HISTORY MINOR COMPLETE NOTES

CHAPTER-1

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

INTRODUCTION

The study of ancient Indian history is important for several reasons. It tells us how, when and
where people developed the earliest cultures in India, how they began undertaking agriculture and
stock raising which made life secured and settled. It shows how the ancient Indians discovered and
utilized natural resources, and how they created the means for their livelihood. The study of
ancient India history gives us an idea of how the ancient inhabitants made arrangement food,
shelter and transport and also hoe they took to farming, weaving, spinning, metal working and the
like, how they cleared forests, founded villages, cities and eventually large kingdoms. The methods
of archaeology help us to recover the material remains of the past, relating to ancient, medieval
and modern periods of our history. All historical interpretations are ultimately based on evidence
derived from the sources of history. The sources of history are generally divided into two
categories- literary and archaeological. Literary sources include all texts-long and short, written or
oral. Archaeological sources include all tangible, material remains. But these distinctions are not
absolute. All remains of the past, including literary manuscripts are actually material in nature and
some kinds of archaeological sources which have writings on them-inscriptions, coins, and
inscribed images- can be considered both material objects and texts. Historical sources are the
conduits through which information about the past is conveyed. These sources play a crucial role
in unravelling the tapestry of history. The study of Ancient Indian history provides insights into the
origins, development, and locations where the earliest cultures in our country flourished. Various
groups, such as the pre-Aryans, Indo-Aryans, Greeks, Scythians, Hunas, Turks, and more, made
India their home, each contributing significantly to the richness and substantial enormity of Indian
culture.

LITERARY SOURCES

Ancient and early medieval Indian texts can be divided into categories on the basis of language,
genre, content, age, and the tradition or class of literature to which they belonged. The oldest
surviving text in the Indian subcontinent is the Vedas written in Sanskrit. Like Pali and Prakrit
languages Sanskrit also belongs to the Indo - Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of
languages. The historical sources of Indian history encompass a vast array of physical objects,
resources, and spaces that define a civilization, culture, and tradition. These sources manifest as
traces of the past, taking the form of graves, building remnants, inscriptions, secular and religious
literature, chronicles, traveller’s accounts, coins, monuments, palaces, forts, royal farms, court
bulletins, historical letters, and more. Each artifact serves as a valuable piece in reconstructing the
narrative of bygone eras.

Types of literary sources:

A) THE VEDAS
B) Ramayana And Mahabharat
C) The Puranas
D) THE DHARMASHASTRA
E) BUDDHIST LITERATURE
F) JAINA LITERATURE
G) NON – RELIGIOUS LITREATURE
H) SANGAM LITERATURE
 I) FOREIGN ACCOUNTS

The Vedas
The earliest religious texts are the Vedas, written between 1500 600 BC, forming Hinduism’s oldest
scriptures. Rig Veda, the oldest, consists of prayers, 1028 hymns (Suktas), and 10 books
(Mandalas), addressing philosophical questions and societal virtues. Sama Veda (1200-800 BC) is
the root of Indian classical music and dance with 1549 verses. Yajur Veda (1100-800 BC) compiles
ritual-offering mantras/chants performed by priests alongside a ritual performer. Atharva
Veda (1000-800 BC) focuses on daily life procedures, spells, and magical formulas. In the Hindu
tradition, the Vedas have the status of shruti (literally, ‘that which has been heard’). They are
thought to embody an eternal, self-existent truth realized by the rishis (seers) in a state of
meditation or revealed to them by the gods. The category of smriti (literally, ‘remembered’) texts
includes the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharma shastra, and Nitishastra. The word Veda comes from
the root vid (literally, ‘to know’) and means ‘knowledge’. There are four Vedas—Rig, Sama, Yajur,
and Atharva. The Rig Veda contains the world’s oldest surviving poetry, some of it of extraordinary
beauty and philosophical depth. Each Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes blend
into each other—the Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. The Rig Veda Samhita is a
collection of 1,028 hymns (Suktas) arranged in 10 books (Mandalas). The Sama Veda consists of
1,810 verses, mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda, arranged according to the needs of musical
notation. The original melodies are, however, lost. The Yajur Veda deals with the details of the
performance of rituals. The Atharva Veda is the latest Veda and contains hymns (some from the
Rig Veda), but also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices. Vedic
literature forms an important part of the Brahmanical tradition—texts preserved and transmitted
by a section of Brahmana males. It reflects their religious beliefs, practices, and points of view. As a
source of history, these texts are used for information about life in parts of north-western and
northern India during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. A number of supplementary texts known as
Vedanga (literally, ‘limbs of a Veda’) aimed at helping the proper recitation, use, and
understanding of the Vedas. These include works on phonetics (shiksha), metre (chhanda),
grammar (vyakarana), etymology (nirukta), ritual (kalpa), and astronomy (jyotisha).

Ramayana And Mahabharat

The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, fall within the category of smriti as well
as itihasa (traditional history), although the Ramayana is sometimes classified as kavya (poetry).
The Mahabharata consists of 18 Parvas (books) and has two main recensions—a northern and
southern. The core story concerns a conflict between two sets of cousins—the Kauravas and the
Pandavas—and a great war that was fought between them at Kurukshetra. The Ramayana exists in
the form of two main recensions—northern and southern. The basic story is about Rama, prince of
Kosala; his banishment to the forest due to the intrigues of his wicked stepmother; the abduction
of his wife Sita by Ravana, the king of Lanka; Sita’s rescue; and Rama’s return to the capital,
Ayodhya, to become king. Compiled by AD 400, Ramayana and Mahabharata are two epics
attributed to sage Vyasa. The Mahabharata, originally containing 8,800 verses, expanded to
24,000 verses and included the Bhagavad Gita. Ramayana, originally with 6,000 verses, expanded
to 24,000 verses.

The Puranas

The word ‘Purana’ means ‘old’. According to tradition, the Puranas were composed by Vyasa, but it
is clear that in the form in which they have come down to us, they were not the work of one
person nor of one age. There are 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas), and many more Upapuranas
(secondary Puranas). The standard list of the 18 Mahapuranas includes the Vishnu, Narada,
Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni, Brahmanda,
Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana, and Brahma. The origins of the Puranas may
have overlapped to some extent with the Vedas, but their composition stretched forward into the
4th–5th centuries CE, and in some cases, even later. The Puranas have accounts of mountains,
rivers, and places, which are useful for the study of historical geography. They also reflect the
emergence of religious cults based on devotion, especially towards the gods Vishnu and Shiva and
the goddess Shakti. This devotion was expressed through the worship of images of deities in
temples, pilgrimage (tirtha), and vows (vrata).
Numbering 18, the Puranas are essential texts providing detailed information about ancient Indian
history. Matasya, Vayu, and Vishnu Puranas contain significant information on ancient Indian
dynasties, serving as the primary source after the Battle of Mahabharata. Puranas contribute to
the cultural history of Ancient India, offering a chronological account of different dynasties.

THE DHARMASHASTRA

The Sanskrit word dharma (from the root dhri, meaning ‘to maintain, support, or sustain’) is very
rich in meaning and difficult to translate. The concept of dharma is based on the idea that the
universe is governed by a certain natural law and that the moral laws guiding people’s lives should
be in consonance with that natural law. A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with
dharma are collectively known as the Dharmashastra. These texts can be subdivided into three
groups. The first two are the Dharmasutras and the Smritis. The third includes brief and elaborate
commentaries, comments and conclusions. Belonging to the category of law books,
Dharmashastras prescribe duties for different social groups and set out codes of conduct for
various offenses like theft, murder, and adultery. An estimated 18 to about 100 Dharmashastras
were written, reflecting the moral and legal guidelines of the time.
BUDDHIST LITREATURE
Early Buddhist literature is generally divided into canonical and non-canonical texts. Canonical
texts are the books which lay down the basic tenets and principles of a religion or sect. The various
Buddhist schools classify their canonical literature in different ways, some into 9 or 12 Angas,
others into 3 Pitakas. There are Pali, Chinese, and Tibetan versions of the Tipitaka (The Three
Baskets/ Collections). The Tipitaka consists of three books—the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma.
Non-canonical Buddhist literature in Pali includes the Milindapanha (1st century BCE–1st century
CE) which consists of a dialogue on various philosophical issues between king Milinda—no doubt
the Indo-Greek Menander—and the monk Nagasena. Buddhist texts are important sources for the
history of Buddhism, its doctrines, monastic order, and royal patrons such as Ashoka, revealing
many other facets of the polity, society, and economy of their times as well. They offer a non -
Brahmanical window into ancient India; however, the Brahmanical perspective is replaced by a
Buddhist one.
The oldest Buddhist writings emerged several centuries after Gautama Buddha’s demise,
predominantly falling under the sutta or sutra genre. Canonical and non-canonical literature exist
within Buddhist texts. The earliest Buddhist texts, written in the Pali language, are known
as Tripitakas, comprising Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Sutta
Pitaka contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his companions, including
discussions from the first Buddhist council held shortly after Buddha’s death (around 400 BC).
Vinaya Pitaka focuses on monastic rules for monks and nuns, serving as the Book of Discipline.
Abhidhamma Pitaka delves into the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism present in the suttas,
lacking systematic philosophical treatises. In the 5th century AD, Buddhaghosha wrote a
commentary on the Tripitaka. The Jatakas are crucial non-religious Buddhist literature, recounting
stories of the Buddha’s previous births. It is believed that before becoming Gautama, the Buddha
experienced over 550 births, with each birth story termed a Jataka. These stories provide insights
into the social and economic conditions between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC. Other significant
Buddhist texts include Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Buddhacharita, and Lalitavistara. Mahavamsa
details royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka. Dipavamsa discusses the
arrival of Buddha’s teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka. Buddhacharita, by Asvaghosa, is an epic
Sanskrit text narrating Gautama Buddha’s life. Lalitavistara is revered in Mahayanic writings,
focusing on the Buddha’s biography.

JAINA LITERATURE

The sacred books of the Jainas are collectively known as the Siddhanta or Agama. The language of
the earliest texts is an eastern dialect of Prakrit known as Ardha-Magadhi. Jaina literature offers
information regarding the history and doctrines of Jainism, the doctrines of rival schools, the life
stories of the saints, and the life of monks and nuns in the sangha. The texts can also be used for
information on other aspects of the cultural history of their times. Jaina literature, collectively
termed Agamas, consists of canonical texts based on Lord Mahavira’s teachings. Written in Prakrit,
these texts were compiled in the 6th century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat. Angas form a significant
part of Jaina literature, containing the philosophical concepts of the Jainas. Jaina literature,
collectively termed Agamas, consists of canonical texts based on Lord Mahavira’s teachings.
Written in Prakrit, these texts were compiled in the 6th century AD at Vallabhi in
Gujarat.Angas form a significant part of Jaina literature, containing the philosophical concepts of
the Jainas. Achrangasutra, the oldest Jaina text, outlines monastic rules, while Kalpasutra narrates
the biographies of Jain Tirthankaras, especially Parshvanatha and Mahavira.

NON – RELIGIOUS LITREATURE

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a renowned source for studying statecraft, political theories, economic
policies, and military strategies in ancient India. It also aligns with the Philosophical School of
Charvaka, advocating a completely materialistic perspective on the universe and human existence.
Mahabhasya Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, a book on Sanskrit Grammar dating back to the second
century BC. Kalidasa, a poet and playwright during the Gupta period, crafted notable works
like Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara, and Meghadutam. Beyond their creative brilliance,
these works offer glimpses into the social and cultural life of the Gupta age. Kalhana’s
Rajataringini, written in the 12th century AD, provides a Sanskrit account of various monarchies in
Kashmir before the arrival of Islam, serving as a crucial historical chronicle for the region.
Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta in praise of Harshavardhana, is a significant non-religious
text offering biographical details. However, caution is warranted due to the tendency to exaggerate
patron achievements.

SANGAM LITERATURE
The earliest literature of South India is represented by a group of texts in old Tamil, often
collectively referred to as Sangam literature. The Sangam corpus includes six of the eight
anthologies of poems included in the Ettutokai (The Eight Collections), and nine of the ten pattus
(songs) of the Pattuppattu (The Ten Songs). There are two kinds of Sangam poems—akam and
puram. Akam poems had love as their theme, while puram poems were mostly about war.
Sangama literature, written in Tamil during 300 BC – AD 300, serves as a major source for studying
South Indian society, economy, and polity. Comprising short and long poems, it praises various
heroes and includes epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. Sangam literature is the name
given to the earliest available Tamil literature. The Sangam age roughly extends between 300 BC
and 300 AD, although most of the work is believed to have been composed between 100 CE and
250 CE. The word ‘Sangam’ literally means association. Here, it implies an association of Tamil
poets that flourished in ancient southern India. The Ancient Tamil Siddhar Agastyar is traditionally
believed to have chaired the first Tamil Sangam in Madurai. This period is known as the Sangam
Period. The three chief Tamil kingdoms of this period were the Cheras, the Cholas and the
Pandyas.
Sangam Literature Classification
Patinenmelkanakku - Works composed between 200 BCE to 100 BCE Oldest surviving Tamil
poetry. Patinenkilkanakku- Works composed between 100 CE and 500 CE Collection of 18 poetry
compositionsMostly composed before the age of the Pallavas Chief works include Thirukkural,
Palamoli, Naladiyar, etc. Aham (Inner)- Abstract discussion on human aspects such as love, sexual
relations, etc. Puram (outer)- Human experiences such as heroism, customs, social life, ethics,
philanthropy, etc. As mentioned before, Tamil legends talk about three Sangams: Madurai,
Kapadapuram, Thenmadurai
Sangam Literature – Tolkappiyam
Composed by Tolkappiyar. Oldest extant Tamil work till date. Dated between 4th and 5th century
CE. Offers information on social life, human psychology, political and economic conditions during
the Sangam Age.it Also discusses Tamil grammar. The work is divided into three sections, each
section further divided into nine chapters. Contains a total of 1612 sutras which are extensive in
their range. Sanskrit influence on this work is peripheral and very little.
Third Tamil Sangam
The compositions of the third Sangam are classified into eight anthologies known as
Ettutokai/Ettuthokai and ten idylls known as Pattuppattu. Ettuthokai- It consists of the following
works: Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru (composed by Gudalur Mar), Pathitrupathu, Paripadal,
Kalittogai, Ahanuru (compiled by Rudrasarman), Purananuru
Pattuppattu- It consists of the following works: ThiruMurugatrupadai (composed by Nakkirar),
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumbanarruppadai, Pattinappalai, Maduraikkanji
Porunararrupadai, Kurinchippattu, Nedunalvadai. The third Sangam saw the Patinenkilkanakku.
They mainly deal with moral values. The most important among them is the Thirukkural, also
simply called the Kural. Other important works are Palamoli (by Munrurai Araiyar) and
Acharakkovai (contains a description of the daily life of an orthodox Hindu, shows the influence of
the Sanskrit Shastras).
Sangam & Thirukkural- First Dravidian work for ethics. Comprises of 1330 couplets.
It has been translated into many languages including foreign languages.
It discusses epics, love, and polity and governance. Authored by Thiruvalluvar.
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. Greek, Roman, Chinese travellers
who came to India during the ancient times have left behins accounts of things that they saw. The
Indika of Megasthenes, who came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya provides valuable
information not only about the system of Mauryan administration but also about social classes
and economic activities in the Maurya period. Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second
centuries mention many Indian ports and enumerate items of trade between India and the Roman
empire. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography both written in Greek provide
valuable data for the study of ancient geography and commerce. Pliny’s Naturalis Historia, which
relates to the first century was written in Latin, and tells us about the trade between India and
Italy. Of the Chinese travellers, mention may be made of Fa-Hien and Hsuan- Tsang. Both of them
were Buddhist and came to this country to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Buddhism.
The Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and Arabs provide rich historical data about India. These foreign
accounts complement indigenous literature and offer vivid descriptions of what these travelers
witnessed.Many Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mentioned many
Indian ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman Empire. Description of some
Greco-Romani writers are given below. Herodotus- He is generally considered as the Father of
History. He was an ancient Greek historian who gained fame for his monumental work called the
Histories (440 BC). Diodorus- He was a Greek Historian who wrote Bibliotheca Historica. His
description was based on an account by Megasthenes. Megasthenese- In the court of
Chandragupta Maurya, a Greek Ambassador called Megasthenese came, who wrote Indica.Its
original text is lost but parts of it have been preserved in fragments quoted by subsequent Greek
writers. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea- The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is an account of ancient
travel to India via the Red Sea written by William H Schoff. It mentions India by Hippalus, which
historians believe occurred about AD 47. Justin- Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of
the third century, penned the Epitome, providing intricate details about Alexander the Great’s
conquest of India. Ptolemy-Around AD 150, Ptolemy composed Geographia, a comprehensive work
consolidating knowledge of the world’s geography within the Roman Empire during the second
century. He also vividly described the Indo-Roman trade in his writings. Pliny- Pliny the Elder,
a Roman author, naturalist, and philosopher in the early Roman Empire, presented detailed
information about India’s history. In AD 77, he referred to India as the repository of the world’s
gold.
Chinese Scholars
Buddhist Chinese travelers Fa-Hsien and Hsuan Tsang journeyed to India, primarily to explore
Buddhist shrines and study Buddhism. Fa-Hsien, in the fifth century, depicted India during the
Gupta era, while Hsuan Tsang provided a similar account in the seventh century during the reign of
King Harshavardhana. Hsuan Tsang also described Nalanda University’s glory in detail. Song-Yun, a
Chinese Buddhist monk, chronicled the Gandhara dynasty, and Lama Taranatha, a Tibetan
historian, furnished a detailed account of Buddhism in India, offering rare historical data and
interesting Indian folklore. I-Tsing, a seventh-century Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, left an account of
his travels to India, providing insights into the social and religious conditions of the society.
Arab Travellers
Beginning in the eighth century AD, Arab travelers started documenting their experiences in India.
Sulaiman-al-Tajir, the first Arab traveler in the mid-ninth century, wrote about the Palas,
Pratiharas, Pratih and Gurjaras. Al-Masudi, during AD 941-943, provided detailed information
about the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Al-Biruni, a significant Arab author and scholar, meticulously
wrote about various aspects of Indian life in his renowned book Kitab-ul-Hind, covering
mathematics, geography, philosophy, religious practices, culture, traditions, and social conditions
of contemporary India.

Contribution of Modern Historians

Books Authors/ Writers Features

 Nathaniel The first Indian book (Manu Smriti) to
A Code of Gentoo Laws
Brassey Halhed get translated into English AD 1776.

Translation of Bhagvad Gita into English

Song of God Charles Wilkins
in AD 1785.

Sir Jones was the first scholar to

Abhiyanashakuntalam (Translated into suggest that Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek
Sir William Jones
English) belonged to the same family of
languages.

Aitareya Upanishad (Translated into Henry Thomas The first Sanskrit-to-English translation
English) Colebrooke of the Upanishad.

Raja Ram Mohan First Indian to translate sacred text

Kena Upanishad (Translated into English)
Roy from Sanskrit to English.

Friedrich Max Considered as the greatest scholar in

Rig Veda Samhita / Hitopadesha
Miller ancient Indian studies or Indology.

Vincent Arthur Written in 1904, it is the first systematic

The Early History of India
Smith history of ancient India.

Rajendra Lal Represents Indian history in a

Indo-Aryans
Mitra nationalist point of view.

Ramakrishna Credited as the first Indian who

Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious
Gopal reconstructed the political history of
Systems
Bhandarkar the Satavahanas.

A five-volume book considered an

Pandurang
History of the Dharmasastra encyclopedia of ancient social laws and
Vaman Kane
customs.

Stronger element of Hindu revivalism

History and Culture of the Indian People RC Majumdar
appears in his writings.

KA Nilakanta Highlights the harmony that prevailed

A History of South India
Sastri in early Indian society.

Hindu Polity (1918) and History of India, Kashi Prasad

–
AD 150 to AD 350 (1933) Jayaswal

Credited for showing that Indian

Education in Ancient India AS Altekar
republics were among the oldest and
 most powerful of the ancient world.

Detailed information about the

materialist philosophy of some
The Wonder That Was India AL Basham
heterodox sects in ancient and
medieval India.

An Introduction to the Study of Indian Early modernist style of historical

History and The Civilisation of Ancient DD Kosambi writing, emphasis on materialistic and
India in Historical Outline cash-based economy in ancient India.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Interpreting is as crucial in archaeology as in using literary sources. Inscriptions and coins come
under the general umbrella of archaeology and archaeological sources, but they are subjects of
specialized study in their own right. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. An inscription
is any writing that is engraved on something—stone, wood, metal, ivory plaques, bronze statues,
bricks, clay, shells, pottery, etc. Epigraphy includes deciphering the text of inscriptions and
analysing the information they contain. It also includes palaeography, the study of ancient writing.
The undeciphered Harappan scripts are the oldest inscription in the Indian subcontinent. The
oldest deciphered inscriptions of the Indian subcontinent belong to the late 4th century BCE and
are in Brahmi and Kharosthi. These include mainly those of Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Inscriptions
recording land grants, made mainly by chiefs and princes are very important for the study of the
land system and administration in ancient India. Compared with manuscripts of texts, inscriptions
have the advantage of durability. They are usually contemporaneous to the events they speak of
and their information can be connected to a time and place. Inscriptions are a valuable source of
information on political history. The geographical spread of a king’s inscriptions is often taken as
indicating the area under his political control. But the discovery of inscriptions depends on chance
and not all the inscriptions inscribed during a king’s reign need necessarily be found. Furthermore,
moveable inscriptions are not always found in situ, i.e., in their original place. Numismatics or the
study of coins includes the analysis of the material out of which coins were made; the
identification of the sources of the metals; the classification and study of the form of coins on the
basis of their fabric (size, shape, thickness, design, workmanship), metrology (weight), design,
metallic composition, techniques of manufacture, and message content. Stone age people had
neither currency nor coinage and conducted exchange via barter. Chalcolithic cultures too
conducted trade without the use of coins. The Harappans, for instance, had a very extensive trade
network based on barter. The Rig Veda mentions words such as nishka and nishkagriva (gold
ornaments), and hiranya-pinda (gold globules), but these cannot be understood as coins. The
earliest definite literary and archaeological evidence of coinage in the Indian subcontinent dates
from the 6th–5th centuries BCE in a context of the emergence of states, urbanization, and
expanding trade. The advent of coinage did not mean the disappearance of barter—both co-
existed for a very long time. The oldest coins found in the subcontinent are punch-marked coins,
made mostly of silver, some of copper. They are usually rectangular, sometimes square or round.
At first glance, coins may appear to carry little historical information, but they provide clues to
several important historical processes. They are linked to monetary history, which includes an
analysis of the production and circulation of coinage, the monetary values attached to coins, and
the frequency and volume of issues. Monetary history is in turn an important aspect of the history
of exchange and trade. At another level, legends on coins give information on the history of
languages and scripts. A careful collection of the materials derived from texts, coins, inscriptions, is
essential for historical reconstruction.

A) Mounds
B) Monuments
C) Ruins
D) Potteries
E) Seals
F) Coins
G) Sculptures and Paintings
H) Tools
I) Grave and Burials
J) Inscriptions

Mounds

Mounds, rounded domes on the surface, offer glimpses into the activities of past civilizations,
showcasing signs of great cultural achievements. The buried remnants, scattered across the
country, hold major parts of these historical remains. Different types of mounds reveal insights
into a single culture, multi-culture, and various major and minor cultural civilizations. Excavations
can be either vertical or horizontal, with vertical digs providing a periodwise sequence of cultures.

Monuments

Monuments, including buildings, temples, statues, and pottery, serve as major archaeological
sources offering valuable and authentic historical information about the ancient period. These
structures, significant from a cultural perspective, illuminate social life, religious beliefs, and the
knowledge of the people of the time. Temples, forts, palaces, stupas, and monasteries bring the
past to life, playing a crucial role in connecting us to our ancient history. Excavations in Harappa,
Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Taxila have revealed unknown historical discoveries.

Ruins
Ruins, the remnants of buildings or cities in disrepair or decay, provide insights into social,
economic, and religious conditions prevalent in the past.

Potteries
Potteries are crucial archaeological sources determining the spread of culture and civilization.
From pre-historic to historic periods, various types of potteries like Painted Grey Ware, Black
and Red Ware, Red Ware, and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) signify different eras and
play a vital role in reconstructing history.
 Seals
Seals, carved or engraved cylinder seals found in the Indus Valley Civilization, were used as labels
on trade goods or for other purposes. Their discovery in Mesopotamia and Central Asia suggests
extensive trade during that period.

Coins
Numismatics or the study of coins includes the analysis of the material out of which coins were
made; the identification of the sources of the metals; the classification and study of the form of
coins on the basis of their fabric (size, shape, thickness, design, workmanship), metrology (weight),
design, metallic composition, techniques of manufacture, and message content. Stone age people
had neither currency nor coinage and conducted exchange via barter. Chalcolithic cultures too
conducted trade without the use of coins. The Harappans, for instance, had a very extensive trade
network based on barter. The Rig Veda mentions words such as nishka and nishkagriva (gold
ornaments), and hiranya-pinda (gold globules), but these cannot be understood as coins. The
earliest definite literary and archaeological evidence of coinage in the Indian subcontinent dates
from the 6th–5th centuries BCE in a context of the emergence of states, urbanization, and
expanding trade. The advent of coinage did not mean the disappearance of barter—both co-
existed for a very long time. The oldest coins found in the subcontinent are punch-marked coins,
made mostly of silver, some of copper. They are usually rectangular, sometimes square or round.
At first glance, coins may appear to carry little historical information, but they provide clues to
several important historical processes. They are linked to monetary history, which includes an
analysis of the production and circulation of coinage, the monetary values attached to coins, and
the frequency and volume of issues. Monetary history is in turn an important aspect of the history
of exchange and trade. At another level, legends on coins give information on the history of
languages and scripts. Coins, flat discs or pieces of metal with official stamps, serve as important
artifacts for studying history. Ancient Indian coins made of copper, silver, gold, or lead,
including Punch-marked coins or Aahat coins, provide insights into various aspects of Indian
history through the study of numismatics. Coins made of silver and copper with irregular shapes,
sometimes square or rectangular, date back to the sixth and second centuries BC. In the absence
of a banking system in ancient India, people stored their money in earthenware and brass vessels.
Many hoards have been discovered containing not only Indian coins but also those belonging to
the Roman Empire found in various parts of India. Coins play a vital role in providing valuable
information about economic history as they serve as a medium of exchange. Some coins bearing
the word “negama” were issued by guilds or associations of merchants and craftsmen with the
rulers’ permission, reflecting the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also depict kings, gods,
and religious symbols, shedding light on the art and religion of that time.

Evolution of Coins in India:

Cowry shells were initially used as commodity money. Punch-marked coins were prevalent during
the Nanda dynasty of Magadha and continued during the Mauryan period. Indo-Greeks, ruling
from 180 BC to around AD 10, issued the largest gold coins, popularizing the practice of depicting
the ruler’s bust on coins. Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins with a standardized
form, weighing between 12 grams and 15 grams. The Satavahanas were the first rulers to issue
coins of lead and potin (base silver). Gupta rulers issued the highest number of gold coins, notable
for their purity of gold content.

Sculptures and Paintings

Paintings and sculptures provide insights into the culture and religious beliefs of ancient Indian
people, dating back to the Harappan period. These art forms were crafted from various materials
like stone, steatite, clay, terracotta, lime, bronze, ivory, and wood. Some adorned the walls of
temples, while others were individual sculptures for various purposes, including toys and
entertainment.

Tolls

Tools, such as trowels, shovels, spades, brushes, buckets, and sieves, have been integral to human
civilization, shaping societies. Archaeologists use these tools to uncover evidence of lifestyle and
food habits from the past.

Graves and Burials

Burial sites and graves provide valuable insights into the life patterns, socio-economic conditions,
and culture of past generations. Historians focus on these sites to study the time periods and
extract unknown details from inscriptions and symbols on memorials. scientific dating techniques-
Various scientific dating techniques help establish the age of rocks or fossils. Radiocarbon
Dating: Analyzing the content of Carbon-14 in organic materials. Pollen Analysis (Palynology):
Developing a pollen chronology to determine agricultural practices. Cation-Ratio Dating:
Determining the exposure duration of rock surfaces, such as stone artifacts and cliffs.
Inscriptions
Inscriptions refer to permanent writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, or terracotta,
holding a significance even greater than that of coins. The study of inscriptions is known
as Epigraphy, while the examination of the writing styles used in inscriptions is
termed Palaeography. Inscriptions in India can be found on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper
plates, temple walls, and bricks or images. The earliest inscriptions were penned in Prakrit, a
language used by the common people. Over time, Tamil and Sanskrit were also employed in
inscriptions. The earliest inscriptions date back to around 2500 BC and are found on the seals of
Harappa, but their decipherment remains elusive. Ashoka, the Mauryan king, was the first to issue
deciphered inscriptions. Most of his inscriptions, in Prakrit language and Brahmi script, shed light
on his religious and administrative policies. Some in the North-West were written in Kharosthi,
while scripts like Aramaic and Greek were used in Afghanistan for local comprehension. James
Prinsep, a civil servant in British India, successfully deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837. Brahmi
was written from left to right, akin to Hindi, while Kharosthi followed a right-to-left orientation.
Ashokan inscriptions play a crucial role in understanding his religious and administrative
strategies. By the first century BC, kings began granting land to religious figures, with the
Satavahana kings of the Deccan being pioneers in this practice. Poetic compositions praising kings
and patrons are termed Prashastis in inscriptions.

Historical Importance of Bogazkoi and Bisitun Inscription

The Bogazkoi inscription, located in Asia Minor, Turkey, dates back to 1400 BC and mentions Vedic
Gods like Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the two Nasatyas or Ashwini Kumaras. On the other hand,
the Bisitun (or Behistun) inscription, a monumental rock inscription in the Zagros Mountains near
modern-day Kermanshah (Iran), was commissioned by Darius I, the king of the Achaemenid
Empire, around 520 BC. It provides fragmented information about the western parts of India,
including details about its climate and geography.
Important Inscriptions and their Rulers
Inscriptions Rulers
Junagarh Rock Inscription King Rudradaman of Saka Dynasty (around AD 150)

Allahabad Pillar Samudragupta, Describes the boundaries of Gupta Empire

Aihole Inscription Chalukya king Pulakeshin II

Gwalior Inscription Provides a full account of Bhoja, his predecessors, and their
achievements
Mehrauli Pillar Inscription/Garuda Chandragupta Vikramaditya

Besnagar/Vidisha Inscription Helaidorus, the Greek Ambassador (Sunga period, 2nd century BC)

Mandasaur Inscription By Kumaragupta in AD 437-38 mentioning construction of Sun temple.

Uttaramerur Inscription Mentions the qualifications, mode of election, disqualification criteria

and constitution of committee for local governance.
Lumbini Pillar Inscription Royal commemorative inscription recording Ashoka’s visit to Buddha’s
birthplace.
Nasik Inscription Mentions the achievement of Gautamiputra Satkarni. Composed by his
mother Gautami Balasri.
Hathigumpha Inscription Composed by Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga during the second century
BC. Located in Udayagiri, near Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
Kandahar Inscription Maurya period inscription. Emperor Ashoka appeals to daughters-in-law
and fishermen to establish peace.
Nanaghat Inscription Engraved by Nayanika, wife of Satavahana ruler Satakarni, also known as
‘Dakshina Pathpati’.

Chapter -2

Survey of Prehistoric Cultures : Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolitic culture

Introduction

▪ Man had lived on this earth for several hundred years before he learned the art of writing.
This long, distanced past when man kept no written records is called prehistory or
prehistoric times. The history and identity of human settlements on India go back to
prehistoric times. The credit for doing an early extensive study of Indian prehistory go to
Robert Bruce Foote who discovered what was probably the first palaeolithic tool
discovered in India-the Pallavaram hand-axe. Later he discovered a large number of
prehistoric sites in south India. The contribution of Sir Mortimer Wheeler is equally
significant, as his efforts greatly contributed towards our knowledge of the pre-historical
cultures of India and their sequence. The Indian stone age is divided into palaeolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic on the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone
tools, and subsistence base. The palaeolithic is further divided into lower, middle and
upper palaeolithic. A general time range for the lower palaeolithic is from about 2 mya to
100,000 years ago, the middle palaeolithic from about 100,000 to 40,000 years ago and the
upper palaeolithic from the 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. The palaeolithic cultures belong to
the Pleistocene geological era, while the Mesolithic and Neolithic belongs to the Holocene
 era. The process of human evolution delineates the timeline of human development on
Earth, with the earliest fossil evidence of life dating back 3.7 billion year
.Australopithecus, a group of hominins, inhabited the planet 4.4 million to 1.4 million
years ago, closely related to and nearly the ancestors of modern humans. Homo habilis, an
extinct species regarded as the earliest member of the human genus, Homo, inhabited
parts of sub-Saharan Africa around 2-1.5 million years ago.The first fossil of Homo
erectus considered the missing link between man and apes, was discovered on Java Island
in 1891.Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthal man, is a
species within the Homo sapiens family, with the first fossil finds in Germany in AD
1856.Homo sapiens, an upright-walking species, first evolved in Africa approximately
315,000 years ago.The oldest fossils of modern human beings, Homo sapiens sapiens,
were discovered at Cro-Magnon in France, dating back 100,000-125,000 B.P. years.The
earliest evidence of humans in India is found in the Narmada Valley (Madhya
Pradesh), commonly known as Homo erectus narmandesis.
The history of Ancient India has been divided by historians into three heads as follows
A) Pre-historic period (Stone Age)
B) Proto-historic period
C) Historical period
Pre-historic Period or Stone Age
The Stone Age or the pre-historic cultural stage is characterized by the creation and use of stone
tools. It is the period that goes from the appearance of the first hominids on Earth, that is to say,
the ancestral human species of Homo sapiens. Pre-history is also understood as progressive stages
in the evolution of human capacities to handle materials and produce tools. The archaeological
system based on the Stone Age was developed by Christian Jurgensen Thomson in 1820.The Pre-
history of the Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions.

PALAEOLITHIC AGE
The Palaeolithic period or the Old Stone Age constitutes the longest phase of Prehistory and covers
the whole range of Pleistocene epoch from about 2 mya to 10,000 BP. The Palaeolithic age in India
is divided into three phases in accordance with the type of stone tools used by the people and also
according to the nature of climatic change. Palaeolithic tools have been found in almost all parts of
the subcontinent. Although hardly any sites have so far been discovered in the alluvial stretches of
the Indus or Ganga valleys (Kalpi in UP is an exception), they have been identified on rocky areas
within or on the margins of these valleys, e.g., in the Rohri hills in Sindh and the northern fringes
of the Vindhyas. Sites are prolific in other parts of the subcontinent, especially in peninsular India,
leaving aside the coastal plains. Comparatively few palaeolithic habitation sites have been
identified, but it can be assumed that people lived close to sources of food, water, and stone in
different kinds of habitats—for instance, along the banks of rivers or streams and in caves and rock
shelters. Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones mainly hand-
axe, cleavers, choppers, blades, burin and scrappers. Early Palaeolithic tools were fairly large core
tools made of quartzite or other hard rocks. The Palaeolithic period is divided into three phases
(lower, middle and upper palaeolithic) according to the nature of stone tools used. They are Use of
hand-axe, choppers and cleaver, mainly for digging, chopping and skinning during the Early or
Lower Palaeolithic; Use of stone tools made of flakes, mainly scrappers, borers, points and blade
like tools during the Middle Palaeolithic; Use of parallel-sided blades, burins and some instances of
bone tools during the Upper Palaeolithic. The term “Palaeolithic” was introduced by
archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865, defining a prehistoric era marked by the emergence of the
first stone tools made of Quartzite. Consequently, individuals from the Palaeolithic period are also
known as Quartzite Men. This era unfolded during the Pleistocene period, commonly referred to as
the Ice Age. The Palaeolithic age is conventionally categorized into three periods: the Lower
Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, and Upper Palaeolithic distinguished by the nature of stone tools
created by humans and climatic changes. During this period, people did not know about pottery,
agriculture, or the use of metals. Two notable British archaeologists significantly contributed to the
discoveries and identification of pre-historical studies in India: Sir Alexander Cunningham: A British
historian and archaeologist, he became the first director of the Archaeological Survey of India
established in AD 1861. Attirampakkam, in the Kortallayar river basin, is one of the richest
palaeolithic sites in Tamil Nadu.
Lower Palaeolithic Age Up to 100,000 BC)
This is the earliest sub-division of the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age. Key features of this phase
include tools such as hand axes, cleavers, choppers, and chopping tools. The people of the Lower
Stone Age primarily engaged in foraging, hunting, and fishing for sustenance . No burials were
discovered during this phase, and shelters were constructed using tree branches, leaves, and
stones.
Lower Palaeolithic Age Sites

Sites Area

Belan Valley Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

Bhimbetka, Jogdaha Madhya Pradesh

Bagor, Budha Pushkar Rajasthan

Patne, Nandipalle Maharashtra

Renugunta, Kurnool Caves Andhra Pradesh

Singhbhum Jharkhand

Sohan Valley West Punjab (Pakistan)

Lower palaeolithic tools have also been found in the Hunsgi– Baichbal and Krishna valleys. Some
absolute dates are now available for lower palaeolithic contexts in other areas as well. Didwana in
Rajasthan has been dated 390,000 BP (by the uranium/thorium series dating method). For the Son
valley (MP), there is a thermoluminescence date of 103,800 ± 19,800 BP. Nevasa (in Maharashtra)
has given a date of 350,000 BP (via uranium/thorium series dating). In Karnataka, the site of
Yedurwadi has been dated 350,000 BP. In recent years, important evidence of dates for lower
palaeolithic contexts has come from the Potwar plateau and the Siwaliks. At Dina and Jalalpur in
the Jhelum basin, members of a British archaeological team discovered 15 artefacts including three
hand-axes in a boulder conglomerate deposit dated c. 700,000–500,000 years ago by the palaeo
magnetic method. Early or Lower Palaeolithic sites have been found in the valley of river Son or
Sohan in Punjab, now in Pakistan. Several sites have been found in Kashmir and the Thar desert.
Lower Palaeolithic tools have been found in the Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh and in the desert
area of Didwana in Rajasthan. Didwana yielded not only Lower Palaeolithic stone tools but also
those of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic ages. Chirki Nevasa in Maharashtra has yielded as many as
2000 tools and those have also been found in several places in the south. Nagarjunakonda in
Andhra Pradesh is an important site and the caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal also
show features of the Lower Palaeolithic age.

