagram

 COMPUTATION OF OVERALL COST
The method of computing the overall cost for a given mass-haul diagram is
discussed below. A similar procedure can be used for other cases as well.
Fig. 4 shows a mass-haul diagram. Let us assume that the free-haul
distance is 200 m. If the cost of excavation is Rs. 30/- per m3 and the cost
of overhaul is Rs. 15/- per station m3, the limit of economical haul is given
by
30
15
The line FG is equal to the free-haul distance (=200 m), and the line DE is
equal to the limit of economical haul (=400 m).
The overhaul DFJ and KGE are shown hatched. The volume of the
material involved in various reaches are found as under:
1. The distance AC is equal to the free-haul distance. The cut from B to C
is used for the fill from A to B. Volume = 1000 m3.
 COMPUTATION OF OVERALL COST
2. From C to D, there is waste.
Volume = 1000 m3
3. DFJ and GKE are overhaul.
4. From E to J, there is borrow.
Volume = 1000 m3
The cost is found as under.
a) Excavation
B to C 1000 m3
C to H 2000 m3
Total = 3000 m3
b) Borrow
E to J 1000 m3
Total excavation = 4000 m3
The cost of excavation at Rs. 30/- per m3 =
COMPUTATION OF OVERALL COST
c) Overhaul
Area DFJ and area GKE = 500 station m
The cost of overhaul @ Rs. 15 /- per station metre
 USES OF MASS-HAUL DIAGRAMS
The uses of mass-haul diagrams can be summarized as under.
1. The mass-haul diagrams can be used to compare the various alternatives of the
utilization of the excavated material, and to determine the most economical
alternative.
2. The most economical solution is found by trial and error. The positions and
lengths of the balancing lines are changed, and the cost is worked out for each
alternative.
3. The wastage of the material at one place and borrowing the material at another
place can be minimized.
4. The diagram can be used to ascertain the locations where it would be
economical to dump the waste in spoil banks.
It can also be used to ascertain the locations where it would be more
economical to borrow the material from the borrow pits than to haul the
excavated material.
5. The mass-haul diagram can be used to modify the design, such as that of
widening of an embankment, in the most economical manner and to reduce the
waste.
 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
• The volume of borrow pits and excavations for large tanks, basements,
etc., with vertical sides, can be determined from the spot levels of the ground
taken before starting the excavation and the required formation level.
• The outline of the pit is marked on the ground, and the pit area is divided into a
number of squares, rectangles or triangles.
• The points where different lines intersect one another are called corner points.
 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
• These corner points are marked on the ground. Spot levels are taken at all the
corner points with a levelling instrument.
• The depth of excavation or height of filling at every corner point may be
determined from the ground level and the required formation level.
• Fig. 5 shows the plan of a pit divided into a number of squares. Let us consider
a square marked abcd (shown hatched). Let the depths of excavation at the four
corners a, b, c, and d be ha, hb, hc and hd, respectively.
 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
The solid abcd may be considered as a vertical truncated prism because the
ground level plane and the formation level plane are not parallel and the
depths ha, hb, hc and hd are not equal. The volume of the truncated prism
abcd may be obtained as

Fig. 5 Plan of a pit

 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

where A is the horizontal area of the prism.

In fig. 5 (a), there are 15 squares. The numbers in the circle at various
corners indicate the numbers of squares in which a particular corner is
common. It may be observed that corners such as a are common to one
squares; corners such as b and d are common to two squares; and the
corner such as c are common to four squares. Consequently, depths will
be used once, twice, thrice or four times depending upon the number of
squares meeting at that corner. Let
1
2
3

4
 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
The volume of the entire pit can be expressed as
ℎ 𝑎 +ℎ 𝑏 +ℎ 𝑐 +ℎ 𝑑 ℎ 𝑏 +ℎ 𝑒 +ℎ 𝑓 +ℎ 𝑐 ℎ 𝑒 +ℎ 𝑔 +ℎ ℎ +ℎ 𝑓
V
4 4 4
𝐴
V
4 1 2 3 4

Triangular Prisms. Fig. 5 (b) shows the pit divided into triangles in
plan. These triangles represent the truncated triangular prisms. In this
case, one corner point can be common upto eight tringles. Determine
the depths h1, h2… etc. which are common to one, two, …etc, triangular
prisms. The volume of one triangular prism abc is given by
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

where A = horizontal area of the prism.