The Middle Palaeolithic Age (100,000-40,000 BC)

The tools of this age are based upon flakes and crude pebble industry. The dominant tool types
are blades, points, and borers. Hunting, food gathering, and fishing are the main occupations of
the people. The Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh), which lies at the foothills of the Vindhyas, is rich in
stone tools and animal fossils including cattle and deer. These remains relate to both the Lower
and Middle Stone Ages. The geographical horizon for the Middle Palaeolithic sites coincides
roughly with the Lower Palaeolithic sites. The artefacts of this age are found at several places on
the river Narmada and also at several places south of the Tungabhadrariver. The Belan Valley in
Uttar Pradesh, which lies at he foothills of the Vindhyas is rich in stone tools and animal fossils
including cattle and deer. Middle Palaeolithic sites have also been found in the Potwar plateau
(between Indus and Jhelum), Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakisthan). In Rajasthan, lower,
middle, and upper palaeolithic tools have been found around Ajmer and stray finds of lower
palaeolithic tools occur in the Luni valley. The Mogara hill near Jodhpur seems to have been a
factory site where lower, middle, and upper palaeolithic as well as mesolithic tools were made.
Middle palaeolithic tools have been found in many parts of the subcontinent, often in river gravels
and deposits, which give clues about prevailing climatic conditions. There are some dates for
middle palaeolithic contexts. Didwana (Rajasthan) has given two thermoluminescence dates of
150,000 BP and 144,000 BP. The Hiran valley (Gujarat) has yielded a uranium–thorium series date
of 56,800 BP. The middle palaeolithic industry of central and peninsular India is sometimes
referred to as the Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa, where the pioneering archaeologist H.
D. Sankalia first discovered middle palaeolithic artefacts in a stratified context. In South India, the
middle palaeolithic culture is marked by a flake tool industry. On the Visakhapatnam coast,
quartzite, chert, and quartz were frequently used to make stone tools. Lower palaeolithic tools
have also been found in the Hunsgi– Baichbal and Krishna valleys. Tools: Flake Production: Flakes
that are produced by striking them out of pebbles or cobbles are used to make tools. Tool
Types: Small and medium-sized handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, borers, and knives are examples of
different types of tools. Raw materials, shapes, and sizes vary depending on the region. Large
Borers and Awls: Large borers or awls worked with steep retouch on thick flakes are present.
Variety of Scrapers: Scrapers come in several kinds, such as straight, concave, and convex-sided.
Anvils and Hammers are also found at some of the manufacturing sites.

Middle Palaeolithic Age Sites

Sites States

Nevada Maharashtra
Bhimbetka, Narmada Valley Madhya Pradesh

Bagor, Karmali Valley, Didwana Rajasthan

Singhbhum Jharkhand

Didwana and Budha Pushkar Rajasthan

Hiran Valley Gujarat

Potwar Plateau Pakistan between the Indus and Jhelum rivers

Sanghao Cave NWFP , Pakistan

Luni river system, Rajasthan

Chirki Nevasa Maharashtra

Uttar Pradesh
Kalpi

The Upper Palaeolithic Age (40,000-10,000 BC)

The Upper Palaeolithic Age (40,000-10,000 BC) is distinguished by the presence of burins, scrapers,
a developed flint industry, and the emergence of modern man (Homo sapiens). In the Belan
Valley of the Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh, remnants of animals such as goats, sheep, and
cattle indicate human exploitation. During this period, known as the last phase of the Ice Age, the
climate experienced a shift towards warmth and reduced humidity. Human habitation sites,
including caves and rock shelters, have been uncovered at Bhimbetka. The upper palaeolithic
context in the Belan valley has been dated between 25,000 and 19,000 years ago, and that of the
Son valley about 10,000 years ago. Chopani Mando in the Belan valley seems to be a habitation
site with a cultural sequence from the upper palaeolithic to neolithic. There are some dates for
upper palaeolithic contexts. Site 55 at Riwat gives the earliest date for the upper palaeolithic—c.
45,000 years ago. C 14 dates from the Sanghao cave range from 41,825 ± 4,120 BCE to 20,660 ± 360
BCE. In central India, the Son valley has given radiocarbon dates within the range of 12,000–10,000
BP, and a piece of ostrich eggshell at Mehtakheri has been dated to over 41,900 BP. Two dates
from the Kurnool caves (in Andhra Pradesh) are 19,224 BP and 16,686 BP (based on the electron
spin resonance method). The important technical advance of the upper palaeolithic was the
making of parallel-sided blades. There was also an increase in the number of burins. The trend was
towards smaller tools, and this must have been due to adaptations to environmental changes.
way. A stratigraphic sequence of lower and upper palaeolithic tools was identified in the
Malaprabha– Ghataprabha valleys in Karnataka. The Upper Palaeolithic sites have been found in
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Central Madhya Pradesh, Southern Uttar Pradesh and
Chotanagpur Plateau. Bone tool have been found at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla
Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh. Tools:The sites in Rallakalava and Gunjuna valleys in the
southern Eastern Ghats give the best-known evidence of the blade-and-burin industries in India.
The manufacture of specialised hunting tools for both big-game hunting and small-game hunting,
as well as fishing, is indicated by the Upper Palaeolithic tools.

Upper Palaeolithic Age Sitesheand

Sites Area

Kurnool Caves and Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi Andhra Pradesh

Belan Valley Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

Nevasa Maharashtra

Sabarmati Valley Gujarat

Singrauli Madhya Pradesh

Kichler Andhra Pradesh

Hunsgi Valley Karnataka

Attirampakkam Tamil Nadu

Pahalgam Kashmir Valley

Hathnora, Narmada Valley, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Madhya Pradesh

Kortallayar Valley Tamil Nadu

Rohiri Hills Pakistan

Baghor Madhya Pradesh

Haora and Khowai valleys Tripura

Paisra Bihar

PALAEOLITHIC ART
Prehistoric art marks the beginning of the history of art. It is also an important window into the
world of prehistoric people. Apart from paintings on rocks, rock art includes petroglyphs, a word
used when some substance of a rock surface is removed through engraving, bruising, hammering,
chiselling, or scooping. Prehistoric art can occur in permanent places (e.g., cave paintings) or can
be portable (e.g., figurines). Such remains were clearly an integral and important part of
community life and some of them seem to have had some sort of cultic or religious significance. In
India, however, there is very little evidence of palaeolithic art. It has been suggested that some of
the paintings at sites such as Bhimbetka go back to the upper palaeolithic period, but this is far
from certain. For instance, a very damaged upper palaeolithic carved bone object found at
Lohanda Nala in the Belan valley (UP) has been identified as a mother goddess figurine by some
and as a harpoon by others. Animal teeth found in a cave at Kurnool have grooves which suggest
that they may have been attached to a string and worn as ornaments. A piece of ostrich eggshell
engraved with two panels of criss-cross designs was discovered at Patne. Four perforated beads
and one incomplete bead made of ostrich eggshell came from Patne and one from the Bhimbetka
rock shelters, all from upper palaeolithic contexts.
Bhimbetka Rock Shelter
Bhimbetka Rock Shelter, located in Madhya Pradesh, is a significant archaeological site renowned
for being one of the largest prehistoric complexes in India. It boasts the country’s oldest-known
rock art.Designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2003, these Palaeolithic rock shelters
and caves offer a unique glimpse into the evolution of human settlement and culture, transitioning
from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to agriculture, as well as the expression of prehistoric artistic forms.

LIFEWAYS OF PALAEOLITHIC PEOPLE-SETTLEMEMT AND SUBSISTENCE

The life-ways of palaeolithic people living in different parts of the subcontinent were based on
their adaptations to their specific environments. However, there were some basic similarities in
the lives of these hunting-gathering communities. Palaeolithic people lived in shelters made of
rock, branches, grass, leaves, or reeds. More and less permanent settlements can be identified and
some sites represent specific kinds of activities. Habitation sites such as Bhimbetka and Hunsgi
give evidence of continuous occupation over centuries. Other sites indicate temporary camp sites,
where people came, lived for some part of the year, and then moved on. Still others were
connected with specific activities—e.g., kill or butchery sites and factory sites. The Prehistoric
people were Hunters and Food Gatherers-they lived on hunting animals and gathering wild fruits
and vegetables.

Mesolithic Age
▪ The Pleistocene geological era made way for the Holocene about 10,000 years ago. Many
environmental changes took place during this transition and there are detailed profiles of
climatic patterns for some parts of the subcontinent. Towards the end of the Pleistocene or
beginning of the Holocene, there were certain changes in the stone tool kits of prehistoric
people. People started making and using very small tools referred to by prehistorians as
 microliths. At sites such as Patne, where there is a long and continuous stratigraphic
sequence of prehistoric occupation, the gradual decrease in the size of stone tools can be
seen very clearly. The term epi-palaeolithic is sometimes used for the transitional stage of
tools that are smaller than those typical of the upper palaeolithic, but smaller than
microliths. Changes in tool kits must have been related to changes in environmental
factors, but such detailed connections have not been fully worked out. The term Mesolithic
is generally used for post-Pleistocene (i.e., Holocene) hunting-gathering stone age cultures
marked by the use of microliths. MICROLITHS Microliths range in length from under 1 cm
to 5 cm. The tools are mostly made on short parallel-sided blades made of crypto-
crystalline silica stone such as quartzite, chert, chalcedony, jasper, and agate. Microliths
are usually classified into ‘geometric’ and ‘non-geometric’ types. Some microliths may
have been used as tools in themselves, but many must have been hafted, singly or in large
numbers, onto wooden or bone handles to make composite tools. The Mesolithic
economy, like the palaeolithic, was still essentially based on hunting and gathering, but
some sites have given evidence of the domestication of animals. Mesolithic sites reflect
different levels of sedentariness. Some seem to have been permanent or semi-permanent
settlements, or at least settlements that were repeatedly inhabited over long periods of
time. Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, but it occurs at Langhnaj in Gujarat and in
the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (UP). Technologically characterized by microliths, and small
pointed and sharp stone tools, this period spanned from around 35,000 to 3,000 years
ago. Microliths, typically made of flint or chert, were about a centimeter in length and half
a centimeter wide, primarily utilized for hunting smaller animals and birds. Later, they
shifted to domesticating animals and cultivated plants which laid the foundation of
agriculture. Mesolithic people used to wear clothes made from animal skin. People started
using bows and arrows for hunting. Mesolithic people were art lovers and used to draw
paintings on stone depicting wild animals, hunting scenes, food collections, etc. This
period witnessed the first human colonization of the Ganga plains.
First Pottery in the Mesolithic Phase
Researchers believe that the first pottery started in Sanganakallu (Karnataka) during the Mesolithic
phase. The pottery was usually dull brown or black and hand-made out of coarse clay Pottery was
created to help people of that period in home settings or in the fields to help with farming.

CHRONOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MESOLITHIC SITES

The Mesolithic period coincides with the beginning of the Holocene age, around 10,000 BP or
8,000 BP. This age witnessed a change in climate from cold and arid to warm and wet on account of
gradually recession of the glaciers. One of the features of the Indian Mesolithic phase is the spread
of settlements to new ecological niches. This is generally seen as a result of an increase in
population due to more favourable environmental conditions as well as technological innovations.
There is a calibrated range of dates from various Mesolithic sites, e.g., Bhimbetka (6556–6177 BCE;
4895–4580 BCE), Baghor (7416–6622 BCE; 4246–3991 BCE), Bagor (5418–4936 BCE; 4575–4344
BCE), Sarai Nahar Rai (9958–9059 BCE), and Paisra (6377–6067 BCE). The transition from a hunting-
gathering stage to the beginnings of settled agriculture can be traced at Chopani Mando in the
Belan valley. The three excavated sites of Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, and Damdama lie very close
to each other. Sarai Nahar Rai (in Pratapgarh district, UP) is located on the banks of a dried oxbow
lake which marks an old course of the Ganga. Geometric microliths were found here, along with
shells and animal bones (of bison, rhinoceros, stag, fish, and tortoise). Within the habitation area,
there were 11 human burials in oblong pits—those of 9 men, 4 women, and a child. The Mesolithic
level at Sarai Nahar Rai has been dated c. 8400 ± 150 BCE by the radiocarbon method. Mahadaha is
also on the banks of an oxbow lake. Excavations revealed a 60 cm thick occupational deposit and
distinct areas associated with habitation and butchering. Twenty-eight burials of thirty individuals,
including two instances of a man and woman buried together, were found within the habitation
area. The burials were elliptical and their base sloping. Damdama is situated at the confluence of a
small stream belonging to the Sai river system. Rock shelters excavated at Lekhakia (in Mirzapur
district of southern UP) have yielded blade tools and microliths. A 105 sq m section of a Mesolithic
floor was excavated at Paisra. Apart from microliths, there was evidence of large and small
fireplaces positioned very close to each other. The thinness of the deposit suggests a short period
of Mesolithic occupation. Birbhanpur is close to the Damodar river in Burdwan district in West
Bengal. Mesolithic stone tools made of quartz, some of chert and chalcedony, were found here.
Bagor (in Bhilwara district of eastern Rajasthan) is one of the best documented Mesolithic sites. It
is located on a sand dune, about 25 km west of Bhilwara in Rajasthan, close to the Kothari river.
The three occupational levels represented continuous human occupation over more than 5,000
years. Period I (c. 5000 2800 BCE, according to radiocarbon dates) was Mesolithic, Period II (c.
2800– 600 BCE) chalcolithic, and Period III (c. 600 BCE–200 BCE) gave evidence of iron. Microliths
have been found in the valleys of the Tapi, Narmada, Mahi, and Sabarmati. One of the important
sites is Langhnaj. Other Mesolithic sites include Adamgarh hills near Hosangabad, Baghor II in the
Son valley and Bhimbetka. Bhimbetka is famous for its Mesolithic paintings. In peninsular India,
microlithic sites found in the vicinity of Mumbai seem to represent coastal Mesolithic communities
who exploited marine resources for food. Microliths have been found in other parts of
Maharashtra as well. Further south, the microliths are mostly made out of milky quartz. They have
been found at Jalahalli and Kibbanhalli near Bangalore in Karnataka, in Goa, and at
Nagarjunakonda (in southern AP), and Renigunta (in Chittor district, AP).Ghagaria rock shelter in
the Vindhyas region stands out as a Mesolithic site with the highest number of human skeletons.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan provide early evidence of the domestication
of animals such as cows, horses, and other poultry and farm animals. Mesolithic art and paintings
are abundant in sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur. Damdama in the
Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh gained fame for containing three human skeletons in a single
grave.
Tool
Microliths were the distinctive features of this Age. Continuing from the Upper Palaeolithic
period, microliths were small tools with a limit of 3 cm in length. The technique to make microliths
was punch and pressure on the harder materials like agate, chalcedony, flint carnelian,
etc. Microliths were of both geometric (trapeze, triangle, lunate or crescent) as well as non-
geometric shapes. Their small size indicates that they were used as composite tools and were
hafted in wood or bones. Macroliths, the larger tools, were also used. These were in the form of
axes and picks and a continuation of the Upper Palaeolithic tools, such as scrapers. Bone and
antler tools were also used.

LIFEWAYS OF MESOLITHIC PEOPLE - SETTLEMENT AND SUBSISTENCE

Excavations at sites such as Baghor, Tilwara, Sarai Nahar Rai etc have revealed that they lived in
semi-permanent hut like structures having wattle and doab walls and paved floor. The post holes
present in the periphery of hutment suggests the presence of a roof like structure for protection. In
central India, these people preferred to stay in the rock shelters. The animal bones and stone tools
found at various sites form the chief evidence of the subsistence pattern of the Mesolithic people.
This direct evidence is supplemented by the depiction of scenes of hunting, fishing, trapping of
mice and plant food collection in the contemporary rock paintings. The earliest evidence of human
burials in India also comes from the Mesolithic period and these are reported from various sites
such as Langhnaj, Bagor and Sarai Nahar Rai. The grave goods obtained from the graves gives us an
important insight into the material culture of the Mesolithic people. These goods included
microliths and bone ornaments. The existence of hut-like structures and the food processing
artefacts such as querns and mullers indicate the beginning of a quasi-sedentary or semi-settled
life. Initially, the primary activities of people in this era included hunting, fishing, and food
gathering. Later, they shifted to domesticating animals and cultivated plants which laid the
foundation of agriculture. Mesolithic people used to wear clothes made from animal skin. People
started using bows and arrows for hunting.

MESOLITHIC ROCK ART

The first rock paintings in India (and in fact anywhere in the world) were discovered by A. C. L.
Carlleyle, an assistant surveyor with the Archaeological Survey of India in 1867–68 at Sohagighat in
the Kaimur hills in the present Mirzapur district (UP). Today, over 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have
been found in various parts of the subcontinent and central India has an especially rich
concentration of sites. The paintings are an important source of information regarding the lives of
Mesolithic communities and show striking thematic similarities across the country. Bhimbetka-one
of the most magnificent rock art sites in the world was discovered by Archaeologist V.S. Wakankar
in 1957. In Bhimbetka, there are 642 rock shelters here, nearly 400 of which have paintings,
engravings, and bruisings. Their style, theme, and worn state indicate that they belong to old
times. Mesolithic paintings have also been found at other sites in Madhya Pradesh such as
Kharwar, Jaora, Kathotia, and Lakhajoar. As at most of the Mesolithic Rock Art sites, animals
dominate the scenes at Bhimbetka. Mesolithic paintings at Bhimbetka and other sites also depict
men and women, young and old. Indian archaeologist VS Wakankar was the first Indian to visit the
Bhimbetka caves in 1957.The discovery of microliths in India dates back to 1867
when Carlyle found them in Vindhyan Rock Shelters.

Mesolithic Age Sites

Sites Area

Langhnaj Gujarat

Tilwara, Bagor Rajasthan

Patne, Hatkhamba Maharashtra

Damdama, Chopani Mando Uttar Pradesh

Pachmarhi, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Madhya Pradesh

Sanganakallu Karnataka

Kuchai Odisha

Birbhanpur West Bengal

Muchatla Chintamanu Gavi Andhra Pradesh

Tenmalai Kerala

NEOLITHIC AGE
The Neolithic cultures constitute the concluding phase of the stone age. These were marked by
the use of ground and polished tools and pottery- the features that set them apart from the
preceding Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Cultures. The term “Neolithic” was first used by the Danish
prehistorian Thomsen, in the nineteenth century to denote the stage of technological progress
achieved by early man. But it was Gordon Childe who highlighted the true socio-economic
significance of these cultures by associating them with the emergence of the practice of the plant
cultivation and animal domestication leading to the growth of farming communities and a settled
village life. The domestication of plants and animals was the outcome of a long series of collective
experiments involving many generations of men, women, and children, stretching out over
hundreds, perhaps thousands of years. The domestication of plants and animals marked a special
kind of human interference in nature and a new stage in the relationship between people, plants,
and animals. It involved removing plants and animals from their natural habitat, a process of
selective breeding and rearing under artificial conditions under human control for purposes of
human gain. It is possible to identify gradual shifts in the balance of subsistence strategies from
hunting and gathering towards animal rearing and agriculture. The Neolithic age is generally
associated with food production, pottery, and sedentary living. The reality is more complex. In the
Indian subcontinent, the roots of some of the features associated with the Neolithic can be traced
to the Mesolithic phase. The beginnings of animal and plant domestication did not mean the end
of the hunting-gathering way of life. Communities that practised animal rearing and agriculture
usually continued to hunt and forage for food. Moreover, there were numerous communities who
retained their hunting-gathering way of life and never switched over to domestication at all. The
Neolithic period was characterized by the ground and polished tools having smooth and round
surface for better cutting edge. These tools mark an improvement on earlier ones which once
damaged had to be discarded, but now after grinding them they could once more be rendered
serviceable. Thus, with the growth of grinding technique, there was an economy of effort as well
as raw material. The chief tool-type of this age is designated by the common term ‘celt’ which is
basically an axe or adze. It might have been used to clear the area of wild vegetation and make it
fit for cultivation. A Neolithic celt in India was found as early as 1842 by Le Mesurie in the Raichur
district of Karnataka.

Neolithic Revolution:

During the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic stages, the mode of subsistence was hunting and
gathering. In contrast, in the Neolithic age, humans started using artificial means to produce food
for the first time. Agriculture and the domestication of animals were the two novel practices that
developed at this time.Some wild animal species, like goats, sheep, and cattle, were domesticated,
which were being used for transportation and in agriculture. Similar to this, early crops included
wild varieties of paddy (especially in Asia), wheat, barley, etc. Agriculture proved to be such a
significant invention that a small portion of society was able to provide the entire community with
food. Neolithic pottery was pioneering and made by hand at first, then using wheels. Weaving and
spinning were also invented in this age. The Neolithic Age opened an entirely new way of life and
sowed the seeds of civilisation.

Features
The first Neolithic culture is said to have started in the Fertile Crescent in the West Asia and North
Africa (WANA) region, including Mesopotamia (Iraq), Syria, Libya, etc. This period witnessed the
development of pottery, polished stone tools and permanent settlements.

CHRONOLOGY AND PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEOLITHIC SITES IN THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT

As a result of vast explorations and excavations, the evidence of the spread of the Neolithic
Cultures in India comes from as many as six different geographical regions, each with its own
distinctive features and chronological time-span. These regions are- I. North-western region i.e.,
Baluchistan and its adjoining area in Pakistan (7th to mid 4th millennium BC) II. III. Northern region
i.e., Kashmir valley (2500 BC-1500 BC) Central India i.e., Vindhyan region south of Allahabad (4000
BC-1200 BC) IV. Mid-Gangetic basin i.e., eastern UP and Bihar (2000 BC-1500 BC) V. Eastern India
i.e., Bengal Orissa and Assam VI. Peninsular or South India i.e., Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu (2500BC-1500 BC) Several sites in Baluchistan illustrate the change from a semi-
nomadic pastoral life towards settled agriculture. The oldest and best documented evidence
comes from Mehrgarh (Jarrige et al., n.d.). This site is located in the Bolan valley in the northern
part of the Kachi plain, near the point where the river emerges from the hills through the Bolan
pass. Periods I and II at Mehrgarh are considered neolithic, even though there is a small amount of
copper present. The chronology of this phase is somewhat uncertain due to inconsistent
radiocarbon dates. The majority of the dates fall between 6000 and 5500 BP (c. 5000 BCE,
calibrated). Period II at Mehrgarh, dated c. 6000–4500 BCE. The most remarkable aspect of Periods
I–III is that they provide the earliest and most comprehensive evidence of subsistence activities in
the region, revealing the transition from hunting and food gathering to a heavy reliance on animal
domestication and agriculture. Barley seem to have been the most important crop. Wheat was
another important crop. The Bolan pass leads from Mehrgarh into the Quetta valley, where there
are a number of sites. Kile (also spelt Kili) Gul Mohammad and Damb Sadaat are two of the
important excavated sites in this area. Mundigak is located on a now dry tributary of the
Arghandab river in south-east Afghanistan. The dates for Period I (which is divided into several
sub-phases) fall within c. 4000–3500 BCE. In the northern part of the Punjab province of Pakistan,
the site of Sarai Khola, lying on the edge of the Potwar plateau, revealed a neolithic occupation
going back to about the 4th millennium BCE. Another early centre of agricultural–pastoral
communities lay in the Vindhyan fringes in southern Uttar Pradesh, where over 40 neolithic sites
have been identified in the course of explorations in the Belan, Adwa, Son, Rihand, Ganga, Lapari,
and Paisuni rivers. Neolithic levels have been identified at several excavated sites such as
Koldihwa, Mahagara, Pachoh, and Indari. Koldihwa and Mahagara (both in Allahabad district, UP)
are two important excavated sites, located on the northern fringes of the Vindhyas on the banks of
the Belan river. Koldihwa showed cultural continuity from the neolithic to the iron age. Remains of
rice and impressions of rice husk embedded in pieces of burnt clay were found here at neolithic
levels. The site of Kunjhun is in the Son valley in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, not far from
Koldihwa. The neolithic settlement here, which goes back to the 4th millennium BCE, yielded wild
and domesticated rice. In the Kashmir valley, there are several neolithic sites near Srinagar and
between Baramulla and Anantnag. These include Burzahom, Gufkral, Hariparigom, Jayadeviudar,
Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, Sombur, Thajiwor, Begagund, Waztal, Gurhoma Sangri, and
Damodara. During the Pleistocene era, the Kashmir valley was a gigantic lake and the neolithic
sites are located on the remnants of the ancient lake beds known as karewas. The dates of the
southern neolithic sites mostly fall within the broad time bracket of c. 2900–1000 BCE, but they
can be further divided on the basis of chronology and geographical region. The earliest dates so far
range between c. 2900 and 2400 BCE and come from Utnur, Pallavoy, Kodekal, and Watgal. In the
southern part of the Deccan plateau, where granite hills rise from the black cotton soil, the earliest
neolithic villages were generally located on hillsides and plateaux, sometimes along minor
streams, and occasionally along the banks of major rivers. A distinctive feature of many sites in this
region is that they are marked by ash mounds. Ash mounds have been excavated at Utnur, Kupgal,
Kodekal, and Pallavoy. The ash mound sites are large accumulations of ash and vitrified material,
created by the repeated burning of heaps of cow dung.

LIFEWAYS OF THE NEOLITHIC PEOPLE

There are different views on the subsistence base of the southern neolithic sites. One view is that
the neolithic people were fully sedentary farmers who made clearances in forests to carry out
agriculture. Another view is that while these people may have practised some amount of
agriculture, they were basically nomadic pastoralists. A third view is that they were sedentary
pastoralists who did not practise any agriculture whatsoever. The neolithic stage is generally
associated with relatively self-sufficient village communities with equilibrium between food
production and population. Neolithic cultures are largely defined in terms of transition from
hunting and food-gathering to herding and food producing subsistence economy with a sedentary
way of life. It could become possible because of better tool types and more conducive
environment with the commencement of the Holocene Age. Changes in subsistence practices
would have involved shifts in symbolic and belief systems. The cultivation of crops and the
domestication of animals must have led to increased concerns with fertility and magico-religious
ways of controlling it. Terracotta female figurines found from neolithic levels onwards at certain
sites (e.g., in the north-western zone) have often been given the label of ‘Mother Goddesses’. It is
very likely that farming communities connected women with fertility because of the fact that
women give birth. It is also possible that they worshipped images of goddesses associated with
fertility. Purposeful, standardized burials do not appear for the first time in the neolithic or
neolithic– chalcolithic phase, but they do increase in number. Such burials imply significance
attached to the bodily remains of the deceased.

Neolithic Age Sites

Sites Area

Burzahom, Gufkral Kashmir

Mehrgarh, Kili Gul Muhammad Balochistan

Daojali Hading Assam

Chopani Mando, Mahagarha Uttar Pradesh

Chirand, Chechar Bihar

Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu, Narsipur, Hallur, Kupgal, Kodekal, Brahmagiri Karnataka

Nagarjunakonda, Piklihal, Utnur Andhra Pradesh

Paiyampalli Tamil Nadu

Prehistoric Rock Paintings

Almost all the rock shelters in India, occupied by the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic people as
well as many others, contain rock paintings depicting a variety of subjects, primarily animals and
scenes involving both people and animals.

Distribution

These rock paintings have a wide distribution across India.Central India, particularly Satpura,
Kaimur, and Vindhyan hills, has the largest number of prehistoric art sites.This is perhaps due to
the fact that Stone Age people in India flourished more around the Central Narmada river
valley.The most important sites are Bhimbetka and Lakha Juar in the Vindhya Range and
Pachmarhi and Adamgarh in the Satpura of Madhya Pradesh. Others are Daraki
Chattan, Jogimara (Chhattisgarh); Hazaribagh, Kodarmada, Giridih and Chatra
(Jharkhand), Mirzapur and Banda (Uttar Pradesh) and Bellary and Kupagallu (Karnataka), etc.

Chapter -3

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

INTRODUCTION

Harappan Archaeological Research dates back to the year 1922 with the advent of the finding of
Mohen-jo-Daro, the ‘mound of dead’, in Sindh. Because of its extraordinary urban character, the
discovery raised immense interest world-over. Since then, the archaeology of the Harappan
Civilization has been growing, both in terms of geographic factors and cultural dynamics. By the
time archaeologists found that the Indus Civilization is no longer confined to the Indus Valley,
archaeologists have redesignated it as ‘Harappan Culture’ or ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the type
site namely Harappa (The naming of related sites after the one that was first discovered is a
common convention in Archaeology.) discovered in 1921. From 1950 onwards, this study has been
occupying paramount place in the archaeology of South Asia and the last twenty five years, in
particular, have witnessed excavation of the scores of Harappan sites, which have brought to light
the most exciting results. Intensive explorations and excavations of several sites of entire Harappan
domain (known) have caused a tremendous knowledge explosion, facilitating a far better
understanding of the fundamentals of its “origin”, its efflorescence and of its ultimate “end”.
Archaeologists from India and Pakistan, either independently or in collaboration with western
scholars, have launched multidisciplinary investigations to reconstruct the spatio-temporal
framework of this civilization. The radiocarbon determinations and the evidence of the early food
producing cultures in the entire Harappan domain have put this civilization in the perspective of
indigenous origins.
TERMINOLOGIES

Before going into the details, it is necessary here to define some of the terms, which are used in
this and next (fourth) chapter. The name Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan Culture signifies not
only the sites limited to the Indus Valley proper but also to the similar kind of sites found in other
parts of India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pre-Harappan is the culture, preceding the Harappans but
different from it. Early/Pre-Urban Harappan means the earlier phase of the Harappan culture,
which paved the base stone for urban phase. Mature/Urban Harappan denotes the urban phase
(prosperous period) of the Harappan culture. Late/Post-Urban Harappan represents the late period
of the Harappan culture, which marks decline and de urbanization. Regional Chalcolithic
cultures/traditions indicate the cultures other than the Harappans, which have their own identity
and existed separately or co-existed with the Harappans in Gujarat during various phases of the
above mentioned periods. The term period is defined as a bracket or interval, for example — a
particular cultural event that endured for 900 years between 3500-2600 B.C. Cultural
transformation or change is a continuous process with a varying degree of intensity. It involves
factors like human adjustments to prevailing environmental and social condition of the region.
Cultural change is also multi-directional and the degree and nature of change vary in time and
space. Precisely, therefore, the beginning, growth and decline of the Harappan culture like other
cultures, have been categorized into separate phases termed differently by various scholars (Rao
1963; Mughal 1970; Possehl 1977, 1980, 1984, 1993). Whatever the case or term may be; these
terms indicate socio-cultural and technological development in various stages of Harappan
development. Although Mature/Urban Harappan phase is well defined through type fossils and
several other settlement features, but Pre-Urban Harappan and Post Urban Harappan phases are
not so clearly defined. There’s definite lack of consistency in the material relics from different sites
of both Pre-Harappan and Post Urban Harappan phases. Moreover, it must be noted here that
these Pre Harappan, Pre-Urban Harappan, Mature/Urban Harappan and Late/Post Urban
Harappan divisions are not necessarily time brackets applicable throughout the entire Harappan
region. As regard to the chronology of the Harappan Civilization, it may be useful to take the
cultural sequence as revealed by recent excavations on different sites supported by number of
radiocarbon (C14) dating samples. Beginning with the earliest level at the bottom of the sequence,
we have: Post Urban Harappan- 1900-1400 B.C. Mature/Urban Harappan - 2600-1900 B.C.
Pre/Early Harappan- 3500-2600 B.C.

40 Years After the partition of British India, massive amount of archaeological explorations and
additional excavations in the present Indian frontiers confirmed numerous Indus Valley Civilization
sites. According to Possehl (2002) and Setter and Korisettar (2002), relentless survey conducted
both in India and Pakistan during the last seventy odd years has thrown up a list of not less than
1,022 Mature-Harappan sites. Of these, 406 sites are located in Pakistan while 616 are in India.
About 96 of these sites have been excavated so far: 41 in Pakistan and 55 in India. Research oh
Indus Civilization in India, changed the position regarding the extent, culture-contents, regional
variations, etc. In spite of the fact, that considerable regional variations within the entire Harappan
domain have been discovered, the following diagnostic traits of the culture can be postulated,
which give it a unified character throughout, perhaps with central authority. Some of these traits
are-Ywars Planned cities and towns with basic layout of citadel and lower town, Dholavira being
the exceptional as it has middle town also. Use of the burnt bricks in pre-Harappan phase is 1:2:3,
whereas, in mature phase it is 1:2:4. Red Ware pottery painted with black designs, well fired,
paintings consisting of floral and geometric patterns and shapes including dish-on-stand, “S”
shaped jars, beakers, goblets, perforated jars etc., Beads of Faience and steatite and long tubular
beads of camelian, Terracotta Mother Goddess (?), Triangular Terracotta cakes and Mushtikas,
Terracotta and Faience Bangles, Rohri chert blades, Seals and Sealings, Writing system/inscriptions,
Chert and agate weights and 11. Copper and Bronze objects.
 Discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization
Archaeological excavations conducted in the early decades of the 20th century unveiled an
extensive civilization that thrived in the Indian subcontinent. The Indus Valley Civilization, also
known as the Harappan culture, was unearthed in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa in West
Punjab, Pakistan. This civilization spanned regions including Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and certain areas of Uttar Pradesh. Among the three contemporary
civilizations—namely, the Egyptian Civilization (Egypt) in the Nile Valley, the Mesopotamian
Civilization (Iraq) in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and the Hwang-Ho Civilization (China) in the
Hwang-Ho Valley—the Indus Valley Civilization stood as the largest. Most settlements of the Indus
Valley Civilization were situated in the Valley of the Saraswati river system, now extinct. The river
Saraswati was identified as Ghaggar in Punjab and Chakra in the Balochistan region. The Harappan
Civilization is dated between 2600 and 1900 BC and derives its name from Harappa, the initial site
where this culture was uncovered.
Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Year Development

1875 Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal.

1921 Daya Ram Sahni began excavations at Harappa, Excavations began at Mohenjodaro.

1925 REM Wheeler excavated at Harappa.

1946 SR Rao began excavations at Lothal.

1955 BB Lal and BK Thapar began excavations at Kalibangan.

1960 MR Mughal began explorations in Bahawalpur, Pakistan.

1974 A team of German and Italian archaeologists began surface explorations at Mohenjodaro.

1980 American team began excavations at Harappa.

1986 RS Bisht began excavations at Dholavira.

 Different Phases of Harappan Culture

Early Harappan Period Mature Harappan Period Late Harappan Period (1900 BC
Periods
(3500-2600 BC) (2600-1900 BC) onwards)

– Many more – Emergence of large cities,

settlements were uniform types of bricks, – Writing and city life
Characteristics
established in the hills weights, seals, beads, and abandoned.
and the plains. pottery.

– The largest number

– Planned township and – Continuation of Harappan
of villages occur in
long-distance trade. crafts and pottery tradition.
this period.

– The village cultures of Punjab,

– Large urban centers like and Sutlej-Yamuna divided,
– Use of copper,
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Gujarat assimilated the
wheel, and plow.
and Lothal are found. Harappan crafts and pottery
traditions.

– Kot Diji, Amri, – Many Harappan sites

– Manda, Sanghol, Alamgirpur,
Dholavira, Kalibangan, were abandoned. Inter-
and Daulatpur were some of the
etc., were early regional exchange
important sites.
Harappan sites. declines.

Various Theories on the Origin of the Harappan Civilization

Ernest JH Mackay proposed the theory that the “Migration of people from Sumerian regions may
have led to the formation of the Harappan Civilization.” Sir Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the
“Harappan Civilization may have originated as the sudden offspring of the Mesopotamian
Civilization, known as the land of the twin rivers. ”DH Gordon theorized that the “Indus Valley
Civilization emerged as a result of migration from West Asia.” Amalananda Ghosh put forth the
idea that “The pre-Harappan culture of Kalibangan, known as the Sothi culture, developed into the
Harappan Civilization.” Mohammad Rafique Mughal proposed that the “Harappan Civilization was
completely indigenous in character but widely inspired and influenced by Sumerian and
Mesopotamian cultures.”

Origin Periods Given by Archaeologists

Archaeologists Projected Time

John Marshall 3250-2750 BC

Ernest Mackay 2800-2500 BC

MS Vats 3500-2700 BC

Mortimer Wheeler 2500-1500 BC

W Fairservis 2000-1500 BC

DP Aggarwal 2300-1700 BC

GEOGRAPHY AND SALIENT FEATURES OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

One of the important aspects of the Harappan civilization is its apparent mobility and proliferation
over a large area consisting of number of ecozones with diverse environmental variables and
economic incentives. Number of sources has affirmed that environment of the regions covered by
the peoples of Harappan civilization during the period was quite different from today. There may
have been little climatic change between then and now, but the environment, and hence the
ecology, of this vast region is none less the different (Possehl 1999). The remains of the Harappan
civilization, dating from 2600 B.C. to 2000-1800 B.C., include cities and villages, craft centers, river
stations, camp sites, fortified palaces and probable ports, spread over a vast geographic area of
1.25 million Square Kilometers. Extreme cardinal limits of this civilization were Sutkagendor
(Makran) in the west, Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Manda (Jammu and Kashmir) in the
North and Daimabad in South Gujarat. But, when we talk of the scenario of Indian Subcontinent
(entire Harappan culture domain) we will see that Shortughai on the left bank of Oxus, in
Badakhshan, is the extreme northern limit. Whereas, the sites of this civilization are found in Sind,
Makran, Baluchistan, Punjab, Haryana, north Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Badakhshan, in the modem states of Pakistan, India and Afghanistan.
Indus Valley, by and large, is devoid of basic raw material to meet some of their needs on its own.
However, Harappans evolved in a magnificent civilization mainly because of their expansionist
nature towards resource areas situated far apart by their ability to mobilize economic potentials.
The discovery of Harappan settlement at Shortughai in Badakhshan province of northern
Afghanistan for lapis lazuli (Francfort 1984), Balakot on the Somani bay in Pakistan for marine
gastropods (Dales and Kenoyer 1977), Cholistan region in Bhawalpur District of Pakistan for copper
(Mughal 1980), Limestone hills at Sukkur Rohri in upper Sindh region of Pakistan for flint/chert
(Allchin and Allchin 1982 1996-97) and Manda in Jammu and Kashmir for Timber (Thapar 1985) are
some of the explicit indicators of their hunt for procuring desired raw material. The penetration of
Harappans further south into Gujarat demonstrates a similar enterprising character exploiting rich
deposits of semi-precious 42 stones and marine gastropods (Sonawane 1992, 2005). Thus,
enterprising Harappans demonstrated their skill in selecting suitable environmental niches during
their multidirectional expansion. These factors and accessibility to natural resources were largely
responsible for the growth, expansion and long survival of the Harappan culture. The spread of
this civilization was therefore governed by the areas of attraction, depending upon the availability
of resources and geographical factors conducive to their cultural dynamics. These factors partly
explain not only the regional diversities in the manifestation of the Harappa culture but also the
innate capacity of the Harappans to mobilize different subsistence systems by integrating them
into their economic structure (Sonawane 1999,2005).
The story of the rise and decline of the Harappan civilization is the summary of man’s struggle for
conquering nature and building an integrated peace loving and affluent society. Harappans seem
to have succeeded to a large extent in this struggle. Later in the stage, Harappan civilization
achieved a high degree of sophistication, yet was imbued with simplicity and utilitarianism. In
terms of settlement planning, monumental buildings, impressive architecture, stamp seals, the
pictographic script, uniform weights and measures, ceramics, jewellery, copper and bronze utensils
and implements etc. is notable among the contemporary cultures. Moreover, it is also unique for
its phenomenal growth and prosperity, close cultural uniformity, mass production of crafts,
complex trade mechanism, maritime trade and intercultural contacts, besides long life and vast
territory. Its elaborate trade mechanism controlled the process of procurement of raw materials,
converting them into finished products and transporting them over long distances by both sea and
land routes to domestic as well as international markets. All these reflects on a system which
induced for surplus food production and controlled its efficient distribution to promote and sustain
specialized activitiy by different classes of artisans and craftsmen as well as by well - organized
trading community. The Harappans had brisk trade relations with Mesopotamia, parts of Iran,
Central Asia, Oman, Bahrain Island, and Failaka.
Mercantile base for its rapid growth and expansion is envisaged through the vast archaeological
data. The people of this civilization did not build towering monuments, bury their riches along
with their dead or fight legendry and bloody battles and yet could evolve a highly organized and
stupendously sophisticated first Urban- Civilization of south Asia. The Harappans thus made
spectacular civilization, which 43 must have dazzled the contemporary world with whom they
came in contact. Surprisingly still we do not know precisely what the nature of governing authority
was as visionary rulers or architects behind the creation of such fabulous civilization. However,
possibility of wealthy merchants, powerful landlords or spiritual leaders cannot be ruled out
considering the evidence (Sonawane 2005). The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the
Chalcolithic cultures, but it is far more developed than these cultures. It arose in the North-
Western part of the Indian subcontinent. Many sites in Sindh formed the Central Zone of the pre-
Harappan culture. The Central Zone of the mature Harappan culture lay in Sindh and Punjab,
mainly in the Indus Valley. From here, it extended Southwards and Eastwards. The area formed a
triangle and accounted for about 12,99,000 sq km, nearly 1500, Harappan sites are known so far in
the subcontinent. Sir John Marshall was the first archaeologist, who named the civilization as
Indus Valley Civilisation.

Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)
▪ Discovered in 1921 on the river Ravi, Harappa was the first excavated site of the Indus
Valley Civilization under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. The civilization was initially
named Harappan after this site.The extensive mounds at Harappa were first observed
by Charles Masson in 1826 and later visited by Alexander Cunningham in 1853 and 1873.
Notable features include six granaries located outside the citadel and barracks or rows of
single-roomed quarters just below the citadel walls.Two distinct burial practices, R-37-type
and H-type cemeteries, were identified. According to a recent Archaeological Survey of
India report, Bhirrana in Haryana is considered the oldest Harappan site in the Indian
subcontinent. Various artifacts, such as a stone symbol of lingam and yoni, a seal depicting
a virgin goddess, wheat and barley in a wooden mortar, a copper scale and mirror, a vanity
box, dice, a bronze sculpture of a dog chasing a deer, and red sandstone torsos of a nude
male and dancing female, provide insights into the culture, including traces of Jainism.
 Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan)
Discovered by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922 on the river Indus, Mohenjodaro is one of the largest
sites. In the Sindhi language, Mohenjodaro translates to “mound of the dead.” Notable structures
include an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a large rectangular building assumed to serve
administrative purposes. The Great Bath, a crucial public space, features steps leading to the
surface and changing rooms with inlets and outlets for water drainage. The bath measures 39 feet
in length, 23 feet in breadth, and 8 feet in depth. The Great Granary, the largest building in
Mohenjodaro, is a brick structure with dimensions of 45 meters North-South and 45 meters East-
West. It comprises rooms with three sleeper walls having air space between them Artifacts found
at Mohenjodaro include the Pashupati seal, a bronze image of a dancing girl, three cylindrical
seals, a steatite image of a bearded man, clay figures of Mother Goddess, dice, an idol of a yogi, a
granary, and a unicorn.

Dholavira (Kutch district, Gujarat, India)

Dholavira, situated in the Khadir belt of Kutch district, Gujarat, is renowned for the discovery of
the world’s oldest signboard, the Vabni Dholavira signboard, in 1968 by archaeologist Jagat Pati
Joshi. The site is known for its advanced water harvesting and management system, featuring a
series of dams and interconnected reservoirs. In 2021, UNESCO declared Dholavira a World
Heritage Site.
Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilisation

Excavated Year of
Site Location Major Findings
by Excavation

Granary, workmen’s quarter, vanity

case, furnaces, piece of Pottery with
Montgomery, Indus script, cubical limestone
Daya Ram
Harappa Pakistan on the 1921 weight, copper Bullock cart, coffin
Sahni
banks of Ravi river burials, cemetery, terracotta
figurines, evidence of horse at
superficial level, etc.

Great Bath, granary, Unicorn seals,

Larkana District of Bronze Dancing Girl statue,
RD
Mohenjodaro Sind on the bank 1925 Pashupati seal, steatite statue of
Banerjee
of Indus river Beard Priest, piece of woven cloth,
etc.

Trade point between Harappa and

Baluchistan on Babylon, flint Blades, stone Vessels,
Sultagendor Auriel Stein 1929
Dasht river stone Arrowheads, Shell Beads.
pottery, horse remains etc.

Bangle factory, inkpot, bead-makers

Mullan Sandha,
NG shop, the footprint of a dog chasing
Chanhudaro Sind on the Indus 1931
Majumdar a cat, cart with a seated driver, it is
river
the only city
 Kathiawad
MS Vats,
Rangpur (Gujarat), on the 1931, 1957 without a citadel, etc.
SR Rao
Madar river

Close to Post-Harappan site. rice husk, six

NG
Amri Baluchistan, on the 1935 types of pottery, etc. Antelope
Majumdar
bank of Indus river evidence, Rhinoceros’ evidence, etc.

Khairpur (Sindh, Fazal

Figurine of ox, steatite seal,
Kot-Diji Pakistan), on the Ahmad, 1953-1955
terracotta beads, etc.
Indus river Ghureey

Hanumangarh Granary, ploughed field, wooden

District, Rajasthan Amlanand drainage, evidence of earthquake,
Kalibangan 1953
on the bank of Ghose wooden plough, camel’s bone, fire
Ghaggar river alters, earthen bricks, etc.

Divided into six sections, bead

Ahmedabad,
making factory, rice husk, ivory
Gujarat on Bhogva
Lothal R Rao 1955 weight balance, dockyard, fire
river near the Gulf
alters, terracotta figure of horse,
of Cambay
etc.

Five-fold sequence of culture, stone

Punjab, on the
Ropar YD Sharma 1953 and mud house, evidence of dog
river Sutlej
burial, along with human burial, etc.

Meerut (UP), on Pottery, animal bones, plant fossils,

Alamgirpur YD Sharma 1958
the Hindon river copper tools, etc.

Bones of horses, beads, stone

Surkotada Gujarat JP Joshi 1964
covered beads, etc.

Hisar (Haryana), on Largest Harappan site, fire alters,

Rakhigarhi the Drishdavati Surajbhan 1969 cylindrical seal, terracotta wheel,
river etc.
 Remains of street and drains, beads,
barley, oval-shaped settlement, the
Fatehabad district
Banawali RS Bisht 1974 only city with radial streets, toy
of Haryana
plough, the largest number of barley
grains, etc.

Only site to be divided into three

parts, giant water reservoir, unique
Gujarat in Rann of
Dholavira RS Bisht 1990 water harvesting system, dams-
Katch
embankments, signboard Indus
script, etc.

Arabian Sea
George F Early Harappan findings, bricks,
Balakot (Baluchistan, 1973-1979
Dales bead workshop
Pakistan)

Desalpur or Nakhtrana Taluka, SR Rao, A Copper and Terracotta seals, brown

1963
Gunthli Gujarat Ghosh pottery

Excavated Year of
Site Location Major Findings
by Excavation

Granary, workmen’s quarter, vanity

case, furnaces, piece of Pottery with
Montgomery, Indus script, cubical limestone
Daya Ram
Harappa Pakistan on the 1921 weight, copper Bullock cart, coffin
Sahni
banks of Ravi river burials, cemetery, terracotta
figurines, evidence of horse at
superficial level, etc.

Great Bath, granary, Unicorn seals,

Larkana District of
RD Bronze Dancing Girl statue,
Mohenjodaro Sind on the bank 1925
Banerjee Pashupati seal, steatite statue of
of Indus river
Beard Priest, piece of woven cloth,

etc.
 Trade point between Harappa and
Baluchistan on Babylon, flint Blades, stone Vessels,
Sultagendor Auriel Stein 1929
Dasht river stone Arrowheads, Shell Beads.
pottery, horse remains etc.

Bangle factory, inkpot, bead-makers

Mullan Sandha,
NG shop, the footprint of a dog chasing
Chanhudaro Sind on the Indus 1931
Majumdar a cat, cart with a seated driver, it is
river
the only city

Kathiawad
MS Vats,
Rangpur (Gujarat), on the 1931, 1957 without a citadel, etc.
SR Rao
Madar river

Close to
NG
Amri Baluchistan, on the 1935 Post-Harappan site. rice husk, six
Majumdar
bank of Indus river

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

The manifestation of towns and cities is an urban phenomenon and thus, the first towns and cities were linked
with the first urbanization that took place in the fertile valleys of the river Indus, Saraswati and their several
tributaries and even in the far off region dominated by the Harappan civilization. However, on the basis of
excavation, in many of the Harappan sites, it has been confirmed that these towns and cities grew out of earlier
villages that existed in the same locality prior to Pre/Early Harappan period. Before 2600 B.C. sites like, Harappa,
Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Kalibangan, Rehman Dheri, Nausharo, Kot Diji and many more existed in the form
of rural Harappan settlements. Their ideal locational setups were on the threshold, which led to urbanization.
Beginning with quite a small population, they grew in size and density to become larger settlements of the region
along the major trade routes. Population growth, strong agriculture base, developed trade and growth of
specialized skilled craftsmen favored the growth of towns and cities in the entire Harappan domain. These towns
and cities amply fulfilled many of the criteria suggested by the Gordon Childe while defining Urbanization (Childe
1950). Before going into the minutiae of Harappan town planning and layout of the settlements, fortification,
gates, streets, drainage network, houses and buildings and water reservoirs, it is relevant to know the nature of its
settlement. More than 1500 sites, (including Pre-Harappan, Early-Harappan, Mature-Harappan and Late-
Harappan) covering the Harappan realm has been classified into three categories i.e. 1. villages or hamlets
occupying an area sometimes even less then one hectare and maximum up to ten hectares, 2. towns between ten
to fifty hectares and 3. cities extending in* an area of more than fifty hectares. Of these, maximum number of
sites are represented by village or hamlets followed by quite a number of towns while metropolitan cities are just
five in number. Their ratio 44 is somewhat similar to the distribution pattern of the villages, towns and cities, like
the configuration of modem districts within a provincial state. In the entire Harappan domain, five large cities have
been identified as the major urban centers or metropolis. Among these, Mohen-jo-Daro being the largest of all
covers an area of more than 200 hectares. Second on the list is Harappa covering an area of more than 150
hectares whereas; Dholavira covers an area almost close to 100 hectares. Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi measuring
almost equal in dimensions occupy an area of more than 80 hectares. According to Kenoyer (1998), Jansen (2002)
and Sonawane (2005) Mohen-jo-Daro, Harappa, Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi are inland centers located far apart
from each other approximately 400 km in a zigzag pattern that covers the Indus and Saraswati plain. The fifth,
Dholavira, is situated in on a small island called Khadir in the Greater Rann of Kutch in Gujarat connecting Lothal
situated further south east on one side and Balakot further on the north west on the other, located approximately
300 km away on the either side. Quite a good deal of archaeological data, for proper understanding of the
Harappan town planning is available now as a result of extensive excavations. Key sites like Dholavira, Lothal and
Surkotada in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro
in Pakistan, all located in diverse environmental and geographic settings has given a slight variation in the planning
of the Harappan settlements, within the known Harappan norms.
Major Characteristics of Harappan Sites
Major Characteristics of Harappan sites are as follows:

Town Planning and Structure

▪ Town planning exhibited non-uniformity, but a common feature was the use of a grid system, with streets
intersecting at right angles, creating large rectangular blocks. Cities were divided into two parts: the upper
part or citadel and the lower town. Remarkably developed and well-organized urbanization stands out as
a unique feature of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Houses, often multi-storeyed, typically had side
entrances, and main streets lacked windows. The predominant use of burnt bricks was notable, with a
complete absence of stone buildings, and round pillars were absent as well. Kalibangan in the southern
part featured granaries. The most noteworthy feature, unheard elsewhere during the second half of third
millennium B.C., is the remarkable town planning of the Harappan civilization, with a probable margin on
either side. Dholavira being the exception with middle town as the extra feature of the settlement, every
othe r small cities and towns of the Harappan civilization consist of the basic layout out of citadel and
lower town. Recent excavations have proved that Harappan town planning does not represent uniform
pattern. The evidence from Lothal (Fig. 3.1), Surkotada (Fig. 3.2), Dholavira (Fig. 3.3) and Banawali (Fig.
3.4) has shown different settlement pattern than that of Mohen-jo-Daro (Fig. 3.5), Harappa (Fig. 3.6) and
Kalibangan (Fig. 3.7). With the excavation of Mohen-jo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan, archaeologists
earlier had the conception of twin mounds, higher ones located on the west acted as the citadels and
lower towns occupying relatively less elevated area situated towards the east. In the absence of large
scale excavation at Rakhigarhi, covering entire site, precise plan of the settlement is yet to be known.
Based on the evidence of excavations, the majority of the Harappan cities and towns are composed of a
series of walled mounds or sectors oriented in different directions. Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro both have
rectangular mound on the west and extensive mounds to the north, south and east whereas the
settlement of Kalibangan is confined to two separate mounds with the citadel on the west, represented by
a smaller mound and the lower city towards the east, marked by a fairly extensive mound. Citadel was
situated over the remains of the preceding occupation to gain eminence over the lowertown, which was
laid out on the natural plain towards the leaving the gap of over 40 meter between the two. Harappa is
remarkably similar to that of Kalibangan in layout having fortifications—parallelogram on plan. Mohen-jo-
Daro also appears to have a similar layout, despite the fact that flood erosions have obscured the
evidence. The lower town of Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro spreading out on different mounds also appear
to have separately fortified. However, lower town of Kalibangan gives clear indication of fortification—
parallelogram in shape. In contrast, Lothal and Surkotada follow a different expression for the layout of
the settlement. In these two sites, a common periphery wall encloses both the citadel and the lower town.
In case of Lothal, which is roughly rectangular on plan, with longer axis running north to south was
surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably to protect from flood, as the site is situated on the low-lying
area of Bhogava, a tributary of Sabarmati. There is no wall as such to separate the lower town from the
acropolis; the latter is situated in on the southeast, a unique location. The layout of the Lothal also claims
distinction because of a rectangular brick basin, interpreted as dockyard, attached with a wharf along the
eastern side of the settlement. Whereas, fortification of Surkotada is built of mud and mud bricks having
stone rubble veneer and also has a partition wall separating the citadel from the residential annexe in
such a way that settlement gets divided into almost two equal squarish halves, with an
intercommunicating passage between the two. The western half retains its identity as the citadel. Among
all, Dholavira, on account of its unique city planning indeed enjoys a pre-eminent position. The city is
basically oriented in the traditional cardinal directions, but the layout of the settlement, especially of the
walls and sectors are quite different from that of the other Harappan settlements. The salient components
of the full-grown cityscape consisted of bipartite citadel, middle town and lower town. These three sectors
are set within gargantuan fortification constructed entirely of mud bricks, running on all four sides. The
citadel of Dholavira, unlike its counterparts at Harappa, Mohen-jo-Daro and Kalibangan was laid out in the
south of the city area. Like Kalibangan and Surkotada, Dholavira too has conjoined subdivisions, identified
as castle and bailey, located on the east and west respectively, on the top of a low hill with fortification.
Impregnable defences most zealously guard the former, being the most important unit, while the latter is
lower in height and enclosed by comparatively less thick walls. A broad and long ground between the
citadel and middle town has been interpreted as a ceremonial ground. Further north, was located the
enwalled middle town and to the east of it was 50 Mf founded lower town. The lower town though did
not have its own fopifcaii6%\;vyas', : set within the general circumvallation running around the entire
city^flTiese€h§ee:/ major built-up divisions made together an L-shaped design: the citadel and the middle
" town forming the shorter line from the north-south and the middle town and the lower town forming
the longer stroke along the east west axis. Besides, to the south of the castle, across the adjoining
reservoir, there was raised another built-up area running along the city wall. On the other hand, the
Harappan town at Banawali stands apart for its unusual town planning which the Harappans accepted in
bequest. Belying the accepted norms it had an apsidal citadel within a trapezoidal town, both fortified by
brick separately and securely, following natural elevation, resulting in an unusual layout. The citadel of
course, enjoyed pre-eminently vantage location within the town itself, not located separately as at
Harappa, Mohen-jo-Daro, Kalibangan and Dholavira. In Banawali the situation is somewhat like that of
Lothal, where the acropolis occupied a higher and comparatively much larger south-central area of the
town in which former was embraced by the latter from the three sides, i.e., the eastern, the northern and
the western. Another innovation of special significance was the provision of a V-shaped moat that runs
around the outer face of the town wall. From the above mentioned data it is quite obvious that the
centralized planning of the Harappan settlements is one of the distinctive features and the earliest
advanced urban civilizations of the world. Although they were not strictly laid on chessboard or grid
patterns with invariably straight roads, they do show many signs of careful planning. Sites like Mohen-jo-
Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan had low, large eastern sectors and separately fortified higher but smaller
western sectors, known as lower towns and citadels respectively. There is a clear evidence that the
 buildings of the citadel were laid on a high podium fortified with bastions and towers whereas the eastern
one too lay within a fortification though of high magnitude but less impressive. Though some of the
settlements were fortified even during the Early Harappan phase, their actual division into separate
enclosed units evidently appears to coincide with the Mature Harappan phase only, obviously denoting
socio-political stratification. On the contrary Surkotada shows no such divisions but has only a single
sector on the model of western sector of Kalibangan. Though, Lothal and Banawali each lay within a single
enclosure, the latter shows distinctly fortified apsidal citadel within a trapezoidal town. Of the two, Lothal
has distinction of having a dockyard. On the other hand, Rakhigarhi, though not fully exposed show signs
of possessing more than two walled residential sectors. However, Dholavira stands apart and show three
divisions within the general enclosing wall consisting of bipartite citadel (Castle and Bailey), middle town
and lower town, which temptingly sound analogous respectively to three different categories of the
settlement or buildings. An open space between the citadel and the middle town served as stadium.
However most amazing is the layout of gates and provision of larger reservoirs in the drought prone area
of Kutch, integrating the use of two local streams into the overall civic planning. However, despite
variations in details, all settlements were well integrated to suit into the landscape under one platform.
Unlike the haphazard arrangement of Mesopotamian cities, Harappan settlements followed the same
basic plan everywhere. Town planning exhibited non-uniformity, but a common feature was the use of
a grid system, with streets intersecting at right angles, creating large rectangular blocks. Cities were
divided into two parts: the upper part or citadel and the lower town . Remarkably developed and well-
organized urbanization stands out as a unique feature of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Houses, often multi-
storeyed, typically had side entrances, and main streets lacked windows. The predominant use of burnt
bricks was notable, with a complete absence of stone buildings, and round pillars were absent as well.
Kalibangan in the southern part featured granaries.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

One of the most excellent features of the Harappan town planning is the well laid out streets and side lanes
geared up with drainage network. As a matter of fact, discharge of polluted water and sewage was an important
part of the concerns of the Harappans, which is reflected not only in the cities but also in smaller towns and
villages having impressive drainage system. Baked bricks were the important part for the construction of the
drains. Bathing platforms and latrines of the houses were connected to the medium sized drains in the side
streets. These medium sized drains flowed into larger sewers along with the main streets, which were covered
with bricks or dressed stone blocks. Corbelled arches allowed the larger drains to cut beneath streets or buildings
until they finally exit under the city wall. One completely preserved drain found at Harappa has a magnificent
corbelled arch- 1.6 meter high, 60 centimeter wide and extends from 6.5 meter beneath a major city street.
Rectangular sump pits, for collecting solid waste, were aided with main sewage, at regular intervals. Harappans
seems to be through with the art of management of waste water inside the houses. As evident from excavations,
there were provisions of intramural drains, vertical drain pipes in the walls, chutes through walls to the streets and
drains from bathing floors into the street drains. The Great Bath at Mohen-jo-Daro was provided with that largest
of all the Harappan culverts. Water from inside houses was sometime led directly into a street drain, but there are
other facilities, which were used as well, like brick-lined cesspits and pottery jars along the streets. On the other
hand, Dholavira presents excellent evidence of rainwater drains. The citadel has yielded an efficient system of
water harvesting through network of drains to a reservoir carved out in open space provided in the bailey. The
large drains are high and broad enough to allow a person to walk through (Fig. 3.10), resembling the drain to flush
out wastewater from the Great Bath at Mohen-jo-Daro. Small apertures at short intervals on the roofing stone
slabs, which might have acted like ducts to let air escape and instigate the easy flow of storm water, are one of the
interesting features of these drains at Dholavira. The drainage system was impressive, with nearly every house, big
or small, having its own courtyard and bathroom. Water from houses flowed into the streets, which were
equipped with drains. An underground drainage system interconnected all houses to street drains. These drains
were constructed using mortar, lime, and gypsum, covered with either brick or stone slabs, and equipped with
manholes. This indicates a sophisticated understanding of health and sanitation. Drains were constructed using
burnt bricks, and at Banawali, evidence of remains of streets and drains was found.
 Social and Political Life
The Indus Valley Civilisation exhibited a highly developed urban way of life, primarily composed of a middle-class
urban population. Various social classes, including priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, and laborers, were
present. Men typically wore two cotton garments, an upper and a lower garment, with occasional use of wool.
Different types of necklaces and commonly used bracelets were discovered. A vanity case found at Harappa
indicated the artistic skill of Harappan women in wall painting. The absence of a central authority contributed to a
lack of uniform culture, and there is no clear evidence of an organized force or standing army .Unlike cities in
lower Mesopotamia, priests did not rule Harappa; it was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
Religious Life
▪ Evidence from Harappan seals and terracotta figurines suggests that Proto-Shiva was an important
deity, depicted sitting in a yogic posture. Fire worship was prevalent in some Harappan sites
(Kalibangan and Lothal) but absent in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Ritual bathing, evidenced at
Mohenjodaro, might have been absent in Harappa, showcasing diversity in religious beliefs and
practices. A terracotta figure representing Mother Goddess, with a plant growing out of the embryo,
was a chief female deity. Numerous symbols of phallus (lingam) and female sex organs (yoni) made
of stone indicate the prevalence of lingam and yoni worship. Worship extended to trees (peepal),
animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon), and stones, although no temples were found despite the practice
of idolatry. In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a
plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the
earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the
Nile goddess Isis. The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented in
the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a
buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The depicted god is identified as Pushupati
Mahadeva. Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found
. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals. The most important of them is
the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next important was
the humped bull . Amulets have also been found in large numbers.

Burial Practices:
Disposal of the dead was a significant religious activity, with bodies generally placed in a North-South orientation.
Some graves contained ornaments like shell bangles, necklaces, earrings, and items such as copper mirrors, pearl
shells, antimony sticks, and earthen pots.
Unique burial practices

Location Burial Practices

Mohenjodaro Three forms of burial: complete, fractional, and post-cremation.

Kalibangan Two forms of burial: circular and rectangular grove and pot burial.

Surkotada Pair burial

Lothal Pair burial

Harappa with East-West axis, R-37, and H cemetery, coffin burial.

 Economic Life
The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency in various
crafts, and brisk trade (both internal and external) . Capital cities were Harappa and Mohenjodaro, while port
cities included Sutkagendor, Dholavira, Lothal, and Alhadino. The importance of trade in the life of the Indus
people is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and
measures in a wide area. The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal
money was not used and trade was carried by barter system. They practised navigation on the coast of the
Arabian Sea. They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with
Central Asia. They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The
Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have contributed to the social prestige of
the ruling class.

Agriculture
Agriculture was the predominant occupation, with fertile soil due to river inundation and flooding. Seeds were
sown in November, and the harvest of wheat and barley occurred in April. Wooden plowshares and stone
sickles were used in agricultural practices. Harvesting practices in Baluchistan included the creation of Gabarbands
or Nalas, enclosed by dams for water storage. The region cultivated a variety of crops, such as wheat, barley, dates,
peas, sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, bajra, and jowar.Rice husks were discovered at Lothal and Rangpur. The
people of the Indus Valley were pioneers in cotton production, referred to as Sindon by the Greeks. Fragments of
woven cotton cloth were unearthed at Mohenjodaro, marking their early use of cotton. Evidence of indigo, well
irrigation (Aldinho), dams, and irrigation canals (Dholavira and Shortugai) existed, but sugarcane was not known to
the Indus people.The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains.
Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced. Millets are also found from sites in
Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. While
the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural
practices. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists
extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where
irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of
Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh. Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were
also reared on a large scale. Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a
doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was not horse centred.
Domestication of animals
In terms of domestication of animals, the Indus Valley inhabitants practiced animal rearing, domesticating
buffaloes, sheep, oxen, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, and cats. Camel bones were found at Kalibangan. They
engaged in hunting wild animals like antelope, boar, deer, gharial, and fish. While they were unfamiliar with horses
and lions, a horse jawbone was discovered at Surkotada in Gujarat.
Trade
Trade at Harappan sites was based on a barter system, supported by granaries, seals, a uniform script, and
regulated weights and measures. They participated in both inter-regional and foreign trade, as indicated by
Sumerian texts referencing trade relations with Meluha (the ancient name for the Indus region). Two intermediate
trading stations, Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast), were mentioned. Transportation involved the use of
boats and bullock carts. Weights and measures, typically cubical and made of materials like limestone and steatite,
were found in multiples of 16. Linear systems of measurement were evident, with trade connections extending to
Shortughal and Mundigak in Afghanistan, Altyn Depe and Namazga in Turkmenistan, and Tepe Yahya and Shahri-i-
Sokhta in Iran. The use of metal money was not prevalent in their economic transactions.
Major Imports by the Harappans

Materials Sources
Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka

Silver Afghanistan, Iran

Copper Baluchistan and Khetri (Rajasthan)

Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia

Agates Western India

Chalcedony Saurashtra

Lead Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran

Lapis Lazuli Badakashan and Kashmir

Turquoise Central Asia, Iran

Amethyst Maharashtra

Jade Central Asia

Carnelian Saurashtra

Art and Architecture

The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. Their most notable artistic
achievement was their seal engraving. The major artistic work of the Harappans was given below
Harappan Pottery
Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well-baked. The script is also engraved on it. It
is chiefly wheel-made and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common.
Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised perforated, and knobbed.
The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world. On the whole, Harappan
pottery was highly ale utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable
artistic touch. la superbes grob.
Seals
The stamp seals of the Harappans, carved in intaglio are masterpieces of art noted for pragmatism. Most of the
Urban Harappan sites have reported seals and in fact constitute one of the distinctive traits of the mature phase.
Seals and Sealings are already in thousands and more are pouring in with every new excavation. Although there
are variation in shape, size and implementation, the most common are with squarish shape, each side measuring
around 2 and 3 centimeter with an average thickness of about 50 to 60 millimeter. However, some of seals were
rectangular, circular and even cylindrical. Few circular and cylindrical seals found in Harappan context are unusual.
Presence of these seals, especially the cylindrical ones often with Harappan motifs suggest a cultural interaction
with Mesopotamian and Persian world 65 whereas; the circular ones are the diagnostic of Gulf area. Despite the
fact that mainstream of the seals are made of steatite, there are instances of copper, silver, calcite and even
faience also. The process of manufacturing in case of steatite normally involves cutting of steatite (soft soapstone,
with the hardness of 1 on Moh’s scale, easy to saw, carve and smoothen) into the required size and shape and then
the surface was smoothened with some sort of abrasive. The finest surface was then carved with the help of sharp
instrument like burin or chisel and finally a coating of alkaline solution was applied before firing to harden it and
also to get a white shining look. The majority of the seals, irrespective of their material, had a convex perforated
boss on the reverse, through which a thread could be passed for suspension. Amongst the variety of subjects
depicted on seals, it was the so-called ‘Unicom’ (one homed mythical animal) that outnumbers the rest (Fig. 3.16).
In every case of this category, in front of the animal is shown a standard like object, variously interpreted as
manger, brazier, incense burner or sacred filter (Mahadevan 1984). The other animals incorporated are the short-
homed bull (bison), Brahmani bull with its characteristic dewlap and hump (Fig. 3.17), buffalo, rhinoceros, tiger,
elephant, crocodile, antelope, goat, hare, etc. then there were composite animals and even human and animal
combinations. Some seals contain more complex monographic scenes representing mythological or religious
depiction (Joshi and Parpola 1987). The signs of Harappan script on the seal, which were carved either inversely or
“intaglio” since they were stamped, assumably stands for the name of the owner, the name of an affiliated
organization or the name of the deity. These seals were probably used for trade as an administrative instrument as
well as for other functions too. The recent analysis suggests that the number of actual seal impressions (sealings)
are much less than that of seals, as majority of them are found abraded only at the edges and retain the crisp edge
of the carving more or less intact, has led the scholars to the speculation that they were used more as protective
amulets and/or identification marks than in administrative and economic life (Chakrabarti 1999: 181). The
existence of one or two examples of ‘amulet’ reported from Mohen-jo-Daro and even Bagasra, where the interior
of the seal had been carefully hollowed out to form a compartment, which was formerly closed by a sliding cover
that fitted with grooves cut into the opening of the socket so that something, most probably, a magic charm, could
be safely kept inside (Fig. 3.18). It also appears that square stamped seals with animal motifs carried messages
understandable to different citizens. As totemic symbol, the additional 66 traits, such as power, cunning, agility,
strength etc. may have been associated with each animal, depicted on seals. It is also surprising that the animals
depicted are usually male and has some specific connotation (Kenoyer 1998: 83). Thus now, Harappan seals are
treated more in the nature of token of power and prestige rather than mere badges bearing their owners name. If
the function of these seals, in which they were supposed to perform, such as, simply restricted to vouching for
merchants right on the goods they were stamped on lump of clay of sealed container, there is no reason why so
much artistic skill went into their manufacture.
▪ Major research efforts on the Harappan seals have been directed towards the decipherment of the Indus
script and very feeble attempts were made in understanding the pictorial depiction and categorization of
the representations to read the minds of the Harappan people. In this regard P.V. Pathak has tried to
interpret some of the seals as pictorial representation of the Atharva Vedic hymns (Pathak 1998-99, 1999).
Typically crafted from steatite, a soft stone.The unique technique of cutting and polishing these seals with
a white lustre was an innovative skill developed by the Harappans. Discovered at Mohenjodaro, commonly
referred to as Proto Shiva. Made of steatite, with dimensions of 3.4 cm in height, 3.4 cm in length, and 1.4
cm in width. This rare seal depicts a seated figure in a yogic posture, with bent legs, outstretched arms,
and hands resting on the knees. The head is crowned with a pair of horns. Surrounding the yogi are various
animals, including an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, man, and buffalo. Beneath the seal, there is a pair of
goats/reindeer/deer. Provides detailed insights into prevalent religious practices and rituals. Majority of
Seals Many seals feature an engraved animal along with a short inscription. The HA Unicorn is the most
frequently represented animal on the seals. The famous Bull seal was unearthed at Mohenjodaro.
Seals can be categorized into square types with a carved animal and inscription, and rectangular types
with inscription only. A steatite image of a bearded man was excavated from Mohenjodaro. Over 2000
seals have been recovered from various Harappan sites. Indus Valley seals have been discovered in
Mesopotamian towns like Ur, Kis, Susa, and Logas.

Tools and Devices

Harappans employed tools made of copper, bronze, and stone, exhibiting a remarkable consistency in both design
and production techniques. The basic tools types were the flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads, and arrowheads
for the copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of the civilization, they were also using daggers and
knives. They were familiar with Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone
tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sindh and then
sent to various urban centers. This shows the uniformity in the tool types.

Harappan Beads
Harappan individuals adorned themselves with exquisite beads crafted from precious and semi-precious stones
like agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. The processes involved in creating these beads are evident from the
findings of a workshop in Chanhudaro. Steatite was the most common material for bead production, although gold
and silver beads have also been discovered. Barrel-shaped beads with a trefoil pattern are distinctive features
associated with Harappan culture, and carnelian beads are frequently found.
In Mohenjodaro, a jewelry hoard, including gold beads, fillets, and other ornaments, was uncovered. Additionally,
small silver dishes were also among the discoveries.

Script and Language

The earliest specimen of the Harappan script was discovered in 1853.The script and language remain undeciphered
and are pictographic in nature, with the fish symbol being the most frequently represented. There are
approximately 250 to 400 pictographs. The overlapping of the letters indicates that it was written from right to left
in the first line and then left to right in the second line, a style known as Boustrophedon. A signboard inscription
bearing 10 pictographs has been unearthed from Dholavira in Gujarat. Thousands of inscriptions have been
discovered at 60 excavation sites: the majority are brief, the average length is five signs, and none are greater than
26 signs. Seals and seal imprints, pottery, bronze tools, stoneware bangles, bones, shells, ladles, ivory, and tiny
tablets made of steatite, bronze, and copper have all been found with Indus lettering on them. Square stamp
seals are the most common type of Indus writing media; they are typically 1 inch square with the script on top and
an animal design in the centre. Since writing in ancient times was often linked with elites attempting to record and
manage transactions, it is thought that the Indus Script was also utilised as an administrative tool. There is also
evidence of this writing being employed on clay tags attached to bundles of commodities exchanged between
merchants; some of these clay tags have been discovered in Mesopotamia, far beyond the Indus Valley,
demonstrating how far products travelled in ancient times. The Indus Script was also utilised in 'narrative imagery,'
which includes scenarios from myths or stories in which the script was blended with images of humans, animals,
and/or mythical beings represented in active stances. This last usage is similar to the religious, liturgical, and
literary uses that are widely documented in other writing systems.
Terracotta Figurines
Fire-baked clay was utilized for creating toys, objects of worship, animals (monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped
and humpless bulls), and both male and female figurines.Figurine models of boats have been discovered in
Mohenjodaro and Lothal. The degree of the works of art in a broad-spectrum and the sculptures in specific, add
greatly to our comprehension of ancient cultures and presents an insight into the minds of the artists, reflecting
not only the spirit and atmosphere of a culture but also by giving an indication of social values and religious beliefs
in such a pronounced way which is nearly impossible with other material remains. Same thing implies with
Harappan culture also. Although, very few sculptures are known so far in the vast corpus of the Harappan material
remains, no doubt, these sculptures speak of high standard of craftsmanship achieved by the Harappans in this
sphere of human activity also. Regrettably, in contrast to other aspects of the Harappan studies, sculptural art as
an important area of research is yet to attract scholars. 68 In comparison with Mesopotamian and Egyptian
civilizations, Harappan civilization has reported very limited number of stone and bronze sculptures depicting
basically human and animal forms. Nevertheless, there is some justification on the whole issue for maintaining a
multiplicity of art styles and postulating the roots of the much later historic art of the Indian subcontinent in them.
Amid the self-effacing collection, the major specimens are reported from Mohen-jo-Daro and few from Harappa,
Chanhudaro, Dholavira and Daimabad. Of these, except the statue of ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohen-jo-Daro and
Daimabad hoard representing various animals were casted in bronze rest were carved in stone, dominated by
male figures.
Among these, the famous one from Mohen-jo-Daro is steatite sculpture popularly known as the ‘Priest-King’ (Fig.
3.19). It probably represents a person of very high rank, judging from the elaborate clothing and ornaments. Even
though the body below the chest is missing, it is 17.5 centimeter in height and the width is 11 centimeter. It has
well-combed hair, parted in the middle and dropping behind the neck. Parallel lines in the relief show a well-
groomed beard. In contrast, however, the upper lip is clean shaved. Around the forehead goes a band, which is
tied behind and fall backs further down from the neck. A circular piece attached to this band on the forehead may
probably have some special significance. The eyes are half closed, as if the priest is in meditative pose. The figure
wears a shawl like garment, which passes underneath the right arm but goes over the left shoulder. It has a design
of trefoils, which were originally filled with red pigment. It has also been noted, when discovered, that one of the
eyes had shell inlay. The right upper arm is also decked with an ornament similar to that of the fillet headband.
The back of the head is flattened, possibly in order to affix a homed headdress as a symbol of sacred authority.
Parpola attempts to demonstrate that the garment of the Priest-King is something called the Tarpya, found in the
Vedic ritual (Parpola 1985). The most famous stone sculpture, in terms of Harappan context after the “Priest King”
is the small male torso found at Harappa (Fig. 3.20). This masterpiece is carved from fine-grained red sandstone
(jasper), a material that was never used by later sculptors. It is 9.5 cm high with arms and head missing and broken
at the legs. Nude figure of this youth with well-built yet supple and sensuous body bear holes for the attachment
of the heads and arms, but none are apparent for the legs. Prominent circular indentations, probably made by a
tube drill 69 are located on the front of each shoulder probably to affix a garment or for the inlay of the
ornaments. The holes for the breast nipples are apparently intended for the inlay. Another interesting sculpture
reported from Harappa is made of dark grey stone representing male dancer, confirms the technique of
manufacture and general modeling of Harappan style (Fig. 3.21). Again, this 10 cm high torso’s head and arms are
missing while legs are partly broken. Though, its individuality lies in its somewhat twisted body with lifted leg,
posed as dancer. Holes on the back of the neck were probably intended to hold hair in place suggesting that the
figure was almost certainly shown looking down. Marshall’s reconstruction of the pose may not be far off the
mark, but does show life and movement and should be placed in the high rank of the Harappan art (Possehl 2002:
112). Though, in the midst of the Harappan sculptures, the most beguiling piece of art is probably the bronze
statue of nude Dancing Girl from Mohen-jo-Daro (Fig. 3.22). Nearly 11 centimeter in height, the figure is shown
standing upright in a relaxed pose with head slightly tilting back. Right leg is somewhat straight whereas the left
one is bent at the knee. The right hand posed against the right hip, while the left hand is heavily festooned with
bangles, rests on the left knee. From the back of the neck descends a necklace with the pendant dangling between
the breasts. Her hair is tied in a bun hanging low on the back of the neck. The ankles and feet are missing in this
sculpture but there is one more bronze sculpture from Mohen-jo-Daro itself, in which limbs are adorned with
anklet. Almost every archaeologist considers it as one of the masterpiece of the Harappan art because of the
vivacious depiction of various features in this small figurine. Apart from these, few more sculptures, survived in
the form of human heads resembles in their facial features with that of Priest King. Most of these human heads
are reported from Mohen-jo-Daro. Another sculpture reported from Mohen-jo-Daro is a seated male figure of
which, head is missing. This statue is little over 29 centimeter in height and is made of grey alabaster. This figure is
shown wearing some garment covering left arm just like that of Priest King. Its left arm is placed just outside the
left leg, which is raised and bent at the knee, whereas the right hand rests on the right knee. However, it is
unfinished and shows chisel marks of the preliminary stone dressing. The same- seated pose has been proposed
for the priest king (Fig. 3.23). In this milieu, it is quite startling that none of the Harappan sites found in India
revealed such sculptures except Dholavira from where, recently, seated male figure carved in stone had been
reported. Then again, this sculpture is also broken and not much is known in details. Steatite sculpture of “Priest
King” from Mohen-jo-Daro (courtesy J. M. Kenoyer) ,Stone sculpture of male torso from Harappa (courtesy J. M.
Kenoyer) ,Stone sculpture of male dancer from Harappa (courtesy J. M. Kenoyer) ,Bronze statue of “Dancing Girl”
from Mohen-jo-Daro (courtesy J. M. Kenoyer) 72).
a It is quite sphinx-like to not to have sculptural remains of animals in real sense, despite the fact that variety of
them, both in the form and kind, are represented in the Harappan seals, terracotta and pottery drawings. Though,
few animals found depicted in copper or bronze, gold or silver and stone or faience are in the form of miniature
figurines; mostly as ornaments, forming a part of necklace representing sheep, rabbit, monkey, buffalo, squirrel,
bull etc., nevertheless, these representations can not be treated as sculptures. However, the hoard from Daimabad
which was discovered accidentally consists of four animal sculptures. Although, these sculptures are of Late
Harappan period still considerably fills the fissure. It includes a pair of bull, an elephant, a rhinoceros and a
buffalo. All of them are still in excellent state of preservation and has not lost their pristine features. All four of the
sculptures are solid cast and reported to weigh over 60 kg. Of these, the chariot and bulls are remarkable so far
their workmanship is concerned. It consists of an elaborate chariot yoked to two bulls and driven by a man
standing in a chariot (Fig. 3.24). Though the chariot has some Harappan features, this vehicle has no analogous in
the Harappan civilization and stands unique. The elephant is the largest of the three animals in the hoard, which
stands on a platform with four brackets beneath, pierced to take axels. The treatment of the rhinoceros inevitably
recalls that of the Harappan seals and provides comparative examples. The same is true to the buffalo and reminds
the figures of 73 buffalos, both in terracotta and cast copper or bronze from Mohen-jo-Daro. All these are
provided with wheels. Because of the size it gives the impression that it must have been used in the processions.
They are in fact the finest of their kind in the whole range of Indian Protohistoric art and might have been created
by an extremely skilled sculptor (Dhavalikar 1993).
It In terms of quantity or quality the Harappan sculptural remains cannot be compared with the repertoire of
either Mesopotamia or Egypt, neither we find variety of expression nor the range of exploitation of media which
both these cultures witnessed. However, an assortment of Harappan sculptures reflects on their own developed
art concept. Moreover, if we look carefully at the total assemblage of Harappan sculptures, it reveals that their
stylistic tradition was not homogeneous and uniform. One could see a difference in composition, form and
technique between the ‘Priest- King’ and ‘Dancing girl' found from Mohen-jo-Daro. On the whole, although,
examples of Harappan sculptures are rare, the art tradition of the later Indian subcontinent apparently owes a lot
to them. This can be inferred precisely from the 74 modeling of the Harappan torsos, which are reminiscent of the
sculptures of the historic period.
Apparently, though the Harappans could not produce big works of art on a large scale, they excelled in those of
small compass. Their most notable artistic achievement was perhaps in their sealing engravings, especially the
animals, which they delineated with powerful realism. The cult scenes show a refreshing originality, but because
of subject matter depiction there was no scope for detailed artistic expression. Though the meaning and use of
inscribed seals are still shrouded in mystery, partly because the script still remains undeciphered, but certainly
these were used to stamp bales of traded goods and may be more as token of power and prestige besides amulets.
Until recently, it was believed that the Harappan civilization along with its spectacular achievements, evolved
quite mysteriously and then disappeared suddenly, leaving little or no legacy for later cultures. However, as new
sites have been discovered and previously excavated ones were restudied it became apparent that it disintegrated
gradually, leaving the field open for the development of subsequent Protohistoric cultures and the second
urbanization during the first millennium B.C. In fact, there are significant continuities in subsistence activities, art
and architecture, technologies, economic set up, urban organizations and possibly socio-ritual as well as political
structures. Even today in the modern cities, towns and villages of the subcontinent one can see the legacy of the
Harappan culture reflected in traditional arts and crafts as well as in the layout of houses and settlements (Lai
2002).

HOUSES AND BUILDINGS

Groups of residential houses and public buildings were constructed close together and formed larger blocks that
were bordered by lanes and wide streets. Most of the houses opened on the narrower streets and lanes and rarely
on the main street. An average house centered around an open courtyard from which access was provided to the
various rooms to meet basic requirements as modules seen in traditional houses even today. Apart from
bathroom, latrine, and drains for sewage in almost every house, hearth was also a common feature and quite a
few of the houses having their own well. Floors of the houses were either made up of rammed earth or moulded
mud bricks. Quite a few houses have provided evidence of staircases, which suggests the 59 possibility of upper
storey; though it is quite likely that in most of the cases these might be the openings for the roof. On an average,
house walls were 70 centimeter thick and ceilings were probably three meter high. Clay models of houses show
that some of the doorframes were painted and possibly carved with simple decoration and. also suggest a kind of
locking device. Windows were reported to have normally formed by lattice brickwork. Besides the common types
of houses, barrack like quarters, arranged in two parallel back to back north-south rows, separated by a narrow
passage were evident from the HR area of Mohen-jo-Daro. Here, each quarter had two rooms, one at the back and
the other in the front. These barracks are reminiscent of more or less similar quarters at Harappa. There were also
large houses surrounded by smaller units served as one single residential complex. The other outer units may have
been the houses of relatives or service groups attached to the main house. While large public buildings may have
been associated with specific administrative or religious functions. The structures identified as the Great Bath, the
so called granary, the College, and the Ware-house etc. may be included in this category (Sonawane 2005).

WATER RESERVES
Depending upon the geographical position and environmental setting of the site, wells, tanks and reservoirs were
built to ascertain various necessities related to water. Jansen estimated that Mohen-jo-Daro may have had more
than 700 wells (Jansen 1989: 252). Comparatively, Harappa may have had as few as 30 wells. In the same manner
excavations at Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal and Dholavira also had furnished evidence of wells restricted to
very few in counts. Majority of these wells were lined with specially made wedged-shaped bricks (Fig. 3.11) to
form a structurally sound cylinder, with the depth of almost 10-15 meter, which would not cave in under pressure
from the adjacent earth. On the top edge of the well made of bricks had deep grooves, except that of Dholavira
where such marks are seen on the basal stone slab of the trough (Fig. 3.12), indicating use of ropes to lift the
water, probably with leather bags. At Mohen-jo-Daro, diameter of the wells ranged from 60 centimeter (being the
smallest) to 2.1 meter (the largest one). Whereas, in the castle area of Dholavira, with highly skilled masonry work
employed in the construction of the well is the largest, of which the inner diameter measures 4.12 meter. Mohen-
jo-Daro’s tank complex, popularly known as Great Bath is considered as the earliest public water tank in the
ancient world measuring approximately 12 meter north-south and 7 meter east-west, with the maximum depth of
2.4 meters. Two set of step ways, one each on northern and southern sides, led to the base of the tank.
To avoid leakage of the water form the tank, impregnable gypsum-mortar was used in between brick-on-edge
floors of the tank as well as in the sidewalls. Corbelled drain in the south-west comer of the floor of the tank was
used to discharge used water. Around the tank there ran successively a courtyard and pillared corridors. In one of
the rooms, found behind one of the three corridors have a double-lined brick well, which obviously supplied water
to the tank. Most of the scholars are of the view that this elaborate building was not only used simply for public
bathing but also might have some religious significance, where water was used to purify and renew the well being
of the bathers in special religious functions. Similarly, at Dholavira, in the southwestern quarter of the castle two
water tanks with a well, as an interrelated complex was identified. Of these, larger tank (Fig. 3.13) has
competently made floor with smothered stones, the side walls upto a certain height lined with large limestone
slabs and superstructure with dressed stones. Northern portion of the tank was provided with a flight of steps till
half way down only and not upto the floor as a normal practice. Center of this tank was provided with pit,
probably to let the dirty water accumulate there during the periodical cleaning of the tank. Small aperture was
also noticed in the tank for an easy disposal of the bulk of water. Probably it was connected to the waste-water
drain under the nearby broadway. Sticky, grey-colored clay, highly impervious in nature towards water, was used in
the masonry work, to make tank leak-proof. The smaller tank, besides the bigger one was more or less in the same
fashion, exception being, the steps were provided upto the tank floor. Common source of supply of water for both
these tanks was from the nearby well, which was connected with high inlet drain. Nevertheless, Lothal too
provides interesting feature of baked brick lined basin, practically rectangular in shape and measuring 219 by 37
meter in size, was located right away to the east of the parish of Lothal. The brick walls of the sunken enclosure
are 4.5 meter high. A platform borders the town side and permit easy access to the Warehouse and Acropolis. In
addition, two inlets were also noticed, supporting entry of water in the tank, one each on the northern and
southern wall, measuring 12 meter and 7 meter in width. Beside this, a spill way for the exit of surplus water was
provided in the southern wall. Excavator has identified this water-body as dockyard (Fig. 3.14) (Rao 1979: 123-
135). However, there still remains, elements of doubt about the explicit function of this brick lined enclosure and
is still open to question. Few scholars do believe that it was a tank (Feshnik 1968). In fact, none of this tank versus
dockyard alternatives is fully convincing. Feaving aside these functional utility theories, it remains one of the
ancient and represents one of the largest artificial water-retaining basins, reflecting superior hydraulic technology
developed by the Harappans.
Dholavira, of all the Harappan sites, was endowed with the most proficient system of water harvesting and
storage in the form of reservoirs (Fig. 3.15) in the absence persistent rivers, lakes or springs in its environs, where
subsoil water is by and large, briny. It seems as if great deal of consideration might have been given for the site like
Dholavira, at an ideal location between two seasonal drains, the Manhar and the Mansar. The architects of
Dholavira might have conceptualized an astonishing harmonization of dams and tanks to manage water by
conserving every drop of water that used to flow in the contiguous streams after the downpours; or else, a city of
such magnitude may not have flourished in an area where drought and famine are so common. The Dholavira
Harappans, during their prime, constructed almost sixteen reservoirs of varying dimensions, within the city walls
along the northern, western and southern sides of the main settlement and to the main settlement of the citadel.
The Harappans were extremely conscientious towards zealously storing the maximum or rather the entire volume
of water that used to flow in the flanking streams after the downpours. A casual rough estimate works out that
approximately 17 hectares, i.e. 36% of the total enwalled area was appropriated alone for the storage of the water
harnessed from the streams by way of raising several dams which are at least three or four across the Manhar in
the south and two or three across the Mansar in the north. In addition, there might have been quite a few inlet
channels piercing through the city walls for bringing in the surface run-off. (Bisht 1997: 117). It is worth noting that
the gradient between the higher northeast and lower southwest area of the city is 13 meter, an ideal situation of
having reservoirs. Of these, the reservoir located to the east of the castle has 31 steps from the top to bottom and
is a marvel of the technology and endeavor, of which the embankments and the steps were built in the stone
masonry. It is 24 meter wide and varied between 7.5 and 5 meter in depth. Another reservoir near the Annex, to
the south of the Castle, has an expose length of 95 meter and width of approximately 10 meter. The depth varies
from 2 to 4 meter. It is one of the earliest ever rock cut example of reservoir and that too of such a large scale. The
excavator remarks that the city might have looked like a lake-city or “Jala-Durga”.
ARTS AND CRAFTS
Many of the sites of the Harappan domain were engaged in craft production activities. They produced tools,
beads, bangles, inlay objects, ceramics, seals, toy objects, house hold utensils etc., using various raw materials.
The diversity of stones and other raw materials used by the Harappans include steatite, alabaster, shell, camelian,
agate, jasper, lapis lazuli, copper/bronze, gold, silver, amazonite, crystal, chrysophrase, bloodstone, milky quartz,
opal, onyx, plasma, sandstone, chert, granite, chalcedony, feldspar, hornblende, schist and dolerite (Lahiri 1992).
The Harappan art reflected in the form of pottery paintings, decoration in the beads, engraving in the seals and
sculptural art forms. Due to the uniqueness of Harappan seals and sculptures/figurines, special emphasis is given
to them.

STREETS
Streets are of the utmost importance in any of the civilization and the layout of the streets can tell us about the
nature of the settlement. During Harappan period too, streets played vital role in the urban planning. The overall
layout of the Harappan settlements is distinguished by the orientation of streets according to cardinal directions.
The prime streets at best were laid out running north-south and east-west cutting at right angles forming a grid
pattern in such a manner that it divided the settlements into square or rectangular blocks. Though, in its stricter
sense Mohen-jo- Daro does not have precise alignment and the widest street measures 9.1 meter, running across
the lower town, from north to south. Excavations at Kalibangan have confirmed the existence of four arterial
thoroughfares, running north-south and three running east-west. While the former were found to run without
hindrance, the latter did not come across the former but were staggered and possibly served as entrance lanes for
certain house blocks. Yet again, while the former were not equally spaced, the latter were situated on an average
of 70 meter from each other. The width of the thoroughfares and streets corresponded to the multiple of 1.8
meter and range from 1.8 to 7.2 meter. To prevent damage from vehicular traffic, fender posts were provided at
some street comers. Throughout the occupation, the width of these thoroughfares appears to be maintained, the
only encroachments of the structures into the streets were rectangular platforms immediately outside some
houses. Archaeological evidences suggest that the streets were unmetalled, except in the late phase. The layout of
the city shows that the alignments of the streets were at variance with that of fortification walls. It seems
fortifications and streets had been planned at the same time (Thapar 1979: 200-201). In the same manner the
streets of 4-6 meter wide and narrow lanes of 2-3 meter divided the principal living area of Lothal with main-street
running from north to south. Surkotada also furnishes the evidence of streets and lanes in between the house
complexes.
Dholavira, however, remains exception with the main arterial street running east- west,, connecting lower and
middle town and either sides were provided with bold projections and recesses, which resulted into an open space
opposite to the main street, which is indeed a unique method of layout of the habitational sectors with a wide-
open space so far unknown at other Harappan sites. Of course, one could also see major and minor streets and
lanes, which cut each other at right angles for making a defined network of housing units (Bisht 1998-99: 25-26).
The streets at Banawali due to typical configuration of the settlement offered a different layout. The citadel has,
notwithstanding its curvatural delineation, resolved itself in formal arrangement of streets and lanes which ran
straight almost along the citadel directions and cut each other at right angles and thereby determined a fairly
rectangular form for individual housing sectors of which six units can be easily identified within the excavated
area. On the other hand, the lower town, having trapezoidal plan, has exhibited a nucleated radial layout of the
streets and lanes, which, in turn, demarcated a series of triangulate of acutely trapezoidal residential sectors. In
this unconventional layout, there were seen certain focal points for streets, like spokes of wheel, to converge on or
radiate from. They therefore, made an acute or obtuse angle at the point of bifurcation. In the lower town, one
such focal point was near the east gat, where five major streets- three coming from the interior of the town and
two running along the fortification wall- meet with the passage of the gate on a broad piazza. No streets showed
use of vehicular traffic. The only exception was seen in the outer street near the northern apex of the citadel wall.
Here, several pairs of rut marks were found deep cut into the street floor. This shows that the movement of carts
was restricted to some special streets only (Bisht 1998-99: 19-20).

GATES
Archaeologists are still not very sure of the precise number of gates provided in different walled sectors both at
Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro. Mound at Harappa, gives the evidence in one of the gates to be only 2.8 meter wide,
just large enough to allow movement of one bullock-cart to get in or out of the city, at a time. It seems that the top
of the gate was perhaps covered and may have had rooms or sentinel posts. The second most important gateway
of mound E found near the junction at mound E and ET, is much more complex. The actual gate opening is only 2.6
meters in width but it has pylons and side rooms. Around mound AB, the excavated walls revealed four gates,
three on the western face and larger one on the northern side of the wall with a ramp leading down to a lower
suburb in the north of mound F. Recent studies at Mohen-jo-Daro seems to have confirmed that similar to that of
Harappa, each major mound at Mohen-jo-Daro was surrounded by an enormous mud brick walls with gateways at
locations (Kenoyer 1998: 55-56). As said earlier, the fortified citadel complex of Kalibangan consists of two almost
equal but separately patterned parts, rhomboid on plan, has revealed four gates, three in the northern half and
one in the southern half. In addition, the separation wall, dividing citadel and lower town, also has a gate in the
form of stairway between the two centrally located salient, connecting both the entity. Three gates of the
northern half (occupied by the elites) and one each on eastern, western and northern side, are simple ones
without a ramp, exceptional being the eastern one with a brick pavement on the edge. In addition to these, the
southern gate situated between central salient and the southern corner tower has revealed 2.65 meter wide
stairway passage. Similarly, two entrances of the fortified lower town were found on the northern and western
sides, Of these, the western entrance was controlled by a guardroom (Thapar 1979: 200-01). In Lothal, there is not
a single evidence of tower or gateway built in the periphery wall. On the contrary, the extent of excavated areas
has revealed a slanting entrance passage to the acropolis on the southern outer wall further west of the
warehouse. At the same time scenario at Surkotada is quite different. Being a garrison defense outpost, it has
elaborate gateway complexes with guardrooms. Here, citadel as well as residential area was provided with
separate entrance, each 1.70 meter wide, constructed in the middle between the comer and central bastion of the
southern rampart. In addition, a 4m wide passage for intercommunication was provided in a partition wall
between citadel and the residential annexe (Joshi 1990: 51-57). Similarly, Banawali has an elaborate gate complex
constructed in the thick outer eastern wall was found where five major streets met with the passage of the gate on
a broad piazza. It was flanked by bastions having a moat in front.
Most noteworthy of all the Harappan settlements, Dholavira accounts for most of the gateways unparallel to be
seen elsewhere. Overall, 14 gates have been laid bare in different fortified habitational areas. The divisions of all
these 14 gates are: Castle-5; Bailey-2; Stadium-4; Middle town-1 and Annexe-2. All the five gates of the Castle bear
distinct designs. Of these, eastern arm of the fortification wall has yielded two gates while one each in remaining
three sides of the walls. The south gate has a concealed passage with an ordinary doorway. Gate on the western
arm, which was connected with the Bailey, has a 9 meter long and 2.2 meter wide passage with a guardroom. The
eastern gate (Fig. 3.8), one of the two major ones, had a large elevated side chamber on the south and a passage
on the north. The passage was interconnected with the flight of 14 steps at the inner end while the other end was
fitted with a doorsill made of large limestone slab. On the either ends of the floor of chamber was found a set of
smooth, nicely cut and polished limestone blocks of rectangular shape. Thus, it is quite possible that both the ends
have been provided with huge doors. In these blocks, the topmost block bore two long sockets, one each on two
sides, parallel to each other. moEach pair of the blocks served as the base for the 54 pilasters, made out of mud-
concrete bricks. In the center, between the two pilasters, was found another set of limestone blocks supporting a
beautifully carved and polished pillar base having a pronounced concave profile. The top flat surface bore in the
center a 5 mm circular hole to support a large sized cylindrical pillar. The northern gate (Fig. 3.9) was found to be
the most majestic, most elaborately designed architectural construction, which commanded over the stadium,
middle town, lower town and further beyond the picturesque landscape. In the thickness of the wall, it consisted
two elevated chambers flanking a passageway, which in term was furnished at the inner end with a limestone
doorsill flanked by a set of limestone each bearing sockets, thereby suggesting the existence of two enormous
stone columns, which might have supported the heavy door frame (Bisht 1998-99: 30-31). Discovery of these pillar
bases in situ, in Dholavira, helps us to understand numerous such stones found in the streets and dumps at
Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro. Comparatively, other gates found at Dholavira are rather simple.

FORTIFICATION
One of the important aspects of the Harappan town planning is the provision of forts. Archaeological evidences
has brought into notice the concept of development of fortification during pre and early Harappan phase, it
became more pronounced and standardized during the Mature phase with the emergence of earliest towns and
cities, as a measure to safeguard their settlements. The massive fortification walls were in fact solid structures
made of proportionately moulded bricks set in mud mortar. Successive courses of brick were laid in recessed
manner as a result both the faces registered a marked taper, which resulted into the raised wall from a border
base to a lofty narrow top forming trapezoidal cross section and often indicating the evidence of clay plastering.
On the other hand, in areas where the availability of stones are easy, i.e. Dholavira and Surkotada, both inner and
outer faces were provided with stone facing to sustain the strength of susceptible portions. It appears that special
care was taken for the construction of the comers, gates and bastions of the fortification. In Harappa, one of the
walls around mound AB, was 14 meter wide at the base and the exterior face of the wall was of baked bricks.
Whereas, in Kalibangan the width of the fort wall of the citadel complex varies from 9 to 11 meters. At Dholavira,
the basal width of the fort wall of the castle is 11 meter whereas at Banawali, the basal width of the fort walls of
the citadel ranges from 5.4 to 7 meter. At Surkotada, the width of the fortification wall of citadel is 7 meter
whereas residential annexe is 4.25 meter. At Lothal, despite the fact of a relatively small settlement (covering an
area of only 52 twelve hectares) was protected against floods by raising a 13 meter thick wall of mud bricks.
However, northern side of the wall (facing the ancient river bed) was armored with baked bricks. More so, some of
the smaller settlements like Bagasra demonstrate more or less the same layout where square bastions were
provided on the curves of the inner face instead of outer ones. However, most of the scholars are of the view that
the massive fortifications were for military confrontation, but the nonexistence of sudden turn in walls and no
moats (with the exception of Banawali) to lead enemies into an ambush, would have been ill suited for defence.
For that reason, it appears that, they were rather created to control to the flow of goods in and out of the city
(Kenoyer 1998: 56). What on earth were the precise function of the fort walls and gates; they demonstrated the
high level of architectural skills of the Harappans.

Decline of Harappan Culture

The Harappan culture thrived until approximately 1800 BC, after which it started to decline. Many mature
Harappan sites, including those in regions like Cholistan, were abandoned by 1800 BC. Populations expanded into
new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. Various theories regarding the decline have
been proposed by different scholars. Some of them are as follows; According to British archaeologist Mortimer
Wheeler, the Aryan people abruptly overtook and annexed the Indus Valley Civilization, with evidence of unburied
bodies in the prime area of the Mohenjodaro archaeological site. The Climate Change Theory posits that eastward-
moving monsoons or winds, causing heavy rainfall, could have damaged the Harappan environment. Hugh Trevor
Lambriek, in 1967, suggested that the eastward migration of the Indus River led to repeated floods, resulting in
the loss of agricultural produce. This theory proposes that the new Ghaggar-Hakra waterways became the center
of the Indus Civilization, causing a significant migration of artisans and tradesmen towards Saurashtra and
Haryana in the early 1900 BC. The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still
debated. One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC. In later cultures
various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an
invasion. On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the decline of the IVC. The natural
factors could be geological and climatic. It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic
disturbances which causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses of rivers or dried them up. Another natural
reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall. There could be also dramatic shifts in the river courses, which
might have brought floods to the food producing areas. Due to combination of these natural causes there was a
slow but inevitable collapse of IVC.

The Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation: Different Views

Causes of Decline Thinkers

External Aggression Piggot, Gordan-Childe

Inundation by Tectonic Shift MR Sahani

Epidemic KVR Kennedy

Tectonic Disturbances (e.g., Dholavira) Dales and Raikes

Climatic Change RL Stein, AN Ghosh

Deforestation, scarcity of resources, ecological imbalances Walter Fairservis

Flood (e.g., Mohenjodaro) Marshal, SR Rao, Maickey

The destruction due to a change in the course of the river Ghaggar GF Holes

Chapter-4
Vedic and megalithic age

Origin of the Aryans

▪ The term “Aryan,” signifying noble, was utilized by the Indo-Iranian people.According to a well-established
and evidence-based theory, the Aryans, fair-skinned individuals, migrated from Eurasia and settled in
ancient Iran and Northern India around 1500 BC.The initial settlement of Aryans in the Indian subcontinent
occurred in the region known as the Land of the Seven Rivers. They entered the North-Western part of the
subcontinent through Iran from Central Asia, subsequently moving Eastward into the Deccan Plateau
through the plains around the Ganges River. While it’s challenging to assert that all early Aryans belonged
to a single race, their culture displayed a remarkable degree of similarity. The Bogazkoi inscriptions from
1400 BC provide information on a peace treaty between the Hittites and the Mittanis rulers of Hittani,
mentioning the names of Vedic Gods – Indra, Mitra, Nasatya, and Varuna. The introduction of new
literature, belief systems, and other Aryan influences deeply impacted socio-cultural and political life in
India. Aryans spoke the Indo-European language, and their primary occupations included pastoral herding
and agriculture. The reasons behind the Rapid Expansion of the Aryans were :Chariot driven by horses,
Weapons made of good quality bronze, The use of armor (Burman), Use of a destructive machine
called Purcharishnu .

Origin Places of Aryans According to Some Scholars

Places of Origin Scholars

Sapta Sindhu Region Dr. Sampurnand /AC Das

Arctic Region BG Tilak

Central Asia Max Muller

German Plains Professor Penka

Tibet Region Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Bacteria Region Rhodes

Europe Sir William Jones

Hungary P Giles

Sources of the Vedic Age

We can explore the Early Vedic period through two primary sources: Literary and Archaeological sources. The
literary sources, particularly the four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda—provide
insights into the knowledge of the Vedic age.In addition, ecological excavations conducted over the last 70 years in
regions such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Rajasthan, along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers, have
uncovered numerous Vedic settlements. Harappan Civilization was followed by another great culture Known as
the Vedic Culture. It is called Vedic Age as its reconstruction is primarily based on using Vedic texts as sources.
Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composers of Vedic texts. The term ‘Indo-Aryans’ is basically a linguistic term
and refers to speaker of a sub group of the Indo- Iranian branch of the Indo- European family of languages.
Understanding the Vedic corpus- a vast and voluminous sacerdotal literature-is intimately linked up with the study
of India’s past in a remote antiquity for a variety of reasons. First, with the Vedic corpus India society and culture
enters its literary phase, a phenomenon of momentous significance. The Vedic corpus is the earliest literary
tradition in Indian History, and the Rig veda is also the earliest literary creation in India. The Vedic corpus is
generally divided into Early Vedic and Later Vedic texts. In terms of chronology the Early Vedic period is assigned to
c.1500-1000 BCE and the later Vedic period is assigned to c.1000-500 BCE. In the Hindu tradition, the Vedas have
the status of shruti (literally, ‘that which has been heard’). They are thought to embody an eternal, self-existent
truth realized by the rishis (seers) in a state of meditation or revealed to them by the gods. The category of smriti
(literally, ‘remembered’) texts includes the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra, and Nitishastra. The word
Veda comes from the root vid (literally, ‘to know’) and means ‘knowledge’. There are four Vedas—Rig, Sama, Yajur,
and Atharva. The Rig Veda contains the world’s oldest surviving poetry, some of it of extraordinary beauty and
philosophical depth. Each Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes blend into each other—the
Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. The Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas)
arranged in 10 books (Mandalas). The Sama Veda consists of 1,810 verses, mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda,
arranged according to the needs of musical notation. The original melodies are, however, lost. The Yajur Veda
deals with the details of the performance of rituals. The Atharva Veda is the latest Veda and contains hymns (some
from the Rig Veda), but also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices. Vedic
literature forms an important part of the Brahmanical tradition—texts preserved and transmitted by a section of
Brahmana males. It reflects their religious beliefs, practices, and points of view. As a source of history, these texts
are used for information about life in parts of north-western and northern India during the 2nd and 1st millennia
BCE. A number of supplementary texts known as Vedanga (literally, ‘limbs of a Veda’) aimed at helping the proper
recitation, use, and understanding of the Vedas. These include works on phonetics (shiksha), metre (chhanda),
grammar (vyakarana), etymology (nirukta), ritual (kalpa), and astronomy (jyotisha).
 Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC):
The Early Vedic Age, also known as the Rigvedic Age, aligns with the composition of Rigvedic hymns, estimated to
be between 1500 BC and 1000 BC. The Early Vedic period was established along the Sapta Sindhu (area of seven
rivers) region. The seven rivers collectively known as Sapta Sindhu include Indus (Sindhu), Jhelum (Vitasta), Askini
(Chenab), Purushni (Ravi), Vipasa (Beas), Sutudri (Sutlej), and Naditarna (Saraswati). In the Later Vedic period,
Aryans occupied the upper Gangetic Doab. Political life during the Early Vedic period was tribal and highly
democratic. The Kula (family) served as the foundation for both social and political organizations. The hierarchy
included Grama (village), Vis (clan), Jana (tribe), and Rashtra (country). The tribal chief, known as Rajan, was
central to the administrative machinery. The position was hereditary, and the king (Gopajanasya) acted as the
protector of the tribe and cattle rather than ruling a specific territory.Various tribal assemblies such as Vidhata,
Sabha, and Samiti emerged, exercising military and religious functions. Women occasionally attended these
assemblies. The Doctrine of Divinity was not associated with kingship, with only one king, as described
in Purushasukta, being termed as Ardhadeva (semi-divine) in Rig Veda.Important officers included Purohita,
Senani, Kulpati (head of the family), Vishpati, Brajpati, Gramini, Sparsa (spy), and Duta (messenger).

Differences between Indus Valley People and Vedic People

Characteristics Indus Valley People Vedic People

Essentially a rural-based society and

Civilization Type Essentially an urban civilization.
economy.

Knowledge of Knew the use of various metals such as gold,

Completely unaware of the use of iron.
Metals copper, silver, iron, and bronze.

Importance of Not aware of the use of horses and did not Attached great importance to cow and horse
Animals show high regard for the cow or bull. among various animals.

Economic Life
Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral. The cow (Gau) was the most important animal (mentioned 176
times in Rig Veda).

Term Meaning

Gomat A man who owned many cattle.

Gavesana Conflicts and battles related to cows.

Gavishti To search for cows.

Gopati A Raja or Chief.

Godhuli A measure of time.

Gavyuti A unit of distance.

Duhitr A daughter who milks cows.

Gotra A unit of kinship/lineage.

Wealth in the early Vedic society was often expressed through gifts, with priests receiving offerings of cows and
women slaves. The Rig Vedic texts emphasized the sacredness of cows through the term “Aghanya,” urging their
protection and care.Cattle breeding was the primary occupation, involving the domestication of horses, sheep,
goats, dogs, and asses. Agriculture played a secondary role, with references to barley (Yava) in Rig Veda, and a
practice of shifting agriculture. Panis, the trading class, faced condemnation for their perceived greed and harsh
demeanor. Presentations, involving the exchange of courtesies, weapons, and cattle at the group level, were
crucial for the economy. Economic stratification existed, although there were no explicit references to beggars,
wage earners, or wages in the Rig Veda. The common metals in use were copper and bronze (Ayas), with
recognized weights such as Nishkas, Hiranyapindas, and Manas. The prevalent pottery type was Ochre Coloured
Pottery (OCP), although Black and Red Ware types were known. The taxation system was undeveloped, and
voluntary contributions, known as Ball, were made to the king. Wooden plows like Phala, Langala, and Sira were
mentioned in the texts, reflecting agricultural practices. The Rig Veda repeated emphasises the importance of
cattle-wealth(go). The cattle (go) in the Rig Veda is synonymous with wealth (rayi). A person reach in Cattle
(goman) is considered wealthy (maghavan), fit to be a part of the Sabha. The Rig Veda therefore considered the
cattle as the principal form of social wealth., agriculture though known and practised, was secondary to cattle
keeping in the Rig Vedic economy. It is no wonder that the Rig Veda knew the chief of the clan (vispati ) as gopati
(lord of the cattle); wars were termed in the Rig Veda as Gavishthi. The Go was also the medium of exchange in the
Rig Veda. No less coveted then the go was the horse (asva), which was not encountered in India prior to the
advent of the Indo-Aryan speakers. The horse regularly appears in the Rig Veda as a coveted animal, which was
often obtained as booty in a war. The Rig Vedic people were not entirely nomadic, but semi pastoralists, who
therefore did not experience a fully sedentary society. It is possible that towards the end of the Rig Vedic time the
importance of agriculture was being taken into account. Only rudimentary crafts figure in the Rig Veda. One of
them was that of the carpenter (takshaka) who is different from the wood cutter. The Vedic literature is indeed our
principal source for understanding contemporary social life. The primary unit of the social life was the family
(kula). Right from the Rig Vedic times the family is patriarchal; the head of the family usually being the father. The
Rig Veda offers the earliest known account of the four varnas- the brahmana, the kshatriya, the vaishya and the
sudra, the most distinctive feature of the traditional society in India. The later Vedic texts on the other hand
provide information about social change from a relatively simpler society to a more complex and sharply
differentiated society. The growing rigours of the Varna system are also clear from the restrictions on marriage.
The Vedic society was patriarchal. Such a society as this invariably placed women in a position secondary to the
male members of the family. The position of women seem to have taken a worsening turn from the Later Vedic
times. The undesirability of the birth of a daughter became pronounced.

Social Life
The early Vedic society was based on tribes, with social relations centered around kinship ties (gotra). Society was
divided along clan lines, including kings, priests, and artisans within clan networks. The semi-nomadic and tribal
nature of the society was evident, with Aryan tribals referred to as Janas, led by a chief known
as Rajan/Gopa/Gopati. Jana was further divided into Vis (groups of villages), Grama (village), and Kulas
(family).Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, exemplified by the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Sudas, the Bharata king, emerged victorious, establishing the supremacy of the Bharatas. Dasarajna War or Battle
of Ten Kings: Sudas, son of Divodas and Bharata king, won against an alliance of ten tribes (five Aryans and five
non-Aryans). The battle was fought on the bank of the Parushni (Ravi) river .A dispute between Vashishtha and
Vishvamitra, priests of Bharatas and the alliance, triggered the conflict. The Rig Vedic society was largely
egalitarian, with no caste division. Occupation was not birth-based, allowing members of a family to adopt
different occupations. Varna, initially based on color, served as the basis for differentiation between Vedic and
non-Vedic people. Thus, the Rig Veda mentions Arya Varna and Dasa Varna. (Here ‘Dasa’ means a group lom
different from the Rig Vedic people. Later, Dasa came to mean a slave.)The warriors, priests, and ordinary people
were the three sections of the Rig Vedic tribe. The Shudra category came into existence only towards the end of
the Rig Vedic period. This means that the division of society in the early Vedic period was not rigid. Shudra’s word
is first mentioned in the tenth book (late addition) of Rig Veda. The Rig Veda is repleted with prayers to deities
who are expected to help humans to overcome their enemies; accounts of clashes also regularly account in Rig
Veda. The Rig Veda retains memory a major battle, namely the battle of the ten kings (Dasarajana) against the
Bharat chief Sudra. Though the Vedic literature does not offer any connected accounts of political events for nearly
a millennium , the later Vedic texts pays considerable attention to various rituals meant for aspirants’ political
control. The Vedic corpus was also aware of the role of the popular assemblies. Images of polity and political
situation are not entirely absent from the voluminous Vedic texts. The Rig Veda regularly acquaints us with terms
like gana, jana and vis which all points to group or collection of people. An even small or more primitive unit was
grama which originally did not stand for its commonly accepted connotation of a village; grama too denoted a
combination, a group. The word Rajan (or raja) occurs many times in the family book of the Rig Veda. Since a full-
fledged monarchical state had yet emerged, this word is best translated as ‘chieftain’ or ‘noble’, rather than as
king. The Rig Veda mentions assemblies such as the Sabha and Samiti. The Sabha seems to have been a smaller,
more elite gathering, whereas the samiti appears to have been larger assembly presided over by a Rajan.
Position of Women
Rig Vedic society was patriarchal, so the birth of daughters was not desired. But once born, they were treated with
kindness. Child marriage was not practiced. Women can choose their husbands. Monogamy and Niyoga (a variant
of widow re-marriage) were practiced. She could take part in the proceedings of the tribal assemblies called Sabha
and Samiti. Some of the famous scholars of the Rig Vedic period were Vishwavara, Apala, Lopamudra, and Ghosha
Religious Life
Aryans were nature worshippers. It reflects naturalistic polytheism. Yajnas were also performed as a form of
worship. There was a predominance of male Gods and very few Goddesses were mentioned. The aim of worship
was for material gains. Two drinks namely Soma and Sura were sanctioned by religion. Soma was drunk at
sacrifices and Sura was disapproved by priests. The Vedic religion was sacrificial, where Sacrifices or Yajnas were
performed by Vedic people for to following reasons to invoke the Gods, to grant boons, victory in battles, or for
the acquisition of cattle, sons, etc. The growing importance of sacrifices in the Vedic society resulted in the
growing importance of priests as well. Vedic literature being religious in nature, historians have regularly used the
Vedic corpus for understanding the belief-system and rites and rituals. The centrality of the Vedic religious life is
given to ritual of sacrifice of various kinds. One of the most significant Gods in the Rig Veda was the fire God Agni.
Agni was the purifier and the linkage between the human beings and God. The most prominent deity in the Rig
Vedic times was Indra, he is a great hero, chief of the Gods in their incessant war with demons (asuras). Another
important deity was Varuna who was the upholder of the cosmic order. He is closely associated with Mitra, the
Sun God. There is a separate sun God, Surya. One of the most important deities was Soma. Soma is both an
inebriating drink and also the presiding deity over that drink. Vishnu in the Rig Veda is a solar deity in the name of
Aditya, while Siva figures as Rudra. The Rig Veda strongly upholds the worship of nature and various natural
phenomenon like rainfall, thunderbolt, dawn and the river-Goddess Sarasvati.
Important Vedic Gods
The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra, who played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers
to victory against the demons. He is considered to be the Rain God and is responsible for causing rainfall. The
second position is held by Agni (Fire God).

Numbers of Hymns
Gods Significances
Dedicated

Most popular and praised God in the Vedas. Also called Purandhara (breaker of
Indra 250
forts).

God of Fire (second most important God). Considered an intermediary between

Agni 200
Gods and people.

Varuna’s Third most important God, personified Water God. 176

Soma God of Plants, and the soma plant’s source is Himalaya (Munjavat). 114
 Resembles the Greek God Apollo, identified as Proto-Shiva. Also known as Animal
Rudra 75
God.

Yama Lord of Death, mentioned in the first and tenth books of Rig Veda. 50

Usha Goddess of Dawn, mentioned (not dedicated) around 300 times in the Rig Veda. –

Savitri Solar deity to whom the Gayatri Mantra is dedicated. –

Vishnu is Mentioned as a minor God in Rig Veda. –

Rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda

Rig Vedic Names Modern Names Rig Vedic Names Modern Names

Sindhu Indus Askini Chenab

Krumu Kurram Suvasthu Swat

Vitasta Jhelum Parushni Ravi

Drishadvati Ghaggar Kubha Kabul

Vipasa Beas Naditarna Saraswati

Shatudri Sutlej Sadanira Gandak

Gomal Gomati – –

Later Vedic Age (1000 – 600 BC)

Later Vedic Age (1000 – 600 BC) witnessed significant transformations in the realms of Politics, Economy, Society,
and Religion, also referred to as the PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Iron Phase. The Aryans extended their influence
from Punjab to cover Western Uttar Pradesh, including the Ganga-Yamuna doab. They inhabited the region
between the Saraswati and Drishadvati Rivers. This geographical shift brought about notable changes in their
social, political, economic, and religious structures. The later Vedas divided India into three main
regions: Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India), and Dakshina Patha (Southern India).

Political Life
▪ The term “Jana,” previously used to denote people or tribes in the Rig Vedic period, was replaced
by “Janapada.”The term “Rashtra,” signifying territory, was introduced for the first time in later Vedic
texts.Rig Veda and Atharva Veda reference the election of the Rajan through people’s approval, while the
Taittiriya Brahmana introduces the Theory of Divine Origin of Kingship.Caste exogamy and a rigid social
hierarchy were established, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupying higher positions.During this period,
the significance of the sabha surpassed that of the samiti, reflecting changes in the nature of tribal
assemblies. five types of state system - Rajya (Central Kingdom) – Raja, Bhojya (Southern Kingdom) –
Bhoja, Swarajya (Western Kingdom) – Svarat , Vairajya (Northern Kingdom) – Virat, Samrajya (Eastern
Kingdom) – Samrat. Although the number of central officers increased, a structured bureaucracy was
absent, and the king did not maintain a standing army.
 ▪
Important Ratnins and Other Important Official’s Responsibilities

Rank Responsibilities

Purohita Priest

Senani Commander-in-Chief

Vrajapati Head of the pasture land

Spasas Spies-cum-messengers

Bhagadugha Tax collector

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Gramani Head of the village

Kulapati Head of the family

Mahishi Chief Queen

Takshan Carpenter

Duta Messenger

Suta Charioteer

Kshatriya Chamberlain

Akshavapa Accountant

Palagala Messenger

Govikartana Keeper of games and forests

 Economic Life
The shift towards the Gangetic valley, facilitated by the use of iron and fire, led to significant developments in
agriculture. Although cattle rearing continued, pastoralism was no longer the primary subsistence activity.
Satapatha Brahmana detailed various stages of agriculture, including ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing.
Both Kharif and Rabi crops were cultivated. Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the principal crops, with
barley (Yava) still in production. During this period, rice became a staple in the diet, and double cropping was
practiced. The emergence of urban life was triggered by the increased importance of land, giving rise to new
classes of iron smiths, chariot makers, and shipbuilders. The Painted grey ware culture also emerged during this
period. Trading activities flourished, and the use of coins like Satamana, Krishnala, and Nishkas became
prevalent. While the taxation system was not fully developed, taxes were collected, and Sangrihitri likely oversaw
the process. Bali, Bhaga (the oldest tax), and Shulka were the main taxes, gradually transforming from voluntary
contributions to mandatory tributes.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture

The PGW pottery, created using a wheel, featured well-levigated clay, a thin core, and a smooth, grey to ash-grey
surface. The pottery was painted in black and sometimes in deep brown on both outer and inner surfaces,
displaying 42 designs, with bowls and dishes being common types.Notable PGW sites included Atranjikhera (Etah
district, Uttar Pradesh), Ahichhatra (Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh), Noh (Bharatpur district,
Rajasthan), Hastinapur (Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh), Kurukshetra (Haryana), Bhagwanpura (Kurukshetra
district, Haryana), and Jakhera (Kasganj district, Uttar Pradesh).
The PGW pottery, created using a wheel, featured well-levigated clay, a thin core, and a smooth, grey to ash-grey
surface. The pottery was painted in black and sometimes in deep brown on both outer and inner surfaces,
displaying 42 designs, with bowls and dishes being common types.Notable PGW sites included Atranjikhera (Etah
district, Uttar Pradesh), Ahichhatra (Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh), Noh (Bharatpur district,
Rajasthan), Hastinapur (Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh), Kurukshetra (Haryana), Bhagwanpura (Kurukshetra
district, Haryana), and Jakhera (Kasganj district, Uttar Pradesh). Painted Grey Ware was first identified at
Ahichchhatra (in Bareilly district) in the 1940s, but its full significance was understood only after excavations at
Hastinapur were carried out by B. B. Lal in 1954–55. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine, smooth, and even-
coloured pottery, with a thin fabric. Its shades range from a soft silvery grey to a strong battleship grey. It was
made out of wellworked, very high quality clay. Designs, mostly simple geometric patterns, were painted on in
black. PGW has a very extensive distribution, stretching from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau in
central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan to Kaushambi near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. The
main concentration of sites are, however, in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Sutlej basin, and upper Ganga plains. The
dates of the PGW culture range from c. 1100 to c. 500/400 BCE, and the sites in the north-west are probably earlier
than those in the Ganga valley. Important evidence of the PGW material culture is available from excavated sites
such as Hastinapur, Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Allahpur, Mathura, Kampil, Noh, Jodhpura, Bhagwanpura, Jakhera,
Kaushambi, and Shravasti. Structural remains at PGW levels consist mainly of wattle-and-daub and mud huts. The
PGW sites indicate a subsistence base that included the cultivation of rice, wheat, and barley. People were growing
two crops a year. Animal husbandry was also practised. PGW sites have yielded bones of cattle, sheep, and pigs,
many of them charred and bearing cut marks. Fish bones and fishhooks indicate fishing. Horse bones have been
found at Hastinapur. Most of the artefacts found at PGW levels seem to be connected with war or hunting—
arrowheads, spearheads, blades, daggers, and lances. Sites such as Noh, Jakher, Ahar -all from Rajasthan have
yielded evidence of iron. Recent evidence suggests the beginning of iron technology in the middle Ganga valley in
the early and mid-2nd millennium BC. Important sites in this region includes- Dadupur, Malhar, Raja Nal Ka Tila,
Koldihwa, Narhan etc. In Bihar and Bengal, the earliest iron artefacts appear in a BRW context at sites such as
Chirand, Sonpur, Taradih, Bahiri, Mahisdal, and Bharatpur, and can be placed in the first quarter of the 1st
millennium BCE. In Central India, iron is found at BRW levels at sites such as Nagda on the banks of the Chambal
and Eran on the banks of the Bina river and also at Nagda. There are a number of iron-bearing megalithic sites in
Madhya Pradesh. The important ones include Dhanora, Sonabhir, Karhibhandari, Chirachori, Majagahan,
Kabrahata, Sorara, Sankanpalli, Timmelwada, Handaguda, and Nelakanker. The earliest iron artefacts in the Deccan
occur at BRW levels, and many of them are associated with megaliths. Several megalithic burials and associated
habitational deposits in Maharashtra have yielded iron objects. Important sites include Takalghat-Khapa, Naikund,
Mahurjhari, Bhagimohari, Borgaon, Ranjala, Pimpalsuti, and Junapan. . The iron artefacts included ladles, nails,
dagger blades, arrowheads, knives, chisels, spikes, axes, double-edged adzes, blades, bars/rods, fishhooks, horse
bits, bangles, tridents, a spearhead, sword, and cauldron. In South India, the earliest iron objects appear in the
overlap between the neolithic and megalithic phases. Megaliths are widely distributed in South India. In Tamil
Nadu, the sites include Adichanallur, Amritamangalam, Kunnattur, Sanur, Vasudevanallur, Tenkasi, Korkai, Kayal,
Kalugumalai, Perumalmalai, Pudukkotai, Tirukkampuliyar, and Odugat-tur. Important sites in Kerala include
Pulimattu, Tengakkal, Cenkotta, Muthukar, Peria Kanal, Machad, Pazhayannur, and Mangadu. Among the
important megalithic sites in Karnataka are Brahmagiri, Maski, Hanamsagar, Terdal-Halingali, T. Narsipur, and
Hallur. Iron objects generally outnumber objects made of other metals at megalithic sites. The large volume and
variety of iron artefacts—utensils, weapons (arrowheads, spearheads, swords, knives, etc.), carpentry tools (axes,
chisels, adzes), and agricultural implements (sickles, hoes, coulters—the vertical blade fixed in front of a
ploughshare)—indicate the metal’s widespread use in everyday life. Other more elaborate objects found in burials
may have had ritualistic functions. With the help of Iron tools and implements like axes forests were clear and
more areas were brought under agriculture. Use of iron implements for agricultural purpose generated agricultural
surplus which in turn brought certain changes and developments in the social and economic life of the people and
these development over a period of time paved way for the second urbanization in the Indian subcontinent.

Social Life
The later Vedic period witnessed a transition from a pastoral to a sedentary agrarian society. Society became
divided into four Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.Male members of the upper three varnas
were referred to as Dvija or twice-born. Child marriages became prevalent, and the upper three varnas were
entitled to Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony), while Shudras were deprived of it and were not allowed to recite
the Gayatri Mantra. he institution of Gotra was established, prohibiting marriages within the same Gotra, marking
the institutionalization of this concept. Purushasukta is a late hymn of X Mandal of Rig Veda. It says that four
persons originated from the body of the Purusha or the Primeval creator. These were as follows:
Kshatriya and Shishya First introduced in the Altareya Brahmana, the concept primarily aimed at regulating the
life of male members of the higher caste and comprises four stages: Brahmacharya (Student life), Grihastha
(Householder), Vanaprastha (Partial retirement), Sanyasin (Complete retirement).

Position of Women
During this period, there was a degradation in the status of women. Although women experienced a decline in
their societal status, they were not denied the right to education. They were excluded from Upanayana and
religious ceremonies and were not allowed to participate in assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis. Women were
confined to household chores and held subordinate positions within the family structure.

Texts Description

The daughter is the source of misery, but the son is the protector of the family. There are
Aitareya Brahmana
three evils: liquor, dice, and women.

Maitrayani Samhita There are three evils: liquor, dice, and women.

Brihadaranyaka
Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue Proves that some women received higher education.
Upanishad

Religious Life
▪ During this era, there was a shift in the prominence of early Vedic gods, with Indra and Agni losing
importance, while Prajapati, the creator, gained significance. Additionally, Rudra, a minor deity in the Rig
Veda, became more prominent, and Vishnu was recognized as the creator and protector of the Universe.
Other deities, such as Marut (son of Rudra and personified as the Storm God), Surya (Sun God), and
Aranyani (Forest Goddess), emerged in the later Vedic period. Pushan, previously associated with
protecting cattle, now became revered as the god of the Shudras. These changes in deity status reflect the
 transformation of tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist communities. The purpose of
Yajnas during this period served two main objectives. Firstly, they established the authority of chiefs over
the people, and secondly, they reinforced the territorial aspect of the polity, as individuals from all over
the kingdom were invited to participate in these sacrificial rituals. Public Yajnas like Rajsuyas, Vajapeya,
and Ashvamedha were conducted on a grand scale, involving the entire community. Rajasuya
Consecration Ceremony: This ritual conferred supreme power on the king and comprised five major
ceremonies. Ashvamedha Horse Sacrifice: This ritual aimed to establish the king’s supremacy over
neighboring regions. The Aitareya and Satapatha Brahmana mention monarchs who performed this
significant sacrifice. Vajapeya Sacrifice: Conducted to maintain peace within the state, Vajapeya
represented the highest form of Soma Yajna. The associated chariot race aimed to reaffirm the king’s
supremacy over his own people within the kingdom. The Samskaras, or sacraments, are considered rituals
intended to reform and sanctify the individual for whom they are conducted. The initial systematic
delineation of the Samskaras is presented in the Grihya Sutras. The following describes the sixteen
Samskaras.

Samskaras Descriptions

Garbhadhana Ceremony for conception

Punsavana To secure the birth of a male child

Simantonnayana Parting the hair

Jatakarma Natal rites (ceremony for the new born child)

Namakaran Ceremony for naming the child

Nishkramana First outing (for showing the Sun)

Annaprasana First feeding with boiled rice in the sixth month

Chudakarana Tonsure (arrangement of the hair tuft)

Karnavedha Piercing the ear lobes

Vidyarambha Learning the alphabet

Upanayana Holy thread ceremony

Chudakarana Tonsure (arrangement of the hair tuft)

Karnavedha Piercing the ear lobes

Vidyarambha Learning the alphabet

Upanayana First study of the Vedas

Samavartana Graduation (ceremony on returning home after completing studentship)

Keshanta Cutting the hair

Vivaha Marriage

Praishartha Funeral

Forms of Marriage
The Smritis delineates eight forms of marriages, as follows: Brahma: Marriage within the same class with a proper
dowry. Daiva: Daughter given by the householder to the sacrificial priest as part of his fees. Arsa: The bridegroom
presents a cow and a bull to the parents of the girl in this form of marriage. Prajapati: Girl married without a
dowry. Gandharva: Marriage of a willing man and woman, often clandestine. Asura: Marriage by purchasing the
girl from her custodian. Rakshasa: Marriage by capturing the girl. Paisacha: Marriage by abducting the girl when
she is asleep, drunk, mentally perturbed, i.e., not in her full senses. Marriages were categorized based on the
Varna System. Anuloma Marriage: In which the wife is of a lower caste. It was permitted but not encouraged.
Pratiloma Marriage: In which the husband is of a lower caste. It was completely forbidden.

Literature of the Vedic Period

The Vedas

The term “Veda” is derived from the root word “Vid,” which means to know, signifying knowledge par excellence.
Vedas comprise hymns, prayers, charms, and sacrificial formulae. Vedas are called Apaurusheya (not made by
man) and Nitya (existing in all eternity). The Rishis, to whom these books are ascribed, are known as
Mantradrashta, meaning inspired saints who received the hymns directly from the supreme creator. Apart from
its literary significance, the Vedas shed light on the political, religious, social, and economic aspects of the Vedic
period. The X Mandala of the Rig Veda Samhita and the Sama, the Yajur, and the Atharva Veda Samhitas are the
other Vedic texts written in the later Vedic phase. Each Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes
blend into each other—the Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad.
Rig Veda (Compiled between 1500 BC to 1000 BC)
It consists of 1028 hymns and is divided into X Mandalas (books). Mandalas II to VII are the oldest, known as
family/books composed by Gritsamada Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja, and Vashistha. Mandalas VIII and
IX belong to the middle time. Mandalas I and X are the last to be compiled. In the third mandala, composed by
Vishvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, the famous Gayatri Mantra is found. The IXth Mandala is
completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma (The Lord of Plants). The Xth Mandala contains the famous
Purushasukta hymn in which the origin of the Varna system is discussed. The Rig Veda contains the world’s oldest
surviving poetry, some of it of extraordinary beauty and philosophical depth. Each Veda has four parts. The Rig
Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 books (Mandalas).
Sama Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC):
Sama Veda is a compilation of hymns primarily taken from the VIIIth and IXth Mandalas of the Rig Veda. These
hymns are set to tune for singing, giving rise to the Book of Chants. The origin of Indian music is traced back to this
compilation. The purpose of the hymns in Sama Veda was to be sung during the Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri
priests. The Shakas of Sama Veda include Kauthuma, Jaiminiya, and Ranayaniya. . The Sama Veda consists of 1,810
verses, mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda, arranged according to the needs of musical notation. The original
melodies are, however, lost.

Yajur Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC)

Yajur Veda provides guidelines for performing various sacrifices, primarily serving as a manual for the Adhvaryu
priests. This Veda is presented in both verse and prose. It introduces the two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and
Vajapeya. Yajur Veda is divided into two parts: Krishna Yajur Veda (Black): This section contains hymns along with
prose commentaries. Shukla Yajur Veda (White): This section includes only hymns. The Yajur Veda deals with the
details of the performance of rituals.

Atharva Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC)

The Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, toward off evils and diseases. It
preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed to be work of non-Aryans. It contains 731 hymns.
Indian Medical Science called Ayurveda, its origin from Atharva Veda. The Atharva Veda is the latest Veda and
contains hymns (some from the Rig Veda), but also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and
practices.

Upavedas

Upavedas Related with Subjects

Dhanur Veda Yajur Veda Archery or Warfare

Gandharva Veda Sama Veda Music

Shilpa Veda Atharva Veda Sculpture or Architecture

Ayur Veda Rig Veda Medicine or Life

Sutra Sahitya
The period of 600 BC to 300 BC is known as the period of sutra, The period of 600 BC to 300 BC is known as the
period of sutra, when various literatures of sutras were written. The sutras are short but very meaningful
sentences, which despite being small contain wide meaning.
The Brahmanas
They are treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremonies. They are elaborate commentaries on the various
hymns in the Vedas. The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended for the use of the invoking priest (Hotri).
Shatapatha Brahmana is the lengthiest and the most important of all the Brahmanas. It throws light on the
geographical shift of the Aryans towards the Eastern Gangetic Plains during the later Vedic period. The story
of Prince Videgha Mathava provides a clear indication of this geographical expansion.

Vedas Associated Brahmanas

Rig Veda Aitareya and Kausitaki

Sama Veda Total 10, where Tandyamaha and Jaiminiya were important

Yajur Veda Taittiriya and Shatapatha

Atharva Veda Gopatha Brahmana

 The Aranyakas
Aranyakas, often referred to as forest books, derive their name from “Aranya,” meaning forest. These texts delve
into mysticism, exploring the symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.
The Upanishads
Upanishads, meaning “Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings,” provide profound philosophical
and spiritual knowledge. They are also known as Vedanta. The Upanishads, totaling 108 in number, impart deep
insights into philosophical and spiritual understanding. The concepts of Atman and Brahman are majorly explained
by Upanishads.

Vedas Related Upanishads

Rig Veda Aitareya and Kausitaki

Sama Veda Chandogya and Kena

Yajur Veda Taittiriya, Brihadaranyaka, Katha, Svetasvatara

Atharva Veda Mundaka, Prasna and Mandukya

▪ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Concept of Rebirth: The notion of rebirth is initially presented in the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and it later finds a more detailed expression in the Chandogya Upanishads. As
one of the oldest Upanishads, it lays the foundation for exploring spiritual concepts. Additionally, the
Katha Upanishad recounts the enlightening dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama. Satyameva Jayate and
Mundaka Upanishad: The powerful declaration “Satyameva Jayate” is drawn from the wisdom of the
Mundaka Upanishad. Serving as the National Motto of India, it is prominently featured at the base of the
National Emblem in Devanagari script. Translated, it signifies “Truth Alone Triumphs.” The Vedangas and
the Sutra Period: The post-600 BC era, known as the Sutra period, witnessed the compilation of the
Vedangas. Classified as Smriti, denoting literature transmitted by tradition and of human origin. There are
six Vedangas that emerged during this time.

Contents Vedangas

Phonetics or Pronunciation Shiksha

Kalpa Sacrificial ritual

Vyakarana Grammar

Nirukta Chhanda

Jyotisha Astronomy

Kalpa Sutras are categorized into three distinct classes: Srauta Sutra: This class is dedicated to the elaborate rituals
associated with major sacrifices like those of Agni and Soma. Alongside the Srauta Sutra, one finds the Sulva Sutra,
which stands as the oldest treatise on Indian Geometry. Grihya Sutra: Focused on domestic ceremonies and
sacrifices, the Grihya Sutra outlines the rituals to be observed by the householder within the confines of the
home. Dharma Sutra: Dharma Sutra addresses the laws, manners, and customs applicable to people in general. It
forms the foundational basis for Dharma Shastras, including the renowned Law of Manu.

Puranas
Puranas encompass a variety of materials such as stories, anecdotes, songs, and ballads. The shift in worship
practices, transitioning from sacrifices to idol worship, is evident in the Puranas. There is also a notable emphasis
on the visual representation of deities, contrasting with the earlier focus on worshiping abstract concepts. The
word ‘Purana’ means ‘old’. According to tradition, the Puranas were composed by Vyasa, but it is clear that in the
form in which they have come down to us, they were not the work of one person nor of one age. There are 18
Mahapuranas (great Puranas), and many more Upapuranas (secondary Puranas). The standard list of the 18
Mahapuranas includes the Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva,
Skanda, Agni, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana, and Brahma. The origins of the
Puranas may have overlapped to some extent with the Vedas, but their composition stretched forward into the
4th–5th centuries CE, and in some cases, even later. The Puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers, and places,
which are useful for the study of historical geography. They also reflect the emergence of religious cults based on
devotion, especially towards the gods Vishnu and Shiva and the goddess Shakti. This devotion was expressed
through the worship of images of deities in temples, pilgrimage (tirtha), and vows (vrata).

Smritis:
Smritis, also known as Dharma Shastra, are law books composed in Sloka form. Significant Smritis include Manav
Dharma Shastra, Vishnu Dharma Shastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narad Smriti. Among these, Manav Dharma
Shastra, or Manu Smriti, holds the distinction of being the oldest and most renowned. Manu, considered the first
king and lawgiver, is associated with this ancient and influential Smriti. Additionally, there are later compilations
of minor Smritis and commentaries, such as the Mitakshara. The Sanskrit word dharma (from the root dhri,
meaning ‘to maintain, support, or sustain’) is very rich in meaning and difficult to translate. The concept of dharma
is based on the idea that the universe is governed by a certain natural law and that the moral laws guiding
people’s lives should be in consonance with that natural law. A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically
with dharma are collectively known as the Dharmashastra. These texts can be subdivided into three groups. The
first two are the Dharmasutras and the Smritis. The third includes brief and elaborate commentaries, comments
and conclusions.
THE TWO SANSKRIT EPICS
The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, fall within the category of smriti as well as itihasa
(traditional history), although the Ramayana is sometimes classified as kavya (poetry). The Mahabharata consists
of 18 Parvas (books) and has two main recensions—a northern and southern. The core story concerns a conflict
between two sets of cousins—the Kauravas and the Pandavas—and a great war that was fought between them at
Kurukshetra. The Ramayana exists in the form of two main recensions—northern and southern. The basic story is
about Rama, prince of Kosala; his banishment to the forest due to the intrigues of his wicked stepmother; the
abduction of his wife Sita by Ravana, the king of Lanka; Sita’s rescue; and Rama’s return to the capital, Ayodhya, to
become king.
Some important Vedic term

Vedic Terms Description

Udumbara and Khadira Wood used to make plough

Mudga Moong

Masa Urad

Ugra and Jeevgrah Police officers

Kshirodan Rice cooked with milk

Tilodan Til cooked with milk

Apoop Cooked mixture of ghee and barley wheat

Pad Coin of later Vedic age

Shattantu Musical instruments of hundred chords

Urna Wool

Virivranti Wife who did not give birth to a son

Vratyastoma Yagya Yagya in which a human being was sacrificed

Megalithic Culture of India

Megalith is a term that has been used to describe structures constructed by people from many cultures and
geographical locations around the world. A megalith is a stone that is larger in size and has been used to construct
a monument or a structure. These types of structures were predominantly constructed during the Neolithic period
and persisted through the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. In India, Megalithic Culture mainly belongs
to the Iron Age (1500 BC–500 BC), with some exceptions, such as of Chalcolithic-Megalithic sites. The word
‘megalith’ comes from two Greek words, megas meaning great or big and lithos meaning stone. Megaliths include
different kinds of monuments that have one thing in common—they are made of large, roughly dressed slabs of
stone. In the Indian subcontinent, they occur in the far south, the Deccan plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli
ranges, and the north-west. The practice of making megaliths continues among certain tribal communities of India
such as the Khasis of Assam and the Mundas of Chotanagpur. The term megalithic culture refers to the cultural
remains found in the megaliths and from the habitation sites associated with them. The three basic types of
megaliths are the chamber tombs, unchambered tombs, and megaliths not connected with burials (Sundara, 1975:
331–40). The chamber tombs usually consist of a chamber (the size and shape of which may vary) composed of
two or four vertical slabs of stone (known as orthostats), topped by a horizontal capstone. If the chamber is
underground, it is known as a cist. If it is partly underground, it is known as a dolmenoid cist. If it is fully above the
ground, it is known as a dolmen. The chamber tombs include the topikals (literally, ‘hat stones’) and kudaikals
(literally, ‘umbrella stones’), which are found in Kerala and Karnataka.

Types of Megaliths in India

The "Polylithic type" and the "Monolithic type" are two categories into which megalithic building types can be
divided. The megalithic structure in the polylithic type is constructed from multiple stones. A monolithic structure
is made up of just one stone. These structures are listed below.

Polylithic Type of Megaliths

Types Description

- This kind of
megalith,
which is
Dolmen
typically
supported by
three or
 more upright
stones and a
sizable flat
horizontal
capstone,
was made in
a single
chamber
tomb.

- In order to
create a
barrow,
dolmens
were
typically
covered with
dirt or
smaller
stones.

- Example:
Clusters of
Dolmen at
Hire Benkal,
Karnataka.

- A man-
made stone
pile known as
a "cairn" is
frequently
Cairn conical in
shape.

-They
typically
inhabit
uplands,
moorlands,
mountaintop
s, or areas
close to
waterways.

- Cairns are
frequently
built today as
landmarks.
They served
as
astronomical
observatories
or were built
 as
monuments
to the dead
in ancient
times.

- These range
from simple,
unorganised
stone piles to
complex
engineering
feats.

- Example:
Ottiyambakk
am Cairns

Cromlech

- The British
term for
prehistoric
megalithic
structures is
cromlech,
where crom
stands for
"bent" and
llech for
"flagstone."
 - A cist or kist
was used to
encase the
bodies of the
dead. It
might be
connected to
other
monuments.

- Example:
Brahmagiri
Cist,
Karnataka.

Monolithic Type of Megaliths

Descriptio
Types
n

- A Menhir
is a
monolithic
stone
Menhir
structure
that is
upright.

- They
come in a
variety of
sizes and
irregular,
square
shapes
that
frequently
taper
upward.

- Menhirs
are
widesprea
d in
Europe,
Africa, and
Asia, but
they are
most
frequently
found in
 Western
Europe,
particularl
y in
Ireland
and Great
Britain.

- Their
origin is
prehistoric
.

- Example:
Ellarigude
m,
Telangana,
and
Several
megaliths
of Indian
Tribes.

- It is
made up
of
standing
Stone Circle stones
arranged
in a circle.

- The
placement
of the
stones can
take the
shape of a
circle,
ellipse, or
even as a
setting of
four
stones
placed on
a circle's
arc.

- Example:
Stone
Circle at
Junapani,
Madhya
Pradesh.
 Megalithic Sites of India

The first excavated Megalithic site was the site of Adichanallur in the Tirunevelly district, Tamil Nadu. The
excavation of Brahmagiri in Karnataka in 1975 helped us understand the culture of early South India. Following is
the list of megalithic sites in India: Seraikala in Jharkhand, Deodhoora in Almora district of Uttarakhand, Koldihwa
(Belan valley), Banda, Mirzapur, Prayagraj, and Varanasi districts of Uttar Pradesh (Chalcolithic materials), Thrissur
and Kunnattur in Kerala, Waztal, Burzahom and Brah in Kashmir, Maski, Hallur, Chandravalli, Hire Benkal, Coorg,
Heggadehalli and Brahmagiri in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, Junapani, Khapa, Mahurjhari, and
Naikund are near Nagpur and a few sites in the Pune district in Maharashtra and Adichanallue, Sanur, Kodumanal
and Perumbair in Tamil Nadu.

Features of Megalithic Culture

The Megalithic culture is characterised by the use of large stone boulders in and around graves.
 Burial Rituals of Megalithic Culture
Megalithic culture demonstrates that religious and superstitious beliefs predominated in megalithic communities.
The elaborate items connected with the burials serve as clear evidence of this. Different burial traditions could
indicate different social and ethnic groups, but so far, no fixed regional conventions regarding the orientation of
the bodies or the graves have been observed. These buildings and the remains buried with the dead are evidence
of the widely held notions of "afterlife" and "rebirth." These people may have only temporarily settled in one
place before migrating in search of new resources when they were faced with a shortage due to the relatively
transient construction of their habitation sites and homes. Horses were buried with the dead in the Vidarbha
region, possibly after being sacrificed, but this may have been a local ethnic custom. Common characteristics of
these burials include the presence of distinctive pots, i.e., red and black ware.
Social Organisation of Megalithic Culture
Only a very rough social structure of the Indian Megalithic people can be derived, and information on settlement
patterns is essentially non- existent. Division of labour: It appears that the communities may have included a
variety of specialised groups, including goldsmiths, smiths, warriors, farmers, and carpenters. Economy: Primary
agriculture, partly hunting, Evidences of iron sickles and plough coulters, Evidence of staples - Rice and ragi grains
in the excavations at Kunnattur and Hallur, respectively and It is also shown by the hunting scenes in the Hire-
Benkal rock paintings.

Ethnic Affinity and Origin of Megalithic Culture

It is unclear from where India's megalithic culture first emerged. Some scholars have said that the builders were
Celts or Scythians, the Central Asian tribes.Others have made an effort to connect them to the Dravidians.In some
tribes of India, the construction of megaliths is still a common practice (Gonds, Gadabas, Kurumbas, Mundas,
Marias, Garos, Khasis, Nagas, Karbis, etc.).The skeletal remains found, especially from Brahmagiri, Yeleswaram,
and Adichanallar, show that people were of mixed racial type.

Other Features of Megalithic Culture

Graves have provided evidence of animal bones, iron objects, pottery, ornaments, beads, etc. Villages were
common among the Megalithic people. Megalithic people cultivated rice, wheat, ragi and domesticated animals
like donkeys and buffalo. The discovery of iron objects in megalithic graves suggests an association with the Iron
Age. Different types of pottery, including high-quality red and black pottery, are associated with the Megalithic
culture. Some settlements have revealed pottery and Roman coins. Iron weapons, horse equipment, skeletons,
and gold and silver ornaments are commonly found in these burials. Megalithic tombs, particularly in the Deccan
region, have provided valuable information about the Iron Age.

Megalithic Culture of South India

Since the graves at South Indian sites are mostly megalithic in nature, the cultures are traditionally known as
‘Megalithic Culture’. In the pre-existing cultural backdrop of the area, the Megalithic builders appear completely
exotic. West Asia, the traditional homeland of Chalcolithic culture, does not show the practice of Megalithic
burials and hence cannot be considered as the source of dispersal of the iron using megalithic builders. Instead,
sarcophagi and cist graves from the Iron Age can be seen along the coasts of South Arabia and the Levant. They
probably came by sea route to enter Deccan India. Apparently, these people did not create any urban settlements,
the likes of which we have witnessed in the Harappan period or during the phase of second urbanisation in the
Ganga Valley. In remote, gipsy-like tent settlements, the megalithic builders may have kept horses for breeding
and grazing in order to trade them with the newly emerging political centres in the middle Ganga valley. Given
how self-centred the Megalithic Iron Age in Deccan remained, it did not require much effort for the northern
centres of power to establish their dominance in this area over the course of the next 500–600 years. In Vidarbha,
Maharashtra and the region further to the south up to the tip of Indian peninsula, which is also a rich iron-ore
bearing area of the subcontinent, the Iron Age is dominated by a megalithic burial complex. The word ‘megalith’
comes from two Greek words, megas meaning great or big and lithos meaning stone. Megaliths include different
kinds of monuments that have one thing in common—they are made of large, roughly dressed slabs of stone. In
the Indian subcontinent, they occur in the far south, the Deccan plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli ranges, and
the north-west. The practice of making megaliths continues among certain tribal communities of India such as the
Khasis of Assam and the Mundas of Chotanagpur. The term megalithic culture refers to the cultural remains found
in the megaliths and from the habitation sites associated with them. The three basic types of megaliths are the
chamber tombs, unchambered tombs, and megaliths not connected with burials (Sundara, 1975: 331–40). The
chamber tombs usually consist of a chamber (the size and shape of which may vary) composed of two or four
vertical slabs of stone (known as orthostats), topped by a horizontal capstone. If the chamber is underground, it is
known as a cist. If it is partly underground, it is known as a dolmenoid cist. If it is fully above the ground, it is
known as a dolmen. The chamber tombs include the topikals (literally, ‘hat stones’) and kudaikals (literally,
‘umbrella stones’), which are found in Kerala and Karnataka. The unchambered burials are of three types—pit
burials, urn burials, and sarcophagus burials. In pit burials, the funerary remains are buried in a pit. If a pit burial is
marked by a circle of large stones, it is known as a pit circle. If it has a heap of large stones piled on top, it is
known as a cairn. If both a stone circle and piled-up stones are present, the burial is known as a cairn stone circle.
A pit burial marked by a single large standing stone slab is called a menhir. A sarcophagus burial consists of a
terracotta trough (often with legs and lid) containing the funerary remains. Urn burials consist of funerary remains
placed in a large pot or urn, the mouth of which is sometimes covered by a stone slab. Urn and sarcophagus
burials are often included among megalithic burials, even if they are not marked by stones, as are burials in rock-
cut caves. Not all megaliths are connected with burials. Some of them consist of alignments of large stones
arranged in a geometric pattern. Although such monuments seem to be related to the megalithic tradition, their
precise function and significance is not always clear. The megaliths of peninsular India, on the other hand, are
generally associated with iron. Iron objects of various types—vessels, javelin heads, sword blades, arrowheads,
spearheads, a horseshoe, and fishhook—have been found in cairn burial sites in Baluchistan such as Damba Koh,
Jiwanri, Gatti, Nasirabad, Zangian, Mughal Ghundai, and Bishezard. Evidence of iron have been found from Pirak
in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan. The Gandhara Grave culture in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan
have also given evidence of iron which has been dated to around 1 millennium BCE. Iron object have been found
at c. 1000 BCE megalithic levels at Gufkral in Kashmir.

Features of Megalithic Culture of South India

Types of megaliths in the South- Large urns: Large urns with bones collected from previously excarnated dead
bodies in them. These urns are stored with other burial equipment in a pit. After the pit has been covered, it can
be located using a circular stone demarcation. Cists: Cists are constructed from stone slabs and occasionally have a
similar flat stone placed on top of them. These are sometimes equipped with portholes curved out on one of the
chamber wall slabs. Legged urn: Another significant design element of these Megaliths is the legged urn or
sarcophagi, which were used to encase the body before actual burial. Chamber burial: The body has occasionally
been placed inside chambers that have been cut out of the compact lateritic floor. Arrangement of the burials: The
manner of disposing of the dead in the region of the Megalithic Cultures exhibits numerous variations. Each type
of burial system has a unique arrangement of megaliths on the ground to mark the grave. Megalithic burials with
iron have been found mainly in the Deccan part of South India. Black and Red Pottery: Black-and-red ware was the
main pottery tradition of the Deccan Iron Age sites. The pottery types include carinated vessels, bowls with
pedestals, and spouted dishes. A conical-shaped lid is often provided with a loop on the top. Flat axes with crossed
straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads, lamps, multiple lamp hangers, and arrowheads are among the iron
tools found at all megalithic sites.

Iron Age in India

The Late Harappan culture was succeeded in the Indian subcontinent by the Iron Age culture. The Iron Age in India
marks the beginning of ancient history due to the start of literature (Vedas, Upanishads, and others) contributed
by archaeological evidence. Division and Timeline: The main divisions of the Iron Age in India are: Painted Grey
Ware (PGW) culture (1100–350 BC) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture (700–200 BC).Ashoka’s rule
in the rest of India and the beginning of the Sangam age in the South mark the end of the Iron Age culture in India.
After that, not a single metal/material has decided the fate of the society; rather, it has been the combination of
various materials.

Iron Age in Ganga Valley- Iron technology: The use of Iron was required for the formation of civilisation in the
Ganga plains, as the forests were thick. It was needed because culture centres around the Indus and Ghaggar river
systems were being deserted. Hence, the second urbanisation required both - Iron and the Ganga plains (middle
and lower). Staples: Rice and barley. A large evidence of pottery and terracotta figures. Pottery: Coarse with
applique bands with fingertip impressions. Iron Age in the West of Indus (1100 BC to 900 BC): There has been
evidence of iron also in the erstwhile Harappan sites.The complex is called Gandhara sites. Charsada, Taxila and
Timargarha were some important sites. Pottery: Red-burned pottery traditions.

Iron Age in the South- Unlike the North, the Iron Age in the South is generally known entirely from the perspective
of burials, i.e Megalithic Culture, despite the Iron played a major role in shaping the lives of the people. The
earliest sites in South India are Hallur (Karnataka) and Adichanallur of Tirunelveli district (Tamil Nadu) around 1000
BC. Features are already discussed above (in the Megalithic Culture of South India).Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
culture (continued from the Chalcolithic culture): Feature of both the Chalcolithic cultures and the Iron Age culture
of Ganga plains. In the Ganga plains, it was developed around 1000 BC to 600 BC, probably in the Later Vedic
period. Contemporary to Megalithic Cultures, the successor of the Black and red ware culture, and succeeded
by NBPW in around 600 BC. Named after the style of pottery tradition, it was found first at Ahichhatra (Bareilly,
Uttar Pradesh), popularised due to Hastinapura excavations. This culture was the first to effective and
comprehensive utilisation of iron in India. Locations in the Ganga Plain (Iron Age sites) are the Indo-Gangetic
Divide and the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab (ancient Aryavarta and Madhyadesa). Main staples: Rice and wheat.
Dwellings: Houses (huts) made of wattle and daub. Pottery: Produced from clay, manufactured on wheels, by
applying a thin slip on both surfaces and then baked at 600 degrees Celsius. Shapes were various, such as
geometric patterns (dots, lines, swastikas, etc.) as well as naturalistic patterns (flowers, sun, etc.). Horse: They
were also the first to domesticate horses (definite evidence).

Northern Black Polished Ware Culture (2nd Urbanisation)

NBPW Culture in India is an Iron Age Culture that replaced the Painted Grey Ware Culture in the Ganga Valley with
the extensive use of iron technology. Location: The culture was developed in the Middle and Lower Ganga plains
when Aryans migrated eastwards along the Ganga river system. Timeline: Developed around and after 700 BC, till
Ashoka’s reign.Second urbanisation: Harappan culture (called the first urbanisation period), marked by
fortification of cities and capitals of the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. Pottery: The period is named after the
distinctive style of pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware. Economy and polity: The development of
Agriculture due to the use of iron tools led to the establishment of Janapadas and, later, Mahajanapadas around
600 BC. Magadha emerged as a powerful empire, especially under the Mauryans. Culture and religion: Hinduism
was well established, and the composition of various texts, including Ramayana, was completed. The emergence
of Buddhism and Jainism took place. Coins: Punch-marked coins appeared in this period. Script and
language: Brahmi was the script of this region and time period, and Pali (mainly) and Prakrit were the languages of
the masses.

Unit -5

Second Urbanisation

Introduction

The "Second Urbanisation" occurred after 500 BCE, with new urban centers popping up throughout the Ganges
plain, precisely the Central Ganges plain. During the second urbanization, iron was widely utilized, and agricultural
productivity increased, leading to the establishment of several towns and cities. The Central Ganges Plain, where
Magadha rose to prominence and founded the Mauryan Empire, was a separate cultural zone influenced by Vedic
civilization. And in the whole South Asia region, only the central Ganges plain was the site known for huge rice
production. Also, the Sramanic movements flourished in this region only, and Jainism and Buddhism were born
here. The period of about three centuries (600-300 BCE) is a major landmark in Indian history as several changes
of far-reaching consequences occurred. These changes are simultaneously visible in political, material and cultural
life. For the first time in Indian history, emerged several territorial political entities, known as mahajanapadas in
ancient textual sources and located mostly in north India. Greater parts of north India also experienced
urbanization. Cities and city life once again appeared in the subcontinent after the decline of the Harappan
civilization, which marked the first phase of urban development in the subcontinent. The Ganga valley, the
heartland of north India witnessed the complexities of socio-economic and cultural life associated with urban life.
The period between 600 and 300 BCE marks the second urbanization in Indian history. From the 6th century BCE
onwards, the outlines of the political history of north India become clearer, and kings and religious teachers
mentioned in different literary traditions can be identified as real, historical figures. State polities and societies
emerged in the 6th/5th century BCE in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west to Anga in eastern India,
also extending into the Malwa region. Buddhist and Jaina texts list 16 powerful states (solasa-mahajanapada) that
flourished in the early 6th century BCE. Apart from these, there must have been smaller states, chiefdoms, and
tribal principalities.

Sources of Information
1 . Literary Sources
Literary sources include Brahmanas :Brahmanas (eg Shatapatha Brahmana) are the category of Vedic texts
which deals with the methods of performing Vedic rituals. Puranas : Puranas provide useful dynastic history
.Upanishads : Upanishads deal with the philosophical problems of the period and were composed 800 BCE
onwards. Buddhist Texts :Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were composed during this period and they give
us graphic descriptions of the contemporary society.

2. Archaeological sources
Iron objects such as hoes, sickles, knives, hooks, nails, arrowheads, vessels and mirrors confirm the widespread
use of iron technology.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is the characteristic pottery of this period. Textiles,
beads, ivory objects, ceramics and glassware and artefacts of other metals are found. A large number of terracotta
artefacts have also been found. Sites belonging to this period include series of punch marked coins which marked
use of money in subcontinent .
Developments in the Gangetic Plains
Development of Agriculture
Agriculture improved during this phase in the middle Gangetic plains creating the necessary surplus as Wet rice
cultivation began to yield more produce of rice than other crops. Iron technology also played a crucial role. Leisure
time provided by agricultural surplus and technology led to growth of crafts, which in turn aided vibrant trade.
Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in
the Gangetic plains. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history after the first urbanisation evident in
the Harappan Civilization.
Iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough shares could facilitate
Use of Iron
agricultural operations. Iron ploughshare increased the productivity of land .

This was especially useful in the Middle Gangetic Valley. Wet rice cultivation is
Practice of wet
substantially higher than those of wheat or millet in traditional agriculture, leading
rice cultivation
to creation of large surplus.

State helped in establishment of new settlements by shifting surplus population

Rise of from overpopulated areas, providing cattle, seed, money and irrigational
Organised State facilities and providing remission of taxes and other concessions to peasants in new
establishments

Role of Buddhism was against sacrifices. It insisted on the protection of cattle and
Buddhism preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.
 Janpadas and Mahajanpads in Second Urbanization
▪ During the Later Vedic era (900–600 BCE), a tribal government based on ancestry gave way to a territorial
state. The Janas who traveled east began to settle in diverse areas. These areas were referred to as
Janapada(territory) where people advanced from the Jana (tribe or clans). Janapada is properly translated
as "the site where the tribe sets its foot." The janapadas competed for resources and political control.
Some janapadas expanded their domains and incorporated new janas under their authority. These
janapadas developed into mahajanapadas. A state's territory, people, administration, and sovereignty are
all vital components. All of these components were discovered in some of the mahajanapadas. During the
sixth century BC, the widespread adoption of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent played a pivotal
role in transforming the landscape. This era witnessed the clearing of vast forest areas across the Gangetic
plain, leading to the establishment of extensive settlements in the region.
The introduction of new iron tools and weaponry not only boosted food grain production but also
advanced the art of warfare. This gave rise to a new agrarian economy, the development of large cities,
surplus production, and the formation of formidable armies, culminating in the creation of expansive
territories under a unified authority known as Janapadas. The term “Janapada” literally translates to the
land where a community set foot and established itself.
These Janapadas took the form of either Kingdoms or Republics (Ganasangha), with the latter being
governed by a group of individuals under an elected leader. In ancient republics, the ownership and rule of
the land were typically vested in the Kshatriya Clan. Some historians referred to these societies
as Oligarchies due to their exclusionary practices, which restricted non-Kshatriyas from holding
governance positions within the republic. As time progressed, certain Janapadas evolved
into Mahajanapadas by expanding their territorial control and augmenting their power. The constant
conflicts among these entities were driven by the pursuit of extending their dominance and control over
additional regions.
Types of Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas were of two types- Monarchial States Kasi, Magadha, Panchala, Kosala, Anga, Vatsa, Avanti,
Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya, Kurus, Chedi, Surasena. Non-Monarchial/Republican States Vajjis, Mallas, Asmaka.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas and their Capitals

Mahajanapadas Capitals Vital Information

Braham Datta and Ashvasena were powerful rulers; known for the
Kashi (Banaras) Varanasi
Cotton textile market, horses, and mud embankments.

Koshala Buddha calls himself a Kosalan; notable kings include Hiranyanabha,

Shravasti
(Ayodhya) Mahakasala, Prasenajita, and Suddhodana; prominent for trade.

Champa (Munger Annexed by Magadha under Bimbisara in the middle of the sixth
Anga (East Bihar)
and Bhagalpur) century BC.

Had a Ganasangha political organization; represented a rule by a

Vajji (North Bihar) Vaishali
group of Kshatriya Chiefs; notable for its republic structure.

Malla Several branches with headquarters in Pava and Kusinagara;

Pavapuri
(Gorakhpur) transformed from a monarchy to a republic.
 Sishupala was a famous Chedi ruler during the sixth century BC; a
Chedi Suktimati
branch founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga.

Vatsa Kaushambi Udayanagin was a powerful king; mentioned in plays by the great
(Kaushambi) (Allahabad) dramatist Bhasa

Kurus (Meerut- Ruled by a titular chieftain named Korayvya at Buddha’s time;

Hastinapur
Delhi) transitioned from a monarchy to a Ganasangha.

Kampilya (Western Two branches – Northern Panchala at Ahichhtra and Southern

Panchala
UP) Panchala at Kampilya.

King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas; and had a
Matsya (Jaipur) Viratnagara
republican form of government.

Surasena Avantiputra, the king of Surasena, was the first chief disciple of
Mathura
(Mathura) Buddha; and had a matrimonial alliance with King Avanti.

Mentioned in texts like Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Markandeya Purana,

Ashmaka Potana or Potali
and Brihat Samhita; located on the banks of the Godavari River.

Southernmost Mahajanapadas are ruled by the Ikshvaku Kshatriyas;

Avanti Mahishmati
divided into Northern (Ujjain) and Southern (Mahishmati) parts.

Ruled by King Pukkusati; known for education and learning; Gandhari,

Gandhara Taxila
a princess from here; scholars like Panini and Kautilya.

Started the policy of Imperialism; the founders were Jarasandha,

Kamboja Rajgriha
Brihadratha, Bimbisara, and Ajatashatru; known for excellent horses.

Significant Mahajanapadas; founders were Jarasandha, Brihadratha,

Magadha Rajgriha
Bimbisara, and Ajatashatru; the major centers of political power.

Gana-Sanghas (chiefdoms and oligarchies)

• Gana-sangha or Gana-Rajya includes the word gana, which signifies equally. Whereas the term
sangha refers to an assembly, Rajya, or government. Gana-sanghas worked on an assembly model
where the head of the clan or a family used to manage the territory and all the necessary work of
the assembly. In gana-sanghas, the members of a few clans or families only used to enjoy political
power. This way of government was first thought to be a sort of democracy, but it was
subsequently discovered that the system was not the same as a democracy since power was
concentrated in the hands of tiny families, and only they engaged in governing. The vast majority
 of the people who lived on the land had no rights and were denied access to resources. As a result,
the most fitting title for this form of governance was a republic. The gana-sanghas followed a
different form of government than the monarchs. Because authority was concentrated in the
hands of governing families, the ganasanghas' government style might be compared to oligarchy.
The gana-sanghas may have been called pre-states or proto-states, but they were not kingdoms.
The Gangetic proto-states were known as janapadas and included chiefdoms, republics, and tiny
kingdoms. The early scriptures mention sixteen mahajanapadas. There were also gana sanghas, or
oligarchies based on clans. The Vajji or Vriji was one of the most well-known gana- sanghas who
rule the Mithila region. Vajji made Vaishali their capital. These kingdoms were not subject to the
sole decision-making power of a monarch but were made collectively by the leaders of several
clans. Smaller such kingdoms like Kosala and Kasi also existed. The Translation of this as Republic
is misleading . These were oligarchies where power was vested in heads of leading Kshatriya
families with no single hereditary monarch .Early studies on ganas by nationalist historians
tended to glorify them by exaggerating their democratic features . Comparisons were made with
republics of Greece & Rome & modern political institutions . Lot was to disprove the assertion of
western scholars that Indians had never known anything other than despotic rule .Their
governance was marked by Corporate element . Arthashastra (a later text although) outlines
special strategies that ‘to be conqueror’ could use to vanquish ganas (advise focussed on creating
dissension among their ranks) .

Kingdoms and Monarchies

The Gangetic plains' mahajanapadas were all monarchs. In these kingdoms, Vedic orthodoxy was a well-
established practice. The priestly elite enjoyed the dominant position in the mahajanapadas, unlike Ganasanghas.
Kingship ruled the kingdoms, and the government was centralized. Through different rites, the brahman priests
supplied legitimacy to the ruler. The kingdom was hereditary, and most successions followed the law of
primogeniture. The monarch was aided by Parishad and sabha councils. The councils were advisory only. The king
took the agricultural surplus through land revenue, with the exception of a few extra charges. Bali was a tax levied
based on cultivable land area. Bhaga was collected as a portion of the harvest. Other taxes collected during this
time period included Kara and Shulka. As a result, the king used taxes to fund a complex administrative apparatus
and an army. The wealthier landowners were known as grihapatis ad were treated as village heads. These
landowners hired dasas or Karmakar laborers. Kassakas and krishakas were the minor landowners. Based
on varna, society was split into classes. It evolved into a status symbol. The shudras were classified as cultivators
and craftspeople. During this time, a new social group formed that was positioned below the Shudras on the social
ladder and was dubbed untouchables. Those considered untouchables were forced to live on the village outskirts.
Usually, hunting and gathering their sustenance without any help. As urbanization increased, they were side lined
and assigned lowly tasks. They spoke their own linguistics, which was unique from the Indo-Aryan language.
Monarchical states had the king as head . There was well developed taxation system with standing armies. Vedic
orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms. The priestly class enjoyed a preeminent status in the
Mahajanapadas . The Brahman priests provided the legitimacy to the king through various rituals. The kingship
was hereditary and the succession was in most cases based on the law of primogeniture. The king was assisted by
councils called Parishad and Sabha. The councils were advisory in nature.There was well developed taxation
system in Monarchical states. The revenue thus raised was used to maintain elaborate administrative system and
army.
 Economy
Rural Economy- this period witnessed emergence of the private property in land . Agriculture started to produce
surplus which led to rise of urban centres. State also encouraged expansion of agriculture . Urban Economy- This
period led to the start of 2nd Urbanism .Formation of states gave impetus to Urban economy. Small aristocracy
which extracted taxes started to demand luxurious items giving push to artistic activities and trade .Age of barter
trade was almost over. Punch marked coins of copper & silver came to use .

Society
There was shift in geographical region to Upper & Middle Gangetic Plains .This period led to
the institutionalisation of inequality in the society and hardening of caste system .Practice
of untouchability started . Dharmasutras equated them with crows & dogs. Contact even accidental was
considered polluting .Strict control over women’s sexuality was practiced as it was essential for the patrilineal
transmission of property and for maintenance and perpetuation of endogamous caste structure. Wandering
Ascetics . Paribrajakas and Sramanas. These were people who had renounced families. They travelled from place
to place and held discussions on meaning of life, society and spirituality. Among them were Buddha and Mahavira
.

Economy and society

The three centuries from 600 to 300 BCE were witness to many significant changes in the social and economic life,
especially in north India which witnessed the complex process of the formation of the state. The term Janapada
stands not only for populated/settled territories of a state but strongly suggests a sedentary settlement of people.
The Janapada is viewed as area rich in resources especially agrarian. Settled agrarian societies had become well
established in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Upper Ganga Valley and the Ganga-Yamuna doab area already by the later
Vedic times (1000-600 BCE). The development of the agrarian sector of the economy continued during the
succeeding three centuries, as Janapadas and Mahajanapadas proliferated in the Ganga valley, and more precisely
in the middle Ganga Plains. Two environmental conditions fostered the agrarian development in the Ganga valley-
a good amount a average annual rainfall and fertile alluvial soil. The considerable development in agriculture in
the Ganga valley was conducive to the sustenance of the non-agrarian economy sector, in which it is noticed the
active presence of diverse craftsmen and professional groups and merchants.

Trade in Second Urbanization

Inland trade was well established by the sixth century BCE. External commerce, as well as internal trade,
benefited from the agricultural surplus of the second urbanization. External Trade − During this time, the Northern
Path (Uttarapatha) was directly linked to the Silk Route. It was due to the roles of Darius I (Persian King) and
Alexander. Both seized North-Western India and connected it to the Silk Route. Internal Trade − Gahapati (Rich
Farmers) arose as a result of agricultural excess. This created demand in the economy and encouraged internal
commerce. As a result, increased internal and external commerce established the groundwork for the Second
Urbanization. The beginnings of mercantile guilds may be traced back to the same time period. The chiefs of the
guilds or srenis were known as sresthins and were highly regarded members of society. The sarthavahas were
caravan merchants. Caravans would transport products across large distances. There might have been some type
of international commerce as well during the second urbanization with the Achaemenian Empire of Persia via
Taksasila. Persepolis' Achaemenian palace (Persian empire palace) was built using wood from India.

Material Life Of Mahajanapadas

The age of mahajanapadas is remarked as the second phase of urbanization. The same has been testified from
various archeological sources like the pali text, and sutra literature. This period witnessed an increase in the use of
money, evidence of which can be found in the excavations at NBPW sites. Agriculture remained the main source of
occupation of the people. Use of plowshare due to the discovery of iron further led to advancement in agricultural
activities. Apart from agriculture, Animal husbandry was another major source of economic activities.Craft
traditions like textile goods and ivory products were exported to large distances by merchants. Trading activities
were carried on by major ports like Bharuch, Tamralipti, and Sopara, The major export traditions were Burma,
Ceylon, Malaya, and Babylonia among others, The items that were imported included precious stones such as gold,
lapis lazuli, jade, silver, etc. Taxes were levied on the merchandise by Custom officials (Kammikas) and toll officials
called (Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha). Taxes were also imposed on the herders in the form of livestock and animal
output.

Social Life Of Mahajanapadas

The society mostly inhabited villages as agriculture was the main source of livelihood. This phase is marked by the
distinction of the tribal communities into four classes which led to the replacement of the old tribal law. Further
with the expansion of the empire as a result of conquests, the tribal community too was subsumed in the varna
order and was given fictitious names. The four classes were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. As per
this system, priests and teachers were called Brahamanas, rulers and fighters were called Kshatriyas, and vaishyas
were associated with trading and agricultural activities whereas shudras were ones who served the other three
classes. The duties of each Varna were laid down in the Dharmashastras. The criminal and civil law of the period
was based on the varna division in society. Higher the varna, the higher the moral conduct expected from the
varna and the purer it was considered. Also, the punishment for a person belonging to a particular varna was
decided by his varna order. For eg, A similar offense resulted in lighter punishment for the Brahmana than the
Shudra. The shudras, the lowest in the varna order, were deprived of religious and legal rights. Additionally, the
main duty of the shudra was to serve the dwija castes (the twice born castes). All he could practice was the
profession of a slave, agricultural laborer, or artisan. The company of the Shudras was avoided as they were
claimed to be born from the feet of the Brahma (the creator). This subsequently resulted in shunning food
exchange and marital relations with them.Women, of this period, had little liberty. Instances of Sati (burning of
the widow on the funeral pyre of her husband) were rare, though there are rare cases of the incident. There are
references to women organizing Swayamvara (choosing a husband on her own).Marriages were arranged within
one’s caste, though, there were instances of inter-caste marriages. However, they were prohibited towards the
end of the period.
Administration Under Mahajanapadas
During the era of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas, administrative systems varied across different regions of India. The
ruler, known by various titles such as King, Samrat, Virat, and Swarat, governed with distinct features: The title of
Emperor could be reclaimed by performing Rajasuya Yajna, and a ruler blessed by Indra would be referred to as
Virat. Kingship was typically hereditary, though occasional elections by the people occurred. The king’s
administration involved the assistance of higher officials, called Amatyas or Mahamatras, who held roles such as
Commander (Senanayaka), Minister (Mantrin), chief accountant, judge, and head of the royal harem. Another
class of officers, Ayuktas, performed similar functions in some states. Notable ministers, like Varsakara, influenced
events; for example, aiding Ajatashatru in conquering Vaishali by sowing discord among the Lichchhavis. Village
headmen (Gramini, Gramabhojaka, or Gramika) managed local administration. Peasants were required to pay a
compulsory levy called Bali, collected by special officers known as Balisadhakas. The earlier popular
assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, had practically disappeared, replaced by a smaller body called Parishad, consisting
exclusively of Brahmanas, serving as the advisory council to the king.

Rise of the Magadha Empire

Out of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti, and Koshala emerged as powerful entities, initiating a
struggle for supremacy from the fourth to the sixth century BC. Ultimately, Magadha, under the rule of the
Haryanka Dynasty, became the most powerful kingdom in North India:The growth of Magadha started
under Jarasandha and Brihadratha, further expanding under the Shishunaga and reaching its zenith under the
Mauryas. Magadha was the first Mahajanapada where the memorization of dynastic history and epic tales began.
Geographically, Magadha covered most parts of Bihar and Bengal through conquests of Lichchhavis and Auga.

Major Factors for the Rise of the Magadha Empire

Several factors contributed to the rise of the Magadha Empire: Magadha’s strategic location on the main land
route connecting Eastern and Western India facilitated control over trade between the two regions. The fertility of
the land and higher tax revenue contributed to the prosperity of the Magadhan Empire. Able rulers like
Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda followed a policy of imperial expansion.
 Haryanka Dynasty (540-412 BC)
The earliest capital of Magadha was Rajgriha, also known as Girivraja at that time. Bimbisara, the first king of the
Haryanka Dynasty, founded Rajgriha at the foot of the hills North of Girivraja.
Bimbisara
Bimbisara, contemporary to Buddha, established the first standing army, defeated Anga king Brahmadutta, and
strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with royal families of Koshala, Lichchhavi, and Madra
clans of Punjab. Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, demonstrated diplomatic and strategic prowess during his reign:
He dispatched his physician, Jivak (son of Salavati), to rival Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of
jaundice. Pukkusati, the Gandhara ruler of Taxila, sent an embassy to Bimbisara.
Ajatashatru’s Rule (492-460 BC)
Ajatashatru, the son of Chellana and Bimbisara, ascended the throne through patricide and pursued an assertive
expansionist policy: He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenajita, king of Kosala, and married his daughter Vajjira.
After a 16-year war, Ajatashatru destroyed Vaishali, the capital of the Licchavis, by sowing discord among its
people. During his reign, Buddha passed away, and Ajatashatru patronized the first Buddhist Council.
Sunidha and Vatsakar served as Ajatashatru’s diplomatic ministers. Udayain’s reign (460-444 BC)- Udayain,
Ajatashatru’s son and successor, marked his reign with notable developments: He constructed a fort at the
confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers in Pataliputra (Patna) and transferred the capital from Rajgriha to
Pataliputra. Subsequent rulers like Anuruddha, Munda, and Naga-Dasak were comparatively weaker.
Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344 BC)
Shishunaga, initially a minister, rose to power and played a significant role: He overthrew the Pradyota dynasty of
Avanti and temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. Kalashoka (Kakavarin) succeeded Shishunaga, transferring
the capital back to Pataliputra and convening the second Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC).
Nanda Dynasty (344-322 BC)
The Nanda Dynasty, founded by Mahapadma Nanda, marked a pivotal phase in Magadha’s history: Mahapadma
Nanda, a conqueror, expanded the empire by capturing Koshala and Kalinga. Dhanananda, the last Nanda ruler,
deterred Alexander from advancing further into the Gangetic Valley during his invasion.
Pre-Mauryan Economic System
The pre-Mauryan period witnessed notable changes in the economic landscape: An advanced food-producing
economy emerged in the middle Gangetic plains, replacing cattle rearing with agriculture. Rice became the staple
cereal produced in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Iron played a crucial role in clearing rainfed forests for
cultivation and settlement. A strong rural base supported urbanization and crafts, crucial for tax and tribute
collection. The era witnessed the second urbanization in India, with towns emerging as centers of industry and
trade. Burnt bricks and ring wells appeared in the middle of the NBPW phase (third century BC). Finished crafts,
textile goods, sandalwood, and pearls were major export items, while precious stones like gold, lapis-lazuli, jade,
silver, etc., were imported products.

Terms Meanings

Vrihi and Sali New variants of rice

Karisa, Nivartan, Kulyavapa Units of land measurement

Sita Sarthak Caravans, sresti bankers

Shali Transplantation

Gahapatis Peasant-proprietors
Guilds emerged among specialized craftsmen to streamline the transportation of raw materials and the
distribution of finished goods. During this period, guilds were not as highly developed as the mercantile systems
they would become. Each guild occupied a specific section of the town. The introduction of a monetary
system significantly eased trade. Metal coins first appeared during the age of Gautama Buddha. The earliest
hoards were discovered in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Magadha, with some findings at Taxila. These coins were
likely referred to as Nishka and Satamana. Rice was the primary grain, with common practices including paddy
transplanting. Alongside rice, cotton, sugarcane, barley, millets, lentils, and other grains were cultivated. The
adoption of iron plowshares and the fertility of the region’s alluvial soil greatly advanced agriculture.
Pre-Mauryan Social System- The tribal community was distinctly divided into four Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Dharmasutras outlined the duties of each Varna, and civil and criminal law became
based on this Varna division. Vaishyas were criticized for lending money. Shudras faced various disabilities, being
deprived of religious and legal rights and relegated to the lowest position in society. Despite emerging socio-
economic disparities, kinship ties remained crucial and were eventually integrated into the caste hierarchy.
Extended kin groups were known as Nati and Nati-kulani. Kula referred to an extended patrilineal family,
while Natakas included relatives from both maternal and paternal sides. Patriarchal tendencies prevailed, with
women being subordinated to men. They were under male tutelage, not entitled to education, and excluded from
the Upanayana ceremony. Pre-Mauryan Administrative System - Magadha, located in the northeastern Indian
state of Bihar, was a hereditary monarchy. The emperor held absolute power and was assisted by a Ministerial
Council known as the Mantriparishad. Assemblies like Sabha and Samiti faded away, replaced by Parishads. The
ministers were commonly referred to as Mantris. Rajabhat referred to protectors of the lives and property of
travelers.

Foreign Invasion
In the fourth century BC, Greeks and Iranians vied for supremacy in the Indian subcontinent. Greek rulers not only
conquered Asia Minor but also advanced towards India beyond the Indus plains.
Persian Invasion
Cyrus (558-530 BC) of Persia was the first conqueror to penetrate deep into India, destroying the city of Capisa
(North of Kabul). In 516 BC, Darius I (552-486 BC), Cyrus’s grandson, sent a naval expedition to explore the Sindhu
River valley, annexing parts of Punjab and Sindh. Indian soldiers were part of the Achaemenid army that
conquered Greece during the rule of Persian ruler Xerxes I (465-456 BC), Darius I’s successor. Darius III enlisted
Indian soldiers to combat Alexander the Great. Effects of the Persian Invasion- The invasion introduced the
Aramaic form of writing, evolving into the Kharosthi scripts. It promoted Indo-Iranian trade. Geographical
exploration of the Indus and Arabian Sea led to the discovery of a new water route. The fusion of Persian art forms
became evident in Mauryan art and architecture.
Greek Invasion
After conquering the Persian empire, Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC. Crossing the
Indus, Alexander advanced towards Taxila. The King of Taxila, Ambhi, willingly submitted, offered assistance to
Alexander, and acknowledged him as his sovereign. The most formidable among the North-Western Indians was
the ruler of the kingdom between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Acesines (Chenab), known to the Greeks as
Porus. Porus fought valiantly but was defeated and captured by Alexander. Alexander’s progress was halted on the
bank of the Beas, as his soldiers mutinied and refused to proceed after the Battle of Vitasta and Jhelum. His dream
of an Eastern empire remained unrealized. The king, undefeated by external foes, had to accept defeat from his
own men. Alexander stayed in India for about 19 months. During his retreat, he divided the entire territory from
the Indus to the Beas into three provinces, placing them under the supervision of three Greek Governors. Effects
of the Greek Invasion- The Greek invasion of India opened a trade route between North-West India and Western
Asia. The invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlements in this region. Four distinct routes between
India and Greece were opened by land and sea, fostering increased trade and cultural exchanges between the two
regions. Indians learned from the Greeks in the fields of astronomy, coinage, architecture, and sculpture
(Gandhara School of Sculpture). The Mauryan army adopted many military tactics from Alexander, assisting them
in overthrowing the Nanda dynasty.The Battle of Hydaspes- The Battle of Hydaspes fought in 326 BC
between Alexander the Great’s Macedonian Army and King Porus (also known as Poru, Paurava), ended in victory
for Alexander. Large areas of Punjab were absorbed into the Alexandrian empire, and the defeated Porus,
dethroned, was reinstated by Alexander as a subordinate ruler.
 Emergence of Heterodox Religious Sects
The sixth century BC marked a significant period in Indian history concerning the development of alternative belief
systems. During this time, there was a noticeable opposition to the ritualistic and orthodox ideas propagated by
the Brahmanas.This resistance paved the way for the emergence of various non-conformist religious movements,
such as Jainism and Buddhism, which found patronage from different rulers. The term “Heterodoxy” finds its roots
in the ancient Greek word “heteros,” signifying something other, different from the prevailing beliefs. It
encompasses opinions or doctrines that deviate from an established belief system.
Reasons Behind the Emergence of New Religions
Several factors contributed to the rise of these new non-conformist religions: Expensive Rituals: The Vedic
religious practices had become intricate and burdensome, filled with numerous meaningless ceremonies,
prompting a need for simpler alternatives. Discriminatory Systems: The later Vedic culture was characterized by a
rigid caste system, leading to a hierarchical structure with the proliferation of castes and sub-castes. This
discriminatory system became a driving force for the quest for alternative religious paths. Social Transformations
in the Sixth Century BC. The prevalent social conditions during the sixth century BC were marked by the
subjugation of women and Shudras, leading to widespread distress among ordinary people. Notably, the growing
influence of Brahmanas further exacerbated these inequalities. Dominance of Brahmanas: During this period, the
significance of sacrifices and Yajnas solidified the dominance of Brahmanas in society. Acting as both priests and
authoritative figures, they held a monopoly on performing sacred religious rites. Emergence of New Social
Groups: The expansion of cultivated land gave rise to new states and social groups, gaining substantial economic
power. The merchant class and affluent agricultural householders opposed the social positions imposed by
Brahmanas based on heredity. Supremacy of Scriptures: Vedic literature, diverse and specialized in various
aspects, was written in Sanskrit, a language accessible only to Brahmanas. This linguistic barrier prompted a
yearning among the common people for a new, comprehensible language to understand their religion and
literature. Rise of Non-Vedic Sects: In response to these social and linguistic challenges, various non-Vedic sects or
religions emerged in the sixth century BC. These movements catered to the aspirations of Vaishya and non-
Brahmanical powerful individuals and groups.

Jainism
Jain tradition claims antiquity predates Aryan Brahmanism. The succession of teachers, known
as Tirthankaras, played a crucial role in Jainism. The 24 Tirthankaras include Rishabhanath, Ajinatha, and
Aristanemi, with Rishabhanath considered the first and Vardhamana Mahavira the last. Teachings of
ParshvanathaThe 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, emphasized four principles: Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, and
Aparigraha. Renouncing his throne at 30, he attained enlightenment after 84 days of penance, living to 100 years.
Vardhamana Mahavira
Vardhamana Mahavirahe 24th Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira, introduced celibacy (Brahmacharya) to his
teachings. After 13 years of penance, he achieved Kevala Jnana, the highest spiritual knowledge, at Jimbhikagrama
village. Known as Mahavira, he preached for 30 years, passing away at Pava at the age of 72.

Real Name Vardhamana

Titles Mahavira, Nayaputa, Nirgrantha

Birth 540 BC

Place of Birth Kundagrama in Vaishali

Father’s Name Siddhartha

Mother’s Name Trishala (A Licchavi Princess, Sister of Chetaka)

Wife Yashoda

Class Kshatriya

Clan Nyaya (Jnatrika)

Companion Gosala Makkhaliputta

Philosophy of Jainism
Jainism believed in the theory of Syadvada (Theory of Conditional), i.e., the Theory of Relativity of Knowledge. It is
believed that there is no absolute answer to a question. Every object exists about other objects. In one way, it is
only an extension of Anekanta ontology but a separate system of logic. The main features of Jaina philosophy
remain in its dualistic metaphysics, which states that there are two categories of living: Conscious being (Jiva),
Non-living beings (Ajiva).

Aspects Description

Anekantavada Objects of knowledge have infinite characteristics.

Nayavada An individual understands an object of knowledge through a particular point of view.

Saptabhanginaya Seven points of view to understand an object of knowledge.

Syadvada Understanding of an object of knowledge is conditional.

24 Tirthankaras

S.N. Names Symbols Nirvana Places

1 Rishabhanath Bull Mt. Ashtapada

2 Ajitnath Elephant Sammed Shikharji

3 Sambhavnath Horse Sammed Shikharji

4 Abhinandannath Monkey Sammed Shikharji

5 Sumatinath Curlew Sammed Shikharji

6 Padmaprabha Red Lotus Sammed Shikharji

7 Suparshvanath Svastika Sammed Shikharji

8 Chandra Prabha Crescent Sammed Shikharji

9 Pushpadanta Crocodile Sammed Shikharji

10 Shitalnath Wishing Tree Sammed Shikharji

11 Shreyamsanath Rhinoceros Sammed Shikharji

12 Vasupujya Buffalo Champa

13 Vimalnath Boar (Shukar) Sammed Shikharji

14 Anantanath Falcon (Baaj) Sammed Shikharji

15 Dharmanath Vajardanda Sammed Shikharji

16 Shantinath Deer Sammed Shikharji

17 Kunthunath He-goat Sammed Shikharji

18 Aranath Fish Sammed Shikharji

19 Malinath Water Pot Sammed Shikharji

20 Munisuvrata Tortoise Sammed Shikharji

21 Naminath Blue Lotus Raivantgiri

22 Aristnemi Conch Sammed Shikharji

23 Parshvanath Serpent Sammed Shikharji

24 Mahavira (Vardhamana) Lion Pavapuri

Principles of Jainism (Doctrines)

Householders were expected to uphold five vows: Ahimsa (Non-violence), Satya (Truthfulness), Asteya (Non-
stealing), Brahmacharya (Celibacy), Aparigraha (Non-possession of property) , Parshvanath introduced the first
four principles, while the fifth one was later added by Lord Mahavira. Jainism emphasizes asceticism
and penance as essential for breaking free from the cycle of Karma. Therefore, true salvation (Liberation) can only
be achieved by renouncing the worldly life and embracing a monastic lifestyle. Liberation is also attainable
through pure and meritorious conduct, irrespective of one’s social origin. The Three Jewels of Jainism, believed to
guide the path toward liberation, include: Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan), Right faith (Samyak Darshana), Right
action (Samyak Charitra)

Sects/Schools of Jainism

Aspect Digambara Svetambara

Clothing of Male monks do not wear clothes; female monks

Male monks wear white clothes.
Monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.

Notable
Stulabhadra was an exponent of this sect. Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
Exponents

Views on
Believe women cannot achieve liberation. Believe women can achieve liberation.
Liberation

Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya,

Vows Followed Follow only four vows (excluding Brahmacharya).
Aparigraha, and Brahmacharya).

Major Sub- Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapantha,

Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi.
Sects Taranpantha, or Samaiyapantha.

Jainism or Women
Mahavira embraced the inclusion of women in the Sangha, allowing them to become Nuns (Shraninis and Shravikas). He
advocated the equality of women and men in the pursuit and attainment of Moksha.

Jaina Literature
Jaina languages encompass Jain, Prakrit, Sanskrit, Gujarati, and Kannada. It is noteworthy that a significant
portion of early Kannada literature and numerous Tamil works were authored by Jains Jaina literature can be
categorized into two main types:Agama Literature: Sacred texts composed in Ardh-Magadhi. Includes: Acaranga
Sutra (the initial text guiding Jain monks on monastic life),Sutrakrtanga, Sthananga, Samavayanga,
Vyakhyaprajnapti, Jnatrdharmakathah, Upasakadasah, Antakrddaasah , Anuttaraupapatikadasah ,
Prasnavyakaranani, Vipakasruta, Drstivada (comprising 14 purvas), 12 Upangas (considered as sub-parts or
auxiliary limbs of Angas), 6 Chedasutras (texts related to the conduct and behavior of monks and nuns), 4
Mulasutras (known as the Fundamental Rule Book) , 2 Culikasutras (Book of Appendixes).The two major
sects, Digambaras and Svetambaras, compiled different bodies of literature. While the works of the Digambaras
have been lost over time, the canons of the Svetambaras, known as Sidhantha, consist of various available
scriptures.

Non-Agama Literature

Literature Writer

Theravali Merutunga

Padma Charita Vimala Suri

Antara Katha Rajshekhara

Parisishtha Parvan Hema Chandra

Tattvartha Sutra Umasvati

Avasyaksutra Visesanavati Jinabhadra

Nayacakra Mallavadin

Dvadasaranayacakra Mallavadin

Yogdrashti Samuchchaya Haribhadra Suri

Jainendra-Vyakarana Acharya Pujyapada

Sakatayana-Vyakarana Sakatayana

Yogashastra Hem Chandra

Kalpa SutraThe Kalpa Sutra written by Bhadrabahu is a biography on numerous Tirthankaras with a primal interest
in Mahavira and Parshvanatha. The text mostly used by the Svetambaras.

Jaina Architecture
The earliest evidence of Jaina architecture can be traced in the caves (viharas) of Odisha, including Khandagiri,
Udayagiri (first century BC), Hanthi Gumpha (first century BC), and Ellora (11th and 12th century AD) in
Maharashtra. Jaina temples in Dilwara, Rajasthan, were constructed by Solanki rulers, and dedicated to Jain
Tirthankara. Renowned for their unique and distinct style, these temples are entirely crafted from white marble.
The Ranakpura Jaina temple, built in the 15th century AD, is attributed to the first Tirthankara Adinath and
features the Chaumukh design of architecture. Notable examples of Jaina architecture include the 983 AD Statue
of Gomateshwara (Bahubali) in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, as well as temples in Gwalior, Khajuraho, Deogarh,
Chanderi, among others, showcasing the rich heritage of Jain architecture. The 84-foot-high Statue of
Rishabhdeva, constructed in the 12th century AD, stands at Bawangaja in the Badwani district of Madhya Pradesh.
Royal Patrons of Jainism

South India North and East India

Kadamba and Ganga dynasty Bimbisara, Ajatshatru, and Udayin (Haryanka)

Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta dynasty) Nandas

Siddharaj Jai Sing and Kumar Pala (Chalukya or Solanki) Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Samprati (Maurya)

Pradyota (Avanti)

Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira)

Kharavela (Kalinga)

Chetaka (Videha)

Important Terms Related with Jainism

Posadha: The practice of fasting by Jaina members on full moon and new moon days. Sallekhana: The religious
practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing food and liquid intake, also known as santhara.
Avasarpini: The descending order of the six periods in the Jaina cosmic cycle. Theravada: The second section of the
Jaina Kalpasutra contains a list of schools (anonas) and their leaders. Ajnanavada: The Jaina doctrine of
agnosticism or skepticism, consisting of 67 kinds. Mahavratas: Five principles observed by Jain monks. Anuvratas:
Less rigorous principles to be followed by Jainism followers. Utsarpini: The ascending order of the Jaina cosmic
cycle. Susama-Susama: The first cosmic cycle of Jainism, considered a very happy and virtuous period. Dusama-
Dusama: The sixth and last period of the Jaina cosmic cycle, a wretched period. Trisastisalaka Purushacharita: The
longest poem composed by Jaina scholar Hemachandra, dealing with the deeds of 63 enlightened men, including
24 Tirthankaras.
Important Philosophies in Jainism
Kaivalya (Kevala Jnana): Omniscience in Jainism, representing complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
Asrav: The inflow of karmas to the soul occurring at every second in life. Samvara: The stoppage of the influx of
material karmas into the soul consciousness. Nirjara: Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the soul,
essential for breaking free from samsara (cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and achieving moksha (liberation).
Decline of Jainism
Concept of Ahimsa: The Jaina emphasis on non-violence, taken to impractical extremes, such as avoiding medicine,
contributed to the decline. Practicality Issues: The impractical aspects of certain principles, like abstaining from
medicine, led to a decline in Jainism in India. Adoption of such practices failed to gain popularity among the
common people, and there was no support from later kings.
Buddhism
Buddhism, as a religion and philosophy, encompasses various traditions, beliefs, and practices primarily rooted in
the teachings of Buddha.Lay followers of Buddhism were referred to as Upasakas.
 Gautama Buddha
Buddhism was established based on the teachings and life experiences of Siddhartha Gautam, born in 563 BC in
the Shakya Kshatriya clan at Lumbini near Kapilvastu in the Piprahwa district of Nepal. At the age of 29, he
renounced his life of wealth in favor of asceticism and intense self-discipline. Sujata, a farmer’s wife, offered
Gautama Buddha a bowl of kheer (a milk rice pudding) after he ended his six years of asceticism. Enlightenment
occurred under a peepal tree in Bodhgaya, in modern Bihar, following 49 days of meditation. The first sermon was
delivered in a deer park at Sarnath, addressing his initial disciples, including Mahanama and Koudanna. Khema,
one of Queen Bimbisara’s queens, is considered the first female disciple of Gautama Buddha. According to his
teachings, Nirvana could be achieved by freeing oneself from the cycle of birth and death.

Real Name Siddhartha

Titles Buddha, Shakya Muni

Birth 563 BC, Lumbini in Kapil Vastu

Father’s name Shuddhodhana

Mother’s name Mahamaya

Foster mother Mahaprajapati Gautami

Wife Yasodhara

Son Rahul

Enlightenment Uruvela, under the Peepal tree (known as Maha Bodhi tree)

Death 483 BC, Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana

Philosophy of Buddhism
▪ The Doctrine of Karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha.
▪ It emphasizes on the moral life of an individual.
▪ It neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. It rejected the Vedas and Vedic rituals and even the
caste system.
▪ It didn’t believe in the permanence of soul. It emphasized on Ahimsa.
▪ With the reference to the cultural history of India, the term Parampita refers to perfections whose
attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.
Symbols Representing Events of Buddh’s Life

Events Symbols

Birth Lotus and Bull

Renunciation (Mahabhiniskarmana) Horse

Enlightenment (Nirvana) Bodhi tree

First Sermon (Dharmachakra Parivartana) Wheel

Death (Maha Parinirvana) Stupa

Buddhist Doctrines
The Buddha, as a pragmatic reformer, aimed primarily at achieving liberation from the harsh realities of sorrow
and sufferings.Thus, he articulated the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya) as follows: Dukkha: The world is replete
with sorrows, Samudaya: Desire is the fundamental cause of all sorrows, Nirodha: Nirvana can be attained by
overcoming desires, Magga/Marga: There exists a path for the cessation of sorrows. Eightfold Path (Ashtangika
Marga)- The Eightfold Path, or Ashtangika Marga, presented by Buddha, provides guidance on the righteous way of
life to attain Nirvana. This path is the middle way, steering clear of extremes like excessive luxury or severe
austerity. The middle path ultimately leads to Nirvana, signifying not only the cessation of desire but also the
attainment of a state of perfect tranquility. Three Gems (Triratnas)- The three Gems of Buddhism represent three
fundamental aspects of the Buddhist faith and practice, namely: Buddha (the enlightened), Dhamma (doctrine),
Sangha (order). Five Precepts of Buddha (Panchshila)- Refrain from killing, emphasizing respect for life, Abstain
from theft, Avoid sexual misconduct, Refrain from falsehood, Abstain from intoxication.
Buddhist Monastic Community
Gautama Buddha established an organized and disciplined community for his followers known as Sangha. Any
individual, regardless of gender, who has renounced personal belongings, could join the Sangha on the basis of
equality. Initially, Sangha did not allow women, but following requests from Ananda (a disciple)
and Gautami (foster mother), the doors were opened for women. To commence, one had to pledge allegiance to
(Buddha-Dhamma-Sangha), undergo head shaving (mundana), and don the yellow attire. Subsequently, the
individual could undergo initiation, known as Upasampada. After Upasampada, the person was accepted as a
member of Sangha and was expected to adhere to the code of conduct (dasha-shila). This code included refraining
from alcohol consumption, avoiding untimely meals, abstaining from dance and songs, eschewing the use of
perfumes, forgoing mattresses for sleep, avoiding gold and silver ornaments, and abstaining from adultery, among
other principles.
Famous Monks at the Time of Buddha

Monks Related Facts

Ananda The constant companion of Buddha and the most devoted disciple.

Anuradha

Mahakassapa The master of right mindfulness.

The President of the Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha.

Moggallana He had the greatest supernatural powers.

Sariputta Possessed profound insight into the Dhamma.

Upali Master of Vinaya.

Buddhist Councils

Second Buddhist Third Buddhist Fourth Buddhist

Councils First Buddhist Council
Council Council Council

Years 483 BC 383 BC 250 BC AD 72

Saptaparni cave, Kundalvan,

Venues Vaishali Pataliputra
Rajagriha Kashmir

Vasumitra
(Chairman),
Chairmans Mahakasyapa Sabakami Mogaliputta Tisa
Asvaghosha (Vice-
Chairman)

Ashoka
Ajatshatru (Haryanka Kalasoka (Shishunaga Kanishka (Kushan
Royal Patrons (Mauryan
dynasty) dynasty) dynasty)
empire)

Compilation of Sutta Division of

Monks were split into Compilation of
Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka Buddhists into
Developments Stavirvadins and Abhidhamma
by Ananda and Upali Hinayana and
Mahasanghikas. Pitaka.
respectively. Mahayana.

Sects of Buddhism
Buddhism, much like Jainism, encountered internal differences and conflicts, resulting in its division into three
main sects: Hinayana or Lesser Wheel: Followers adhered to the original teachings of Buddha, pursuing individual
salvation through self-discipline and meditation without engaging in idol worship. Hinayana, a religion devoid of a
deity, positioned Karma in place of God, with Nirvana seen as the extinction of all. The oldest school, Sthaviravada
(Theravada in Pali), and its more philosophical Sanskrit counterpart, Sarvastivada, asserted the existence of all
things, both physical and mental, including a critical branch called Sautantrika. Mahayana or Greater Wheel:
Devotees believed in the transcendence of Buddha and aspired to achieve salvation for all through Buddha’s grace
and the assistance of Bodhisattvas, embracing idol worship. Nirvana, in Mahayana, was viewed not as a negative
cessation but as a positive state of bliss. Mahayana comprised two primary philosophical schools, Madhyamika
and Yogachara, with the former, led by Nagarjuna, adopting a middle ground between Hinayanism’s realism and
Yogacharya’s idealism. The Yogachara School, founded by Maitreyanatha, completely rejected Hinayanism’s
realism in favor of absolute idealism. Sanskrit was the language of choice for Mahayana Buddhists, receiving
patronage from Kanishka and later support from Harsha. Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt: Followers believed
that salvation could be best achieved through the acquisition of magical power, termed Vajra, with the chief
divinities being the Taras. This sect gained popularity in Eastern India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar.
Bodhisattvas: In Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva is an individual capable of reaching Nirvana but chooses to
delay it out of compassion for suffering beings, akin to the concept of Incarnations in Hindu mythology.
Bodhisattvas are recurring figures in Buddhist literature and art.
 Famous Buddhist Scholars

Scholars Related Facts

Asvaghosha Contemporary of Kanishka. Poet, dramatist, musician, scholar, and debater.

Contemporary of Satavahana kings. Propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist

Nagarjuna
Philosophy known as Sunyavada.

Asanga and Asanga, the key teacher of Yogachara/Vijnanavada School. Vasubandhu’s

Vasubandhu Abhidharmakosa is an important Buddhist Encyclopedia.

Lived in the 5th century AD. Renowned Pali scholar. His commentaries and the
Buddhaghosha
Visuddhimagga are significant in post-Tripitaka literature.

Dignaga Fifth-century intellectual, founder of Buddhist logic.

Dharmakirti Lived in the 7th century AD. Another prominent Buddhist logician.

Buddhist Literature
The teachings of Buddha were gathered and categorized into three volumes known collectively as the Tripitaka.
These three volumes include Sutta Pitaka: A compilation of Buddha’s teachings presented in a dialogue format,
primarily intended for the common people. Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses of the Buddha) Majjima
Nikaya (Collection of Medium-Length Discourses of the Buddha) Samyutta Nikaya (Compilation of thematic
discourses) Anguttara Nikaya (Compilation of discourses grouped by content narration) Khuddaka
Nikaya (Compilation of poetic works in the Pali Canon) The Vinaya Pitaka: This section contains rules and
regulations for monastic discipline for monks. Known as the Basket of Discipline, the Vinaya Pitaka is the oldest
and smallest of the three sections of the Tripitaka. It provides guidelines for monks to lead a monastic life. The
Abhidhamma Pitaka: This section contains profound philosophies derived from Buddha’s teachings. The Jataka: It
is a collection of over 500 poems that describe the previous births of Buddha. The Buddhavamsa: This section
contains legends and verses about the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times. Milinda Panho: It
comprises discussions between Menander and the Buddhist Monk Nagasena. Ceylonese Chronicles: This section
contains information about Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle), and Culavamsa (Lesser
Chronicle).
Buddhist Architecture
Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent in the third century BC.Three types of structures are
associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (Viharas), stupas, and shrines or prayer
halls (Chaityas).
The prominent Buddhist site in India is Bodhgaya, where Siddhartha achieved enlightenment and became
Gautama Buddha. While the Bodhi Tree is of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is a
significant example of the brickwork architecture of that time. Cave temples, such as those at Ajanta and Ellora,
have preserved the form, porch, and interior arrangements of ancient monasteries and temples. Initially serving as
both monasteries and temples, they later became more elaborate, providing accommodation for sleeping, eating,
and studying. The decoration of Buddhist sites became progressively more elaborate through the last two
centuries BC, introducing human figures, particularly on stupas. The representation of the image of Buddha in
human form began in the first century AD, marking the commencement of image worship in India and influencing
the development of temples in Hinduism. The major schools of Buddhist art were Gandhara, Mathura, and
Amravati, each contributing distinctive types of sculptural art in the Indian subcontinent. The oldest form of
Buddha’s statue is attributed to the Gandhara School of Art. Other notable Buddhist architectural monuments in
India include the Nalanda Mahavihara or University, a complex of several monasteries that accommodated
students from various regions, and evidence suggests that all three Buddhist doctrines (Theravada, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana) were taught here.
Buddhist Mudras
Abhaya Mudra: This mudra (gesture) represents protection, peace, benevolence, and the dispelling of fear.
Bhumisparsha Mudra: This gesture calls upon the Earth to witness Shakyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment at
Bodhgaya. Dharmachakra Mudra: The Dharmachakra Mudra represents a central moment in the life of Buddha
when he preached his first sermon after enlightenment in Deer Park in Sarnath. Dhyana Mudra: The Dhyana
Mudra (meditation mudra) symbolizes the concentration of the good law and the Sangha. Varada Mudra: The
Varada Mudra (favorable mudra) signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion, and sincerity. Vajra
Mudra: The Vajra Mudra (thunder mudra) represents the gesture of knowledge. Vitarka Mudra: The Vitarka Mudra
(mudra of discussion) symbolizes the gesture of discussion and the transmission of Buddhist teachings. Gyana
Mudra: The Gyana Mudra (mudra of knowledge) is performed by touching the tips of the thumb and the index
finger together, forming a circle, with the hand-held palm inward towards the heart. Karana Mudra: The Karana
Mudra is the gesture that expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Decline of Buddhism
By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, falling victim to the challenges posed
by Brahmanism, against which it had initially struggled. Over time, Buddhist monks became disconnected from the
mainstream of people’s lives as they shifted from Pali (the language of the people) to Sanskrit (the language of
intellectuals).The rapid growth of heterogeneous religions compelled the Vedic religion to reflect on their belief
systems. Consequently, reforms were made in the once-rigid, ritualistic Vedic religion, transforming it into a
people-oriented system. By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, succumbing to
the challenges posed by Brahmanism, against which it had initially fought. The Buddhist monks became
disconnected from the mainstream of people’s lives as they abandoned Pali, the language of the people, in favor
of Sanskrit.
Buddhism and Jainism- Jainism emphasized lay and common followers, while Buddhism primarily relied on the
Sangha and its monks. The approach to attaining salvation in Jainism was extreme, whereas in Buddhism, it was
relatively moderate. While Jainism remained confined to India, Buddhism rapidly spread to foreign lands. Jainism
adopted a more liberal stance toward women. Jainism believed in the existence of the soul, whereas Buddhism did
not. Buddhism rejected the concept of god or deity, while Jainism affirmed the existence of gods. Jainism
emphasized Ahimsa, whereas in Buddhism, Ahimsa encompassed liberal sentiments and practical behavior.
Buddhism and Brahmanism
Brahmanism is the religion that evolved from the historical Vedic religion, based on the Vedas and Upanishads,
and a product of the ritualistic system led by Brahmin priests in Hindu society. Buddhism, on the other hand,
developed from the teachings and philosophy of life of the Buddha. Brahmanism strongly emphasizes rituals as
prescribed in the aforementioned scriptures to lead a good life, whereas Buddhism rejects all rituals and
emphasizself-development/self-exploration through the dhamma, the precepts, the practice, the Four Truths, and
the Eightfold Path.
Other Heterodox Sects (600-300 BC)
▪ According to Buddhist literary sources, around 62 heterodox sects existed in India in the sixth century BC.
Some important ones include:

Philosophies Founders Thought Process

Gosala Believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined
Ajivikas
Maskariputra (decided before birth).
 Ajivikas also believed that every being has a soul within it, which takes rebirth
after each life, disregarding faith in destiny. Natural and spiritual progress
occur through the continuous cycle of birth and rebirth.

Ajita
Uchchedavada Believed in materialistic philosophy.
Kesakambalin

Niyativada Nanda Vachcha Proposed the idea that everything in the world is pre-determined.

Brihaspati or
Materialism Argued that nothing existed which could not be understood by the five senses.
Charvaka

Akriyavada Purana Kasyapa Advocated that the soul was distinct from the body.

Pakudha Believed in the existence of seven Nikayas: Earth, water, air, light, sorrow,
Akrittavada
Kaccayana happiness, and life.

Anichchitvada Sanjay Vetiputta Doctrine of non-approval and non-denial of the existence of anything.

Chapter -6
The Mauryan Empire
Origin of the Mauryans
In the sixth century BC, conflicts arose among Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha Mahajanapadas as they vied for
territorial expansion. Magadha eventually emerged victorious. Following the Nanda rule, the powerful Mauryan
dynasty ascended to the throne of Magadha, solidifying its status as one of the most prominent dynasties in
ancient Indian history. Chandragupta, with the assistance of Chanakya, played a pivotal role in founding the
Mauryan empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya subsequently became a significant minister in
Chandragupta’s court.
Different views on the Origin of the Mauryans

Sources Buddhist Views Jain Views Brahmanical Views Greek Views

Connected with
Chandragupta Described They mention
Linked Chandragupta the tribe of Sakyas,
belonged to the Mauryans as Sandrocottus born
to the Moriya tribe a region full of
Moriya tribe Shudras of humble origin
peacocks

Divyavadana and
Mahaparinirvana – – – –
Sutra
Romila Thapar – – – –

Mudrarakshasa – – – –

They concede
Chandragupta
Junagarh Rock Mauryans are
– – belonged to the
Inscription members of the
Moriya tribe
Moriya clan

Mauryans were
Mauryans were of
– – – connected with the
Vaishya origin
Nandas

Archaeological Sources
Ashokan Edicts: Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts, and Cave Inscriptions attributed to Ashoka are discovered at different
locations across the Indian subcontinent. Decipherment: James Prinsep successfully deciphered these edicts in AD
1837. Content: The majority of these edicts convey Ashoka’s proclamations to the public, while a few detail his
acceptance of Buddhism. Material Remains: Artifacts like Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), silver, and copper
punch-marked coins provide insights into the material culture of the Mauryan period.
Literary Sources
Abundant Literary Records: Numerous literary sources contribute to a clearer understanding of the history of the
Mauryan period. Jataka Tales: The Jataka, containing stories of the Buddha’s previous lives, offers insights into the
social and economic structures prevalent during the Mauryan empire. The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana offer
insights into Bindusara’s reign, Ashoka’s expeditions to quell a Taxila rebellion, and his conversion to Buddhism.
The Jaina work Sthaviravali Charita, or Parisishtaparvan by Hemachandra, delves into Chandragupta Maurya’s life,
covering his early years, Magadha conquest, Magadha famine, and adoption of Jainism. The Mahavamsatika, a
commentary on Mahavamsa from the 10th century AD, provides details on the Mauryans’ origin. Sri Lankan
chronicles, Dipavamsa (compiled between the 3rd century BC and 4th century AD) and Mahavamsa (written in the
5th century AD), extensively describe Ashoka’s role in propagating Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Mudrarakshasa by
Vishakhadatta (4th century AD), a Sanskrit drama, depicts prevailing socio-economic conditions and mentions
Chandragupta Sabha (Council). Additional sources like Rajatarangini by Kalhana, Kathasaritasagar by Somadeva,
and Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra contribute further insights into Mauryan history. Arthashastra of
Kautilya: The Sanskrit work Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, serves as a comprehensive treatise on statecraft
and public administration. Kautilya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta, covers diverse topics, including kingship,
government, state affairs, war and peace, diplomacy, revenue systems, espionage, army organization, and
marriage laws. The work is structured into 15 Adhikaranas or books, comprising 180 Prakarnas (chapters) and a
total of 6000 verses.
Megasthenes
Megasthenes, an ambassador sent by Seleucus, compiled his observations on Mauryan India in the book “Indica.”
Key insights from Megasthenes include: King was the central figure in the administrative structure. Megasthenes
portrays the king as a diligent individual. Severe criminal laws, including mutilation and death penalties. High
praise for the honesty of the Indian people, with theft being a rare occurrence. The assertion that famine was non-
existent in India, and there was never a general scarcity of nourishing food.
Mauryan Rulers
The Mauryan dynasty, comprising Chandragupta Maurya, his sons Bindusara, and Ashoka, played a significant role
in ancient India.
Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC)
At the age of 25, Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda, and captured Pataliputra in 321 BC
with the assistance of Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta (as mentioned in Mudrarakshasa by
Vishakhadatta). In 305 BC, Chandragupta initiated a North-West campaign against Seleucus Nikator, culminating in
the Treaty of 303 BC, favoring the Mauryans. As part of the treaty, Chandragupta provided 500 elephants to
Seleucus, who, in return, ceded Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the region west of the Indus to the Mauryan
Empire. The Girnar record recounts Chandragupta instructing his Viceroy, Pushyagupta (also his brother-in-law), to
construct the renowned Sudarsana lake. Pushyagupta held the title of Simant Raja. Chandragupta’s marriage to
Helena, later named Durdhara, the daughter of Seleucus Nicator, is documented. The Sohagura Copper Plate
Inscription (Gorakhpur district) and Mahasthan Inscription (Bogra district) outline relief measures for famine, likely
issued during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. Greek accounts refer to him as Sandrokottos. Chandragupta’s
expansionist policies centralized control over much of present-day India, excluding areas like Kalinga and the far
South, during his rule from 321 BC to 297 BC. Jaina sources report that Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards
life’s end, eventually abdicating the throne in favor of his son. Accompanied by the Jaina saint Bhadrabahu, he
journeyed to South India and spent his remaining years at Sravanabelagola, where he adhered to the orthodox
Jain practice of slow starvation, known as Sallekhana.
Bindusara (298-273 BC)
Bindusara (298-273 BC) succeeded Chandragupta. Known as Amitrochates to the Greeks and Bindupala in Chinese
texts, Bindusara’s reign is documented by Taranatha, a Tibetan Buddhist monk who visited India in the 16th
century. Bindusara expanded his empire by conquering 16 states, spanning the region between the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. Susima, Bindusara’s eldest son, served as Viceroy of Taxila, while Ashoka held a similar
position in Ujjain. A revolt in Taxila led Bindusara to send Ashoka to restore order. Bindusara had diplomatic ties
with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria, and received an ambassador named Deimachus. Ptolemy Philadelphus
of Egypt also sent Dionysius as an ambassador to Bindusara. The Mauryan Empire, under Bindusara, reached as far
south as the Indian peninsula, with 16 states falling under its dominion. Kalinga was the only notable exception.
While some Buddhist texts describe Bindusara as a Brahmana Bhatto (monk of the Brahmanas), an inscription at
Sanchi suggested his involvement in building a Buddhist temple, Temple 40. Bindusara’s religious affiliations
remain debated, with some texts suggesting Brahmanism and others mentioning Ajivikas due to the presence of
an Ajivika astrologer named Pingalavatsa in his court.
Ashoka (273-232 BC)
Following his father Bindusara, Ashoka succeeded the throne, likely after a battle of succession. According to
Divyavadana, he quelled a rebellion in Taxila and merged the Avanti Mahajanapada with Magadha.Initiated into
Buddhism by a 7-year-old monk named Nigrodh, Ashoka reduced the land revenue of Lumbini village to the first
eighth of its produce. Three phases of Ashoka’s life were identified as Kamasoka, Chandasoka, and Dhammasoka.
Kalinga War- Ashoka waged only one major war, the Kalinga War, resulting in significant casualties. The aftermath
deeply moved Ashoka, prompting a shift from physical occupation to cultural conquest. Bhabru
Inscription indicates that two years after the war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism ardently. Ashoka’s Dhamma - After
converting to Buddhism, Ashoka generously supported Buddhists and initiated the Dhamma Yatra. Ashoka’s
Dhamma Policy aimed not only at religious promotion but also at becoming a state policy. He advocated conquest
through Dhamma, replacing war drums (Bherighosa) with the sound of peace (Dhammaghosa). For Dhamma
propagation, Ashoka implemented various measures through Dhamma Mahamata and regulation. Embarking on
pilgrimages to sacred Buddhist sites, Ashoka visited Gaya, Kushinagar, Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Sarnath, and
Shravasti.Propagators of Buddhism sent by Ashoka included Majjantik (Kashmir/Kandhar), Majjim (Himalayan
region), Rakshit (Northern Border Zone), Mahendra, Sanghamitra (Sri Lanka), Sone, Uttara Suvarnabhumi (South
India), Moha Dharma Rakshit, Mahadeo (Maharashtra), Dharma Rakshit (Western India), and Moha Rakshit (Greek
City-States).
Ashoka’s Inscriptions
Ashoka holds the distinction of being the first ruler to issue royal edicts. His Dhamma, a set of ethical and moral
principles, did not align with any particular religious doctrine. The rock edicts commissioned by Ashoka convey his
intention to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, including Brahmanas and Sramanas. The
majority of these inscriptions have been unearthed in Mysuru, with the first Ashokan Edict discovered by Padre
Tieffenthaler and later deciphered by James Prinsep in AD 1837 on the Delhi-Meerut Pillar. Composed primarily in
the Brahmi script (written left to right) and Prakrit language, notable inscriptions from places like Maski, Gurjara,
Nittur, and Degolan include Ashoka’s full name—Devanampiya Ashoka Piyadassi.
Devanampiya Piyadassi
Devanampiya Piyadassi, also known as Devanampriya (Beloved of the Gods), was a Pali honorific epithet used by
Ashoka for himself in his inscriptions. Initially, James Prinsep incorrectly identified Devanampriya as the King of
Ceylon, Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura. Later research in 1837 by George Turnour, through Sri Lankan
manuscripts Dipavamsa, revealed that Piyadassi was originally associated with Ashoka. In the Kanganahalli
relief sculpture inscription, Ranyo Ashoka is mentioned alongside the stone portrait of Ashoka. Ashokan Edicts-
Ashoka pioneered the issuance of edicts in ancient India, with these inscriptions appearing either on stone pillars
or rocks. They are categorized into major and minor groups, with the fourteen major rock edicts covering a wide
scope, outlining the nature and broader application of Dhamma. Fourteen Major Rock Edicts- These major rock
edicts are found at various locations, including Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar (Pakistan), Sopara (Mumbai), Dhauli and
Tuara (erragudi, Andhra Pradesh), Mansehg Jaugada (both in Odisha), and Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan in Kharosthi).
They address aspects of administration and ethics.

Rock
Description
Edict

I Prohibition on animal slaughter.

Medical treatment for man and animals, mentioning places of Cholas, Pandayas, Satayaputras, and
II
Keralaputras.

Directions to Pradeshikas, Yuktas, and Rajukas for the propagation of Dhamma. Liberty towards
III
Brahmins and Sramanas.

IV Impact of Dhamma on society, emphasizing non-violence towards animals.

V Appointments of Dhamma Mahamatras.

VI Welfare measures and efficient organization of administration.

VII Propagation of peace, balance of mind, faith, and tolerance among all sects.

VIII Details of visit to the Bodhi tree and Dhammasutras.

IX Stress on the ceremony of Dhamma.

X Ashoka’s desire to gain popularity for Dhamma.

XI Appraisal of Dhamma and promotion of religious tolerance.

XII Ashoka advises against praising one’s sect excessively and blaming other sects.

The largest of all describes Kalinga’s destruction and mentions Greek rulers Antiochus, Ptolemy,
XIII
Antigonus, Megas, and Alexander.
XIV mentions of Castles like Kamboj, Nabhkas, Nabhakaptees Bhoja, Pittinik, Andhara, and Parindas.

XV Nature of all other rock edicts.

Minor Rock Edicts

Minor Rock Edicts are concentrated in the South and Central parts of the empire. They highlight Ashoka’s activity
as a Buddhist disciple i.e., the personal history of Ashoka, and also represent the summary of Dhamma. The edict
found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed in Greek and Aramaic. Minor Rock Edict III (Bairat) is addressed to
the Buddhist clergy.

Minor Rock Edicts States

Ahrora Uttar Pradesh

Brahmagiri Karnataka

Bhabru Rajasthan

Gavimath Karnataka

Gurjara Madhya Pradesh

Jatinga Rameshwar Karnataka

Maski Karnataka

Panguradia Madhya Pradesh

Minor Rock Edicts States

Palkigondu – Karnataka

Rupnath – Madhya Pradesh

Rajula Mandgiri – Andhra Pradesh

Sasaram – Bihar

Sidhpur – Karnataka

Sannati – Karnataka

Yerraguddi – Andhra Pradesh

Major Pillar Edicts
Comprising a collection of seven edicts, the Pillar Edicts are located at various sites, including Delhi-Topra, Delhi-
Meerut, Rampurva, Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Allahabad-Kosambi. Two pillars, originally from Topra
and Meerut, were relocated to Delhi during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. The Ashokan Pillar at
Allahabad incorporates two later inscriptions—one by Gupta ruler Samudragupta Prayaga Prashasti, composed by
the poet Harisena, detailing his conquests, and another by the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The complete set of
seven edicts is exclusively preserved at the Topra site. Pillar Edict VII stands as the final proclamation issued by
Ashoka.
Contents of Ashokan Major Pillar Edicts

Pillar
Matter Description
Edict

I Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.

Defines Dhamma that minimizes sins, and enhances virtues such as compassion, liberality, truthfulness,
II
and purity.

III Emphasizes avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride, and anger among his subjects.

IV Outlines the responsibilities of the Rajukas (Government Officials).

Provides a list of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days, along with another list
V
mentioning animals that should never be killed.

Declares Dhamma as the State Policy, emphasizing that all sects desire both self-control and purity of
VI
mind.

Highlights Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma and his tolerance for all sects; also known as the
VII
Testimonial Edict.

Later Mauryans (232-184 BC)

According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka ruled for 27 years. The disintegration of the Mauryan empire seemed to
have set in immediately after Ashoka’s death, The list of later Mauryans is as follows

Kings Period Details

Dasharatha 232 BC – 224 BC Grandson of King Ashoka.

Uncle Jalauka established an

independent kingdom in Kashmir.

 Mahameghavahana dynasty of

Kalinga broke away during his

reign.

Samprati 224 BC – 215 BC Brother of Dasharatha. Built

around 1,50,000 Jain Temples.

Salisuka 215 BC – 202 BC Successor and son of Samprati.

Described as quarrelsome and

unrighteous by Gargi Samhita.

Devavarman 202 BC – 195 BC Weak ruler; many regions

disintegrated during his reign.

Satadhanvan 195 BC – 188 BC Mauryan territories shrank

considerably under his rule.

Brihadratha 187 BC – 185 BC Last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty.

Pushyamitra Shunga killed

Brihadratha and established

himself as the new ruler.

Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan empire had major administrative units like the Centre and the provinces, which had various sub-
units down to the village and all came under the purview of Central administration. Central Administration-
According to Kautilya, the state is composed of seven elements known as Saptanga. These elements include
Svamin (King), Amatya (Minister or High Officials), Janapada (Territory or Population), Durga (Fort), Kosa
(Treasury), Bala (Army), and Mitra (Friend or Ally). The King serves as the nucleus of the state and is supported by
the Mantri Parishad, consisting of Yuvraj, Purohita, Senapati, and other key advisors. The highest-ranking officers,
known as Tirthas and Adhyakshas (superintendents), oversee 26 different departments. Amatyas, or civil servants,
are appointed to handle day-to-day administration responsibilities within the state.
Eighteen Tirthas

S. N. Tirthas Posts

1 Mahamantri Purohita Chief Minister and Chief Priest

2 Senapati Commander-in-Chief

3 Yuvraj Crown Prince

4 Dauvarika Chamberlain

5 Prasastri Inspector General of Prison

6 Sanidhatta In charge of the Treasury

7 Nayaka City Constable

8 Vyavaharika Chief Judge

9 Mantri Secretary in charge of the Office of Ministers

10 Parishadadhyaksha Ministers

11 Dvara Pala Chief of the Home Defence (Warden of the palace to control entrance and exit)

12 Antarvesika Chief of the Harem

13 Samaharta Tax Collector General

14 Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner

15 Paura Governor of the Capital

16 Karmantika Chief of the Industries

17 Dandapal Police Chief

18 Antapal Chief of the Frontier Defence

Important Adhyakashas

Adhyakshas Posts

Akshapataladhyaksha Accountant General

Sitadhyaksha Incharge of crown lands

Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines

Lavanadhyaksha Salt Superintendent

Navadhyaksha Incharge of state boats

Panyadhyaksha Controller of state trading

Sulkadhyaksha Collector of custom or tolls

Suradhyaksha Superintendent of excise

Pautavadhyaksha Superintendent of weight and measure

Bandhanagaradhyaksha Superintendent of jails

Aaudhagaradhyaksha Ordinance Superintendent

Kosthagaradhyaksha Incharge of warehouse

Pattanadhyaksha Superintendent of ports

Devatadhyaksha Incharge of religious institutions

Samsthadhyaksha Superintendent of market

Suvarnadhyaksha Superintendent of gold

Hastyadhyaksha Incharge of elephant force

Kosadhyaksha Incharge of treasury

Kupyadhyaksha Incharge of forest producer

Madradhyaksha Passport in charge

Provincial and Local Administration

The Mauryan Empire was primarily organized into four provinces with capitals in Ujjain, Taxila, Kalinga, and
Suvarnagiri. Each province was overseen by a prince from the Mauryan dynasty. Further division of these
provinces into smaller units was carried out for efficient administration. The districts were managed by Rajukas,
who received assistance from Yuktas. Village administration was the responsibility of Grahminis, while Gopas
exercised control over groups of ten to fifteen villages. The city superintendent, known as Nagarika, played a
crucial role in maintaining law and order. The Mauryan state also implemented local and municipal administration,
where Vish or Ahara served as units within a province. According to Megasthenes, six committees, each consisting
of five members, were established for the administration of municipalities. All the municipal commissioners in
their collective capacity were required to control all the affairs of the city and keep in order the markets, temples,
harbors, and public works.
Revenue Administration
There were different sources of state revenue i.e., cities, rural areas, mines, pastures, plantations, and forests. He
supervised collection for the entire kingdom. The chief custodian of the State Treasury was Samahartha or
Samidatta.

Names Nature of Taxes

Bhaga Land revenue (first sixth)

Bali Additional tax

Chorarajju A tax collected for the search of the thief

Pranaya Emergency tax

Pindakara Collected annually from the entire village

Praveshya Import duty

Nishkramya Export duty

Senabhaktam Tax for the army, from the region it passed through

Shulka Custom duty

Vishti Forced labor

Hiranya Probably a tax paid in gold

Udaybhagokal Irrigation tax

Udayabhanu Income tax

Mauryan Army
Megasthenes reported a military council comprising 30 members for administration, divided into six sub-
committees with five members each. The army boasted infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, boats, and
provisions, including 30,000 cavalry and 900 elephants. The primary components of the force were chariots,
cavalry, elephants, and infantry, aligned with the military organization outlined in the Arthashastra. The Mauryans
also maintained a naval force.
Judiciary
Legal sources, according to Kautilya, included Dharma, Vyavahara (current legal codes), Charitra (customs), and
Rajashasana (royal decree).The Chief Justice, known as the Dharmadhikari, played a crucial role. Espionage
NetworkSpies were categorized as Sansthan and Sanchari, stationed or moving, respectively. They were also
known as Gudhapurshas.
Mauryan Society
The caste system in Mauryan society, outlined by Megasthenes, was occupation-based rather than birth-based,
encompassing seven castes: Philosophers, Soldiers and Warriors, Magistrates or Superintendents, Councillors and
Assessors, Artisans and Traders, Herdsmen and Shepherds, Peasants . The caste stratification had roots in
the Chaturvarna system: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Proper hospitals with appointed doctors,
midwives, nurses, etc., were established in Mauryan society. Position of Women-
Women held a prominent status in Mauryan society, with some even serving as assistants and bodyguards to the
king. Offenses against women were punishable by law, reflecting a commitment to their protection. Marriages
and polygamy were prevalent, particularly among the royal classes, while common people could opt for polygamy
if there were no sons. Women possessed property in the form of Stridhana, including bridal gifts. Sati, a practice of
self-immolation by widows, was rare and mainly confined to the higher classes. The concept of slavery, as seen in
people compelled to work as dasas, was absent. Aryas, including Shudras, could not be forcibly made dasas. Dasas
in India were not employed in unclean work, could hold and transmit property, and, under specific conditions,
could regain their freedom as a matter of right. The Brahmanical stance on untouchability hardened, leading to the
existence of wells reserved exclusively for Chandals. Jataka tales mention untouchable communities like Chandala,
Nishad, and Shabar, who were subjected to inhumane treatment. Widespread belief in magical practices and
superstitions prevailed in Mauryan society. Various rites and practices were mentioned for gaining favor with the
king, acquiring wealth, afflicting enemies with diseases, securing a long life, or having a son. A proper system of
census existed, registering details of deaths and births. The census officer, Nagarika, maintained reference data for
farmers, cattle, traders, and cowherds, ensuring proper tax levies. The city life was well-regulated, with residential
accommodations reserved for different communities and trades in designated quarters. Strictly implemented
building laws and regulations focused on sanitation and the disposal of the deceased.
Mauryan Economy
The chief source of the Mauryan economy was land tax, collected by revenue officers. Foreign trade, both over
land and sea, was prevalent and regulated by documents akin to passports. Indigo, cotton, and silk were major
trading commodities, and trade routes were referred to as Vanikatha. Punch-marked coins, primarily of silver and
copper, were in circulation. Money served various purposes, including paying government officials in cash, while
hired laborers were known as Karmakaras. Agriculture
The Gana Sangha System, with communal ownership of land, persisted in some parts of the empire. State-owned
lands, called Sita lands, were also present. The state took a keen interest in irrigation, encouraging people to repair
dams and construct water reservoirs.
Mauryan Art
The Mauryan art that flourished during ancient India was a culmination of a long development that began
indigenously, grew as time grew and reached its zenith during the Mauryan period. There are no extant examples
of either sculpture or architecture that can be dated to the pre-Mauryan times. Mauryan art marked a departure
from earlier Indian traditions, moving from materials like wood, sun-dried brick, clay, ivory, and metal to stone on
a grand scale, showcasing technical skill and finesse. Influenced by the Achaemenid Empire of Iran, Mauryan art
was evident in territories that touched Afghanistan, once Achaemenid possessions. Close relations with the
Hellenistic empire, influenced by Achaemenid art, were also present in Mauryan times. Elements of Mauryan art
were believed to have indigenous origins, incorporating a mix of folk and court elements. The famous Mauryan
polish, as well as motifs like bull, lion, lotus, and geese on Ashokan pillars, had indigenous roots. Key examples of
Mauryan art and culture included the remains of the royal palace and city of Pataliputra, the monolithic railing at
Sarnath, and cave dwellings in the Barabar-Nagarjuni hills in Gaya. Pillars, Sculptures, Stupas, and Caves- Mauryan
pillars were made of red and white sandstone or buff-colored fine-grained Hayden grey stone, exemplified by the
Sarnath pillar. Ashokan pillars, monolithic and made of hard sandstone, were finely chiseled and polished. Stupas
were built to enshrine relics of Buddha or revered Buddhist monks, with the Stupa at Sanchi being a prime
example. Caves served as residences for monks, churches, and assembly halls, with the Barabar hills’ caves, such
as Lomas Rishi and Sudama, showcasing Mauryan architecture. The rock-cut caves in the Barabar hills near Gaya
are the oldest surviving examples of Mauryan rock-cut caves.
The Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
The imperial authority of the Mauryas began to weaken with the death of Ashoka and finally collapsed in 180
BC.There were various reasons for the same. Some of the major reasons were as follows: Successors of Ashoka-
Several literary texts like the Puranas, the Avadanas and the Jain accounts suggest that after the death of Ashoka,
the empire was divided among the surviving sons. It appears that after Ashoka, the empire got fragmented and
that there was a quick succession of rulers. This weakened the imperial control over the administration. The early
three kings, Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Ashoka, had organized the administration in such a way that it needed
strict supervision. The quick succession of kings made this difficult as none of the rulers could actually settle down
and be in control of things. The partition of the Mauryan empire itself signifies the commencement of
disintegration immediately after Ashoka’s death.Political and Administrative Failures- The disorder in the
administrative machinery post-Ashoka’s demise is considered a significant factor in the Mauryan empire’s
disintegration. A key challenge for Ashoka’s successors was deciding whether to continue his Dhamma policy as a
state approach. In the later phase, the Mauryan bureaucracy faced immense stress, resulting in an inefficient
administration unable to maintain social order. The complex spy system under the later Mauryas also collapsed.
Economic Challenges- Financial constraints impacted the Mauryan economy in the later phase, evidenced by
increased taxes and debasement of the currency in Punch-marked coins.These economic pressures are accepted as
pivotal factors contributing to significant changes in the later Magadhan empire and its eventual decline.
Oppressive Rule- During Bindusara’s reign, complaints arose about misrule in Taxila, which persisted during
Ashoka’s rule despite his efforts to address it. Despite Ashoka’s measures, oppression continued in the outlying
provinces.
Spread of Knowledge- The expansion of the Mauryan empire led to the dissemination of material knowledge to
Central India, Kalinga, and the Deccan. The Gangetic basin, the heart of the empire, lost its special advantage,
contributing to the rise of new kingdoms like Shungas, Kanvas, and Chedis. Neglect of the North-West Frontier-
Ashoka’s focus on missionary activities led to neglect of the North-West frontier, allowing nomadic threats to
emerge. Unlike China’s Great Wall construction, Ashoka did not take preventive measures, resulting in Scythians,
Parthians, Shakas, and Greeks moving towards India. Ashoka’s Dhamma Policy- Scholars suggest that Ashoka’s
political decisions or their consequences played a role in the Mauryan empire’s disintegration. Pushyamitra
Shunga’s anti-Buddhist stance and actions against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and some successors are
cited. The Dhamma-Mahamattas, appointed by Ashoka, may have contributed to the decline in Brahmana prestige
by challenging traditional Brahmanical laws. Though lacking direct evidence, it’s plausible that these officials
became unpopular, contributing to the emergence of new dynasties ruled by Brahmin kings like the Satavahanas
and Shungas.

Chapter-7

Early Tamilkam : Survey of sangam literature ,polity, economy and society

Introduction

All literary works are connected to the historical contexts in which they are produced and in which they circulate. The
earliest literature of South India is represented by a group of texts in old Tamil, often collectively referred to as
Sangam literature. A tradition recorded in post-7th century texts speaks of three Sangams or literary gatherings in
ancient times. The first is supposed to have been held in Madurai for 4,440 years, the second at Kapatapuram for
3,700 years, and the third in Madurai for 1,850 years. Although the details of this legend obviously cannot be
considered historical, the similarity of language and style within the Sangam corpus suggests the possibility that they
were the product of some sort of literary gathering. The case for the historicity of at least the third Sangam is that
some of the kings and poets associated with it are historical figures. The Sangam corpus includes six of the eight
anthologies of poems included in the Ettutokai (The Eight Collections), and nine of the ten pattus (songs) of the
Pattuppattu (The Ten Songs). The style and certain historical references in the poems suggest that they were
composed between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. There are two kinds of Sangam poems—akam and
puram. Akam poems had love as their theme, while puram poems were mostly about war. The poems were modelled
on the bardic songs of older times and were orally transmitted for an indefinite period before they were written
down. The anthologies include a total of 2,381 poems ascribed to 473 poets, 30 of whom were women. The poets
came from cities and villages and had varied social and professional backgrounds. They included teachers,
merchants, carpenters, astrologers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, ministers, and kings. Due to their varied
themes and authorship, Sangam poems offer a good idea of everyday life in the time when they were composed. Of
the several Tamil epics, two of the best known are the Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. The former is a little earlier
that the latter, but both were composed in about the 5th–6th centuries CE. The ancient Tamil of the Sangam poems
is different from modern Tamil. The Tolkappiyam is the oldest surviving Tamil grammar; parts of it go back to the
early centuries CE. Such grammatical texts tell us about the structure of ancient languages and they also contain
incidental historical references to their time. Languages of the Dravidian family- Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada
and Tulu -are today largely spoken in south India. Among the Dravidian languages Tamil has the oldest literature,
followed by Kannada.

Sources of Sangam Age

A) Literary Sources

B) Archaeological Sources
 Literary Sources
The sources that define the history of the Sangam age are Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai/Ettuthogal, and Pattupattu.
Among these, Tolkappiyam was the earliest. During the post-Sangam period, the Pathinenkilkanakku, or the 18
minor works was composed. The twin epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai also belonged to the post-Sangam
period. All these literatures help us to know the society, economy, and culture of the ancient Tamils. According to
Tamil legends, three Sangams existed in ancient Tamil Nadu, supported by the Pandyas. The first, held at Madurai,
was attended by gods and sages. The second, at Kapatapuram, saw the destruction of literary works except for
Tolkappiyam.The third, at Madurai, produced voluminous literature, with only a few surviving works. While
considered mythical by some due to discrepancies in traditional dates, these Tamil literary works remain crucial for
understanding the Sangam age.

Archaeological Sources
The archaeological sources for the Sangam period are limited in number. They may be classified into Epigraphy,
Excavations, and Coins.The Ashokan Edicts mention the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms. The Hathigumpha
Inscription of the Kalinga king, Kharavela, also references the three Tamil
Kingdoms. Tirupparankundrum inscriptions mention the gifting of cave beds to Jain monks, while Arnattar
Hills’ inscriptions from the 1st century AD provide information about the Chera kings. Excavations- Robert Bruce
Foote conducted the first excavations at Adhichanallur, revealing numerous iron, bronze, and gold articles
depicting ancient Tamil life. Mortimer Wheeler excavated Arikkamedu near Pondicherry, discovering Roman
pottery, glass bowls, gems, and coins, confirming Roman-Tamil commercial contacts during the Sangam age.
A Buddhist Vihara found at Kilaiyur near Kaveripoompattinam dates to the post-Sangam period. Other significant
excavation sites include Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, and Kodumanal. Underwater Archaeology - Modern archaeologists
conducted underwater excavations near Poompuhar, revealing a shipwreck that sheds light on Sangam period
history. Coins- Tamil Kings issued limited gold and silver coins during the Sangam period. However, Roman gold
and silver coins are widespread in Tamil Nadu, confirming trade relations.
Foreign Accounts- Greek and Roman writers, such as Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, offer insights into
the society and economy of Sangam Tamils. Sri Lankan Buddhist accounts, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, also
provide valuable evidence.

The Early Kingdoms

The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river was divided into three kingdoms: Chola,
Pandya, and Chera or Kerala. The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was
celebrated for pearls. The Pandya territory occupied the southern most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian
peninsula, and it roughly included the modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu with its
capital at Madurai. The Sangam literature mention one or two Pandya conquerors. However, this literature shows
clearly that the state was wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman empire and
sent ambassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus. The brahmanas enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya
king performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Chola kingdom, which came to be
caled Cholamandalam (Coromandel), in early medieval times, was situated to the north-east of the territory of the
Pandyas, between the Pennar and the Velar rivers. We have some idea of the political history of the Cholas from the
Sangam texts. Their chief centre of political power lay at Uraiyu, a place famous for cotton trade. It seems that in the
mid-second century BC, a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly fifty years. A
clearer history of the Cholas begins in the second century AD with their famous king Karikala. He founded Puhar and
constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri river. This was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves who were
brought as captives from Sri Lanka. Puhar is coterminous with Kaveripattanam, the Chola capital. It was a great
centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show that it had a large dock. One of the principal sources of the
wealth of the Cholas was trade in cotton cloth. They maintained an efficient navy. Under Karikalas successors Chola
power rapidly declined. Their capital Kaveripattanam, was overwhelmed and destroyed. Their two neighbourn
powers, the Cheras and the Pandyas, expanded at the cost of Cholas. what remained of the Chola power was almost
wiped out by the attacks or Pallavas from the north. From the fourth to the ninth century, the played only a marginal
part in south Indian history.
Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It included the narrow
strip of land between the sea and the mountains, and covered portions of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In the early
centuries of the Christian era, the Chera state was as important as the states of the Cholas and Pandyas, and owed its
position to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regimens at Muziris coterminous with Cranganore in the
Chera state, to protect their interest. It is said that they also built there a temple of Augustus. The history of the
Cheras is a continuing battle with the Cholas and Although the Cheras killed the father of the Chola king Karikala, the
Chera king also lost his life. Later, the two kingdoms temporarily became friends andconcluded a matrimonial
alliance. The Chera king next allied with the Pandya rulers against the Cholas, but the Cholas defeated the allies, and
it is said that as the Chera king was wounded in the back, he felt shamed and committed suicide. According to the
Chera poets, their greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera. He routed his rivals and established his
cousin securely on the throne. It is said that he invaded the north and crossed the Ganges. All this however seems an
exaggeration. After the second century, Chera power declined, and we know nothing of its history until the eighth
century.
The principal interest of the political history of these three kingdoms lies in the continuing wars they fought with one
another and also with Sri Lanka. Although these states were weakened by the wars, they greatly profited from their
natural resources and foreign trade. They grew spices, especially pepper, which was in great demand in the Western
world. Their elephants supplied ivory, which was highly valued in the West. The sea yielded pearls and their mines
produced precious stones, and both these were exported to the West in substantial quantities. In addition, they
produced muslin and silk. We hear of cotton cloth as thin as the slough of a snake. The early Tamil poems also
mention the weaving of complex patterns on silk. Uraiyur was noted for its cotton trade. In ancient times, the Tamils
traded with the Greek or Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt and Arabia, on the one hand, and with the Mala archipelago
and China, on the other. As a result of trade, the words in Greek for rice, ginger, cinnamon, and several other articles
were derived from Tamil. When Egypt became a Roman province and the monsoon was discovered at about the
beginning of first century AD, this trade received great impetus. Thus, for the first two and a half centuries, southern
kingdoms conducted a lucrative trade with the Romans. With ne decline of this trade, these kingdoms began to
decay.

In the 1st century AD, three states emerged under the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the southernmost part of the
Indian peninsula. The collective term for the three ancient kingdoms, Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, was Tamilakha, or
the Tamil Realm. The form of government during the Sangam period was a Hereditary Monarchy. Each dynasty had a
unique royal emblem: Tiger for the Cholas, Fish for the Pandyas, and Bow for the Cheras.

Present Day Significant

Kingdoms Capitals Major Titles of the King Major Ports
Regions Rulers

Upper Tamil Uraiyur, Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and

Chola Karikala Kaveripattanam
Nadu Puhar Killi

Cheran Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar,

Chera Kerala Vanji Musiri, Tondi
Senguttuvan Kuttuvar, Poralyar

Southern Kavuriyar, Korkai, Panchavar,

Pandya Madurai Nedunche-liyan Muchiri,
Tamil Nadu Kaveri Tennar, Seliyar, etc.

The Chola Kingdom

Known as Cholamandalam or Coromandal, the Chola kingdom occupied the Northeastern part of the Pandyas’
territory, situated between the Pennar and Velur rivers. Recognized as the world’s longest-ruling dynasty, the Chola
dynasty’s mention dates back to third-century BC inscriptions during the Mauryan empire’s reign under Ashoka and
continues until the 13th century AD. Despite these ancient origins, the rise of the Chola Empire, particularly the
Second Chola Empire, began in the mid-ninth century AD. Vijayalaya (AD 850-871) is credited with this resurgence,
conquering the Kaveri delta, establishing the city of Thanjavur, and founding the Chola kingdom in AD 850. Over 400
years, Chola power extended across a vast area of South India, encompassing the entire modern state of Tamil Nadu
and significant parts of Southern Karnataka and the Southern Andhra region. The political epicenter of the Cholas
was Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade. In the mid-second century BC, Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and
ruled for nearly 50 years. The kingdom’s true foundation was established in the 2nd century AD by the renowned
king Karikala, who founded the city of Puhar and constructed a 160 km embankment along the Kaveri River.
Pattinappalai, authored by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar, vividly portrays the life and military achievements of
Karikala, a significant Chola ruler. Under Karikala’s rule, trade and commerce flourished, accompanied by the
construction of irrigation tanks along the Kaveri River to facilitate farming on reclaimed land from the forest. The
Great Battle of Venni, near Thanjavur, saw Karikala defeating a coalition of rulers, led by Cheras and Pandya kings.
The Chola Empire, situated in Southern India, extended its territories into South-East Asia.
Sources of Chola Empire
The primary sources for studying Chola history are more than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and
stone. These inscriptions primarily document endowments and donations to temples by rulers and individuals,
including details of land transactions and taxes.Tamil literature flourished during this period, serving as a literary
source. The rise of bhakti saints and the compilation of hymns are reflective of the socio-cultural features of the time.
Notable literary works from this period include Muvarula and Kamba Ramayanam, a great epic. An Uttarameruru
Inscription issued by Parantaka Chola provides details of the election to local self-governance bodies during this
significant era in Chola history.

Prominent Rulers of the Chola Dynasty

Vijayalaya
Vijayalaya played a pivotal role in founding the Chola Empire. In the eighth century, he seized control of the
Thanjavur kingdom, marking the beginning of Chola supremacy, achieved through the defeat of the Pallavas.
Rajaraja I
Regarded as one of the most celebrated Chola kings, Rajaraja I engaged in naval expeditions, securing victories on the
West Coast and Sri Lanka. He conquered the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and named the northern part of Sri Lanka
as Mummidigonda Cholamandalam. Successful in the Battle of Kand Salai against the Cheras, he also undertook
expeditions against the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, establishing Shaktiverma on the throne of the Chalukya of
Vengi. Rajaraja I, the first ruler to construct a dam across the Kaveri River, was a devoted follower of Lord Shiva. In AD
1010, he built the renowned Rajarajeswara Temple, also known as Brihadeesvara Temple, in Thanjavur. He assumed
titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda, and Sivapadasekara. His son, Rajendra I, succeeded him.
Rajendra I
Rajendra I orchestrated a remarkable military campaign in AD 1023 with his expedition to Northern India, defeating
Mahipala I of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. In commemoration of this victorious campaign, Rajendra founded the city
of Gangaikondacholapuram and erected the renowned Rajesvaram Temple in the city. Another notable achievement
was his naval expedition to Sri Vijaya (modern-day Indonesia), earning him the title “Bay of Bengal as
Cholamandalam.” He extended his rule to encompass the entirety of Sri Lanka and established
numerous educational institutions throughout his empire, earning him the title Pandita Chola.
Kulottunga 1
Following the demise of Rajendra I, his three immediate successors met untimely deaths. However, his grandson, the
last significant Chola ruler, not only preserved the Chola kingdom but also expanded its territories. This ruler, known
for abolishing various taxes and earning the title Sungam Tavirtta, was the sole Chola monarch to dispatch a trade
embassy to China. He successfully integrated the Chalukyas of the Vengi kingdom into the Chola empire and
coexisted with Ramanujacharya, a prominent Vaishnava saint.
Rajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II assumed the Chola emperorship upon the death of his elder brother, Rajadhiraja Chola I, in the
11th century. He played a pivotal role in the Battle of Koppam, overturning the fortunes of the Chalukyan
King Someshwara I. During his reign, a Sri Lankan expedition resulted in the defeat of the Sri Lanka army, compelling
their king, Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa, to seek refuge in a mountain fortress. The Chola empire, under his
leadership, maintained its territorial integrity.
Kulottunga Chola II
In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, Kulottunga Chola II, a significant Chola emperor, held sway. Bestowed
with the title Kulottunga, he fostered diplomatic ties with the Northern Indian city Kannauj, as well as distant
realms like Cambodia, Sri Vijaya, and China. Jayamkondar, the court poet, composed the poem Kalingattu Parani in
honor of Kulottunga Chola’s military triumphs. During his rule, Kulottunga Chola granted several land grants to
members of the Shudra community who served as generals and royal officials, reflecting his liberal governance. He
secured Chola dominance over Sri Vijaya province Kedah in Malaysia. Subsequent rulers like Kulottunga I, Rajaraja,
and Kulottunga II attempted to sustain Chola’s rule, but it gradually declined and ultimately ended in the 13th
century. The Pandyas and the Hoysalas succeeded the Cholas in the South, while the Yadavas and the
Kakatiyas replaced the later Chalukyas. Rajendra III, the final Chola king, succumbed to defeat against Jatavarman
Sundarapandya II. The downfall of the Chola empire paved the way for the emergence of the Pandya and Hoysala
kingdoms.
Chola Dynasty Administration
The king held the highest position in the administration, wielding complete authority. Regular state tours were
undertaken by the king to maintain close ties with the administration. Brahmins were appointed as spiritual guides or
Rajagurus by Chola rulers. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I mentioned the names of Rajagurus and Sarva-sivas in their
inscriptions. Chola kings bestowed extensive land estates, known as Brahmadeyams and Caturvedimangalams, upon
Brahmins. The Chola empire was structured into Mandalams, each further divided into valanadus and nadus.
Autonomous villages were present in each nadu. Royal princes or officers oversaw the administration of mandalams.
The Valanadu was overseen by periyanattar, nadu by nattar, and the town (nagaram) was administered by a council
called nagarattar. The Cholas maintained a sizable army composed of infantry, cavalry, and elephants, referred to as
the three limbs of the army. Venetian traveler Marco Polo documented the Cholas, noting that all the king’s
bodyguards immolated themselves on the funeral pyre of the deceased king. In the Chola empire, there were two
types of local villages. One type comprised people from different castes, and the assembly governing such villages
was known as Ur. The second type consisted of Agrahara villages settled by Brahmins, where most of the land was
rent-free. The Tirumukkudal inscription revealed the existence of a hospital named after Vira Chola. Doctors in the
hospital, overseen by a chief physician earning an annual stipend of 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus, and a land grant,
successfully treated various diseases Chola Queen Kundavai also founded a hospital in Thanjavur, endowing it with
land for perpetual maintenance. The assembly for Agrahara villages was called Sabha or Mahasabha, representing
adult men in Brahmin villages and enjoying substantial autonomy. Village affairs were handled by Executive
Committees, with educated property owners elected through lot-drawing or rotation. The Uttarameruru Inscription,
issued by Parantaka Chola, provided insights into the election process for these committees.
Land Revenue in the Chola Kingdom- The imperial Chola dynasty witnessed significant agrarian expansion throughout
Tamil Nadu, particularly in the Kaveri basin. Numerous canals, such as the Uyyakondan Canal, Rajendran Vaykkal,
and Sembian Mahadegvi Vaykkal, date back to this period.Water Tanks- A well-organized and highly efficient water
management system existed from the village level upward.Increased royal patronage, along with the expansion of
Devadana and Bramadeya lands, elevated the role of temples and village assemblies in water management.
Committees such as Eri-Variyam (tank committee) and Totta-Variyam (garden committees) were active, along with
temples utilizing their extensive resources in land, labor, and finances. Cholas, for tax assessment, conducted
extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Rajaraja I, Kulottunga I, and Kulottunga III, among other Chola
kings, appointed officers for land surveys to classify and assess land for taxation purposes. The land revenue
department was known as Puravuvari-Tinaikkalam, and various units of land measurement, such as Kuli, Ma Veli,
Patti, Padagam, etc., existed. Tax rates were determined based on soil fertility and the status of peasants. Tolls and
Taxes - During the Chola period, tolls and customs were imposed on goods transported between places, various
professional taxes existed, dues were levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial duties, and fines
were imposed.
Religious Life Under the Chola Empire
Chola rulers were devoted followers of Shaivite beliefs, with Shiva as the primary deity represented in two forms. The
iconic form of Shiva was Lingodhbhava, and the Nataraja idol represented the human form, both worshiped during
the Chola period. During the Chola period, the foundation of a highly developed philosophical system known as Saiva
Siddhanta took place. Kulottunga Chola, a devoted Shaivite, gained notoriety for persecuting the Vaishnavites. The
Bhakti saint Ramanujan, in response, left Srirangam and settled in Melkote, Karnataka.
Society Under Chola Empire
In the social landscape of the Chola Empire, the process of Aryanization was further strengthened, and the
Sanskritization process commenced during the Chola period. The caste system was widespread, leading to a division
of caste into Idangai and Vadangai. Serious clashes between Shaivites and Vaishnavites were evident, and the
practice of sati, although occasional, was considered sacred.A new social issue emerged during this period known as
the Devadasi system, where dancers resided in temples to entertain the Brahmin class.
 Literature during the Chola period
In the realm of literature during the Chola period, both Tamil and Sanskrit languages thrived. Tamil literature was
hailed as the golden age, featuring notable works such as the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam, and Kannivana
Puranam in Chola records. Jayamkondar’s masterpiece, Kalingattuparani, serves as an example of narrative poetry
that distinguishes between history and fictitious conventions, describing events during Kulottunga’s war in
Kalinga.Some significant Tamil literary works include Kamban Ramayan by Kamban (Tamil Ramayana), Periyapuranam
or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar, Kalladam by Kalladanar, and Nalavenba by Pugalendi. Kesava Swami composed
the Sanskrit work Nannaranava Samkshevam.
Decline of the Chola Empire
The Chola Empire, once a formidable power in South India, witnessed its decline following the intrusion of the
Pandyas. The Pandyas progressively seized Chola territories, ultimately culminating in AD 1279 when the last Chola
emperor, Rajendra III, suffered defeat in battle against Kulasekhara Pandiyan. Despite its fall, the Chola empire left
behind a rich legacy in the Tamil country.

Chera Kingdom:
Also known as Keralaputras, the Cheras were situated to the West and North of the Pandya kingdom, with their
capital at Vanji or Karur, covering modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Udiyanjeral, an early Chera ruler, earned his title
from serving both armies in the Kurukshetra war. Pugalur inscriptions from the first-century reference three
generations of Chera kings, with Musiri and Tondi as crucial seaports. Romans stationed regiments in the Chera
region, specifically at Muziris (modern Cranganore), safeguarding their trade interests and even building a temple of
Augustus. Senguttuvan, the most prominent Chera king, earned the title “The Red or Good Chera.” His conquests
extended beyond the Ganga, invading Northern India. Senguttuvan’s military exploits, chronicled in the epic
Silapathikaram, recount his Himalayan campaign where he triumphed over numerous rulers from Northern India.
Notably, he is credited with constructing a Temple of Kannagi, the Goddess of chastity, and establishing the
renowned Pattini cult. Additionally, he earned historical significance by being the first to dispatch an ambassador
from South India to China. The Chera Dynasty or Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala during Sangam period.
Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. The emblem of the Cheras was ‘Bow
and arrow’. The Chera kings were also known as “Keralaputas” (sons of Kerala). Uthiyan Cheralathan is the earliest
known Chera ruler. His ruling base was in Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala. Whereas, Kulasekhara Alwar was the first
king of the later Chera kingdom, which later evolved into the Kulasekhara dynasty. For more than five centuries,
there was no trace of a Chera monarch, but Kulasekhara Alwar appeared on the scene, claiming to be a descendant
of the Chera. Most likely he ruled around 800 AD from Tiruvanchikkulam in the present state of Kerala and he ruled
for more than 20 years. Then throne was held by Ramavarma; Kulasekhara Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara
Koyiladhikarikal was his name. His tenure was marked by political turmoil and insecurity. He was the last ruler of the
Later Chera dynasty. The Pugalur inscription of the first century A.D. refers to three generations of Chera
rulers. Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan were the
famous rulers of this dynasty. Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd Century AD Among his military
achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many north Indian
monarchs. Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. After
the 2nd Century AD, the Chera power declined and we have little knowledge about its history until the 8th Century
AD. Everything that one knows today about the Cheras is through the texts of Sangam Literature. The most common
sources include the Pathitrupattu, the Akananuru, and the Purananuru.

Later Chera

The Chera Kingdom gained its importance from the 9th Century AD under King Alwar Kulasekhara Varman, who
succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in 800 AD. He established the Second Chera Kingdom from the new capital at
Mahodayapuram. Though he established the new kingdom but still his influence was constrained by the pre-existing
power of the Aryan-Brahmin settlements across his kingdom and the hereditary chieftains called ‘Naduvazhis‘.
The second Cheras allied with the Cholas against the Pallavas, and with Pandyas against the Cholas between 8-10th
Century AD. By the last centuries of their rule, Kulasekharas became an active ally of the Pandyas and Lambakannas
of Sri Lanka, against the raising Later Chola power.

Polity and Administration

The king was the most important and powerful person in this empire. But still his power was constrained by the
presence of council of ministers and learned persons of his court. The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of
the common men and to redress them on the spot. The next important institution was known as manram which
functioned in each village of the Chera kingdom. Its meetings were usually held by the village elders under a banyan
tree and they helped in the local settlement of disputes. The Manrams were the venues for the village festivals as
well. In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the members of the royal family set up residence at
several places of the kingdom (at Vanchi, Karur and Tondi). They followed the collateral system of
succession according to which the eldest member of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior
princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling king in the administration.

Religion

The Chera population followed the native Dravidian practices of worship. The worship of departed heroes was a
common practice in the Chera kingdom along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The people of
this kingdom used to assuage the war goddess Kottavai with complex sacrifices and ceromonies. The Cheras
probably worshiped this mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the present day form of goddess
Devi. A small percentage of the population followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. These three philosophies
came from northern India to the Chera kingdom. A small Jewish and Christian population also lived in the Chera
territories.

Economy

The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the Romans. The geographical advantages, like the
abundance of black pepper and other spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the
Arabian Sea and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to
Chera Kingdom in less than forty days, combined to produce a veritable boom in Cheras’s foreign trade. Muziris, the
famous sea port with two Roman regiments, was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras,
trade continued to bring prosperity to their kingdom, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to
the middle-east and to southern Europe.

Society

The Chera population was not divided into castes and communities. The Varna system had not taken a clear shape.
Social exclusiveness and un-approachability were unknown. Communities such as the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya and
Veta were held in high esteem by the rulers. These people educated and enjoyed social freedom and equality.
Women enjoyed a high status in the Chera realms. The royal queen had a very important and privileged status and
she took her seat by the side of the king in all religious ceremonies.

Art and Architecture

The Chera style of architecture is only one of its kind in Dravidian architecture, and their temples are mostly
octagonal or rectangular in shape, built with sandstones or granite. Their temples are divided into four
sections: vimanam, mandapams, gopurams, and garbhagriha. The gopurams, an imposing tower over the entrance,
were the tallest structures in the villages and towns where they were built. The temple was more than just a place of
worship. It was a place for socialising, education, and celebration, not just of the king’s battle victories, but also of
local functions and ceremonies such as marriages. The temple was also used as a sort of emergency storage facility,
and many temples also housed hospitals. It was a place where art such as music, dance, drama, and handicrafts, was
encouraged and flourished. The Thirunelli Temple, the Vadakkunnathan Temples, Kodungallur Bhagavathy
Temple and Kandiyur Siva Temple are its examples.

Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple

It was built in Kerala-style architecture during the Chera period when Lord Shiva was worshipped by Umadevi. This
temple falls under India’s archaeology, and it is one of the oldest Shiva temples in South India, built in the Thrissur
district of Kodungallur.
 Bhagavathi Amman Temple

This temple located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, is also known as Bhadrakali Amman temple and it is one of the 52
Shakthi Peetam temples. According to legend, Lord Shiva failed to keep his promise to marry her, and as a result, she
turned into a demon. The Navarathri, Kalabhavan, and Vaisakha festivals are all grandly celebrated here.

Mahavishnu Temple

It is located in Thrikkodithanam, Kottayam, Kerala, and represents five ancient shrines connected
to Mahabharatham. Kazhivetti Kallur, a strange form of art, is displayed between the pond and the eastern
entrance. It is kept as a reminder that the king bribed the caretaker and gained access to the temple, where he soon
became ill and died.

Literature of Cheras

The Sangam texts are a large body of Tamil works that describe a number of Chera rulers along with Pandya and
Chola rulers. The Pathitrupathu, Akananuru, and Purananuru are the most important literatures of the Cheras.
Silapathikaram was written during their reign, when Tamil poets, Paranar, and Kongar ruled. Some other literary
works of Sangam time which are common for the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas are Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar,
is considered the first Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights into the
time’s political and socioeconomic conditions. Pathinenkilkanakku is a collection of eighteen works on ethics and
morals. The most important of these works is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, a great Tamil poet and
philosopher.

Decline of Cheras

Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 AD, and ruled over them for a brief period between 855 and 865 AD.
During the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, the Chola Chera war (“Hundred Years War”) began. By the end of Raja
Raja Chola’s reign, the Cholas had annexed the entire southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the
Cheras.These prolonged wars had significantly weakened the Chera power and taking advantage of this chaotic
opportunity several chiefs of Cheras asserted their independence. Later, the Cholas consolidated control over a vast
area of the Chera kingdom. Rama Varma Kulasekhara, the newly crowned King, was confronted with an
unprecedented and chaotic crisis. He turned a large portion of his army into suicide squads (dubbed “the
Chavers”) and fought heroically. In the absence of central power at Mahodayapuram, the Later Chera kingdom’s
divisions quickly emerged as principalities led by separate chieftains. The post-Chera period saw the gradual decline
of Nambudiri Brahmins and the rise of the Nairs.

Pandya Kingdom

The Pandya Kingdom is centered around Madurai. Sangam literature and Megasthenes’ accounts mention the rule of
Pandyas, with one text highlighting a female ruler. Flourishing trade ties with the Roman Empire included sending
embassies to Roman Emperor Augustus. Pandyan kings were noted for Vedic sacrifices, with Mudukudumi as one of
the earliest rulers. Nedunjeliyan, a prominent Pandya king, accused Kovalan of theft, leading to the city of Madurai
facing a curse from Kannagi. The Pandyas embraced the Vedic religion and supported Brahmin priests. Their power
waned with the Kalabhras tribe invasion. The Pandyas ruled parts of South India, which now lies in the state of
Tamil Nadu. It was one of the three major kingdoms of the ancient Tamil Nadu, along with the other two
the Cholas and the Cheras. Pandyas were one of the Muvendars that ruled the southern part of India, though
intermittently, until the pre-modern times. The term Muvendar refers to a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for
the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Majority of information about the early Pandyas
comes from available literary sources. The capital of the early Pandyan kingdom was Korkai, a seaport on the
southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, but the capital was later moved to Kudal (now Madurai). The rule of the
medieval Pandya kingdom is well stocked with archaeological evidence.
 Later Pandyas

The early Pandyas lost their importance after their defeat to the Kalabhras, and fought back to power in the 6th
Century AD. They were again overwhelmed by the Cholas in the 9th Century AD, but the Pandyas continued to
struggle and climbed back to rule again in the twelfth century. The Pandyas enjoyed diplomatic ties with the Roman
Empire, the Greeks, the Chinese and the Egyptians. Marco Polo made mention of the Pandyan kingdom as one of
the richest he had ever seen, as did Megasthenes in his work the Indica, and the Chinese traveller Yu Huan. In the
fourteenth century, the kingdom met its end after an invasion by the Islamic Delhi sultanate. The invasion shattered
the Pandyan Kingdom beyond revival. The Pandyas subsequently became a part of the Vijayanagar Empire. The
word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word, ‘Pandi’ meaning the ‘bull’, and considered to be a symbol of
masculinity, strength and valour by the early Tamils. The early Pandyas are also said to have participated in
the Kurukshetra war, in which they ended on the side of the victorious Pandavas.

Political History

The history of the Pandya rule in the ancient times has not been clearly written. After the end of the Sangam period,
the first Pandyan Empire was established by Kadungon in the 6th Century AD by defeating the Kalabhras. Slowly
and gradually, the Pandya kingdom grew in stature after defeating the Kalabhras. However, the successors of
Kadungon were constantly battling against the neighbouring Cholas and Chera Kings. After the Cholas conquered
Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar, who were part of the Pandya clan, the Pandyas went into a period of
obscurity. Parantaka I, a Chola King destroyed the Pandya territories and defeated Rajasimha III. However, the
Pandyas did not give up and continued their struggle by forging various alliances with the Cheras and the Kings of Sri
Lanka in an attempt to free themselves from the Chola dominance. Under the army leadership of Aditya
Karikala, son of Paratanka Chola II, the Cholas defeated Vira pandya in the battle. Despite being assisted by the
Sinhalese forces of Mahinda IV, Pandyas were forced out of the territory and the Pandyas had to seek refuge on the
island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). This was considered as the beginning of the long period of obscurity for the Pandyas who
were replaced by a series of Chola Viceroys who ruled the Madurai from 1020 AD under the title ‘Chola
Pandyas’. The ‘Chola Yoke’ continued till the beginning of the thirteenth Century. The Pandyan rule was the
strongest in the thirteenth century. The foundation for a great rule was laid by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the
early thirteenth century. The period saw the expansion of Pandya Kingdom under seven major Pandyan emperors
who took the title ‘Ellarkku Nayanar’ meaning ‘Lord of All’. The power reached its apex under Jatavaraman Sundara
Pandya when the Pandyan Empire expanded from the Telugu regions on the banks of Godavari River to the northern
part of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Jatavarman Vira Pandiyan’s clan was later called as Kongu Pandiya and he was the first
Kongu Pandya King. The strong comeback of the Pandya dynasty was a result of weakening Chola Empire. The
successors of Kulothunga Chola II were either weak or incompetent. However, in 1311 AD, scenario changed when
Alauddin Khalji sent military reinforcements to Malik Kafur, after he captured Warangal and defeated Hoysala
Empire. Consequently, Madurai came under attack by Malik Kafur for its richness. After looting Madurai, Malik
Kafur marched up to Rameshwaram where he erected a mosque. The attack was followed by two more expeditions
by Khalji sultanate under the governor generals Khusro Khan and Ulugh Khan in 1314 AD and 1323 AD
respectively. These invasions destroyed the Pandya Empire beyond revival. While the previous invasions were
content with plunder, Ulugh Khan annexed the former Pandyan dominions to the Delhi Sultanate as the province of
Malabar.
 Polity

The records of Pandyas do not refer to a council of ministers or a court but they do talk about mantrins and
uttarmantrins. Uttarmantrins performed the tasks of sandhivigraha and was in-charge of Mandira-olai-nayagam
office which verified the written orders regarding grants. The Tennavan-apattudavigal were the King’s baron having
great authority in the Kingdom. They were the companions of honour or the King’s bodyguards. The army comprised
of soldiers who served under a commander. However, the King, being the supreme commander of the army,
provided direct leadership to the contingents of soldiers on several occasions. Matangajadhyaksha was an important
officer who supervised the elephants.

Administration

The territory of Pandyas is called Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly
regions and mountain ranges except the areas fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni . Pandya kings
preferred Madurai as their capital. The empire was classified into three administrative divisions; Nadu, Kurram and
Gramam. While Nadu was the larger unit of local administration, the basic unit of local administration was Gramam.
Land grants were given to the temples and Brahmans. The grants consisted of various rights including that of
cultivation and administrative rights. Inscriptions give us information about village assemblies and their ways of
functioning. As per the inscriptions, the administrative personnel of the Pandyas comprised of Evi Mudal (keeper of
original orders), Vaykketri Pantarappottakam (keeper of royal register and adhikari). It appears that the records
regarding sanction of land grants and other orders were kept in the capital and officers in the localities were directed
to implement the King’s order.

Political Aspects

Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai during the Pandya reign and the royal couches
they used were named after the local chiefs, which attested to the legitimacy of the overlordship of the kings The
political division of land was as follows: The land assigned to Brahmins was Salabogam, The land assigned to
Ironsmiths was called Tattarkani, The land assigned to Carpenters was known as Taccu-maniyam, The land donated
to the Brahmin group for imparting education was called Bhattavriutti.

Religion

Pandyas followed the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests. Initially, the Pandyas were devout
followers of the Shaivism. However, after the Kalabhras invasion, Jainism started gaining popularity. Later, during
the Bhakti movement, Shaivism and Vaishnavism resurfaced. The Pandyas claimed to have descended from Lord
Shiva and Goddess Parvathi. Some of the Pandya rulers also performed the ceremonies called Hiranyagarbha,
Tulabhara and Gosahasra to legitimize their political authority.

Economy

Being located in the coastal region, the Pandyas wielded control over the fisheries and the related trade activities in
the region. Also, the pearls from the Pandyan kingdom were of great demand in the kingdoms of north India.
Consequently, the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade. The pearl trade was centred in the Pandyan
port city of Korkai. Even the royal chariots and the horses that dragged them were decked with pearls. A scholar
named Wassaff claims that the trade of horses was very common during this period. The busiest port town under
the Pandyas was Kayalpattinam (now in Thoothukudi district). The empire earned huge revenue through taxation. In
addition to the cultivated lands, even the temples were subjected to taxation. The looms and shopkeepers also paid
taxes to the empire. At times, the villagers were harassed by the tax officials and were made to pay high taxes. Due to
high taxation, some of the peasants fled from the villages. The copper plate records of the Pandyas contain
inscriptions in Tamil and Sanskrit. However, the Tamil inscriptions of the Pandyas contain comprehensive genealogies
which suggest that the Pandyas had local moorings. The Sangam poem Maduraikkanci by Mankudi
Maruthanaar described Madurai and the pandya Kingdom under the rule of Nedunj Cheliyan III. Nakkirar described
the King’s palace in his work the ‘Nedunalvadai’. The poems in Purananuru and Agananuru collections of the third
century BC praised various Pandyan emperors.

Coinage

Early Tamilakam coins featured the Three Crowned Kings, a tiger, a fish, and a bow, which represented the Cholas,
Pandyas, and Cheras. Pandya coins bear the legend of various Pandya rulers at various times. During the early
period, the Pandyas issued silver punch-marked and die-stricken copper coins. The Pandya rulers of this period were
credited with a few gold coins. These coins featured the image of a fish, either alone or in pairs, as their emblem.
Some of the coins bore the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya, or simply the letter ‘Su.’ Some of the coins featured a
boar and the legend ‘Vira-Pandya.’ Pandya coins were essentially square. On one side of the coins, an elephant was
etched, while the other side was left blank. During the Pandyas, the inscriptions on silver and gold coins were
in Tamil-Brahmi, while copper coins bore Tamil legends. The Pandya coins with fish symbols were known
as ‘Kodandaraman‘ and ‘Kanchi’ Valangum Perumal’. Aside from these, the word ‘Ellam Thalaiyangam’ was seen on
coins depicting a standing king on one side and a fish on the other. The words ‘Samarakolahalam’ and
‘Bhuvanekaviram were discovered on coins depicting a Garuda, ‘Konerirayan‘ on coins depicting a bull, and
‘Kaliyugaraman‘ on coins depicting a pair of feet.

Art and Architecture

The Pandyan architecture consisted of the rock-cut as well as structural temples. The temples were characterized by
the presence of Vimana, Mandapa and Shikhara. The Shiva temples have a Nandi in front of the Maha Mandapa.
Gopurams, the rectangular entrance and portals of the temples, were developed on Vimanas. Gradually, the
Gopurams were given more importance than the Shikharas. The Meenakshi temple located in Madurai
and Nellaiappar temple in Tirunelveli were built during the rule of the Pandyas. A few fragmented layers of mural
paintings can be seen at the Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvassal. The paintings are visible on the
ceilings of the shrines, in verandas and on the brackets.

Importance of Dynasty

One of the most ancient dynasties of South India, the Pandyas played a vital role in the development of civilization
in South India. They promoted the Brahmanic traditions but remained tolerant towards other religions. Also, the
Pandyas made a significant contribution to Tamil literature, especially in Tamil and Sanskrit languages. Some of the
great poems of ancient times were produced in the Pandya reign.

Minor Chieftains
Beyond the major Tamil kingdoms, local chieftains known as Velirs ruled various parts of Tamil Nadu. Sangam
literature extensively details Velir leaders like Pari, Kari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay, and Nalli, with the Seven
Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal being the most renowned.

Sangam Administration

The Sangam literature sheds light on the administration during this period, highlighting a monarchy system. The
king referred to as Vendan, Ko, and Irai, held vast powers, seen as a representative of God. The king balanced
conquest with responsibilities for the people’s welfare, law