 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
The volume of entire pit can be expressed as
ℎ 𝑎 +ℎ 𝑏 +ℎ 𝑐 ℎ 𝑎 +ℎ 𝑐 +ℎ 𝑑
V
3 3
𝐴
V
3 1 2 8

where 1 2 etc. are sum of depths used once, twice, etc.

Care shall be taken while selecting the diagonal. The diagonal line
which represents the ground undulations correctly should be selected.
For example, instead of joining corners a and c, the corners b and d
should be joined if the diagonal bd represents the actual topographery
more correctly.
There is no special advantage in using the triangular prisms unless the
diagonal of any square lies along a ridge or a valley. If the ground
surface is warped, the volume of pit as computed from the square
prisms and that from the triangular prisms may be different.
 VOLUME BY SPOT LEVELS
Illustrative Example: Figure shows the existing ground levels on a 15
m square grid for a plot of land which is to be excavated to a uniform
formation level of 100.00. Calculate the volume of earth required to be
excavated.

Answers:
Volume = 2553.75 m3
 CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
The capacity of a reservoir can be determined from the contour plan. This
is a particular case of computation of volume from the contour plan when
the finished surface is a level surface.
Fig. 6 shows the contour plan of the reservoir on the upstream of a dam.
The contour of 125 m represents the water edge at full reservoir level
(F.R.L.) of 125.00. The water spread at R.L. of 125.00 is equal to the
surface area of the reservoir when it is full. Likewise, the water spread at
R.L. of 120, 115, 110, 105 and 100 are also shown.
The volume is computed by assuming that the reservoir is divided into a
number of horizontal slices. For computation of the volume, the whole
area lying within a contour line and the upstream of the dam is determined
with a planimeter. It must be noted that the areas required are the whole
areas upto the dam and not the areas between adjacent contours.
 CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR

Fig. 6 Contour plan of reservoir

The whole areas enclosed by successive contour lines are taken as

horizontal sections and the vertical interval between them as the constant
distance for computation of the volume by the trapezoidal rule or the
prismoidal formula.
Let A1, A2, A3… be the whole areas included by the contours of 125, 120,
115, etc. and let h be the contour interval.
 CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
The volume of the reservoir can be obtained from the trapezoidal rule as
𝐴 1 +𝐴 𝑛
2 2 3 𝑛1

Alternatively, by the prismoidal formula

1 𝑛 2 4 3 5

Of course, the prismoidal formula is applicable only when n is an odd

number.
 CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
Elevation-Capacity Curve: A plot is generally made between the
elevation of the water surface and the corresponding capacity of the
reservoir. The plot is known as the elevation-capacity curve (Fig. 7). As the
elevation is increased, the capacity of the reservoir is also increased.
The elevation-capacity curve is obtained after calculating the capacity of
the reservoir at various elevations as discussed above. Once the curve has
been drawn, it can be used to determine the capacity of the reservoir at a
particular elevation.

Fig. 7 Elevation-capacity curve

 CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
Illustrative Example: The contour plan of a proposed reservoir is shown
in figure. The areas enclosed by various contours are given below.
Contour (m) 100 105 110 115 120 125

Area (ha) 3 8 10 15 20 25

Determine (a) the capacity of the reservoir if the full reservoir level is
125.00, (b) the elevation of the water surface when the reservoir if half-
full. Ignore the volume below R.L. 100.00
Answers:
(a) 337.5 ha-m
(b) 116.79 m
 References

 Kanetkar, T. P. (2015). Surveying and Levelling Part- 1.

Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan, Pune.
 Arora, k. R. (2019). Surveying Volume- 1. Standard Book
House, Delhi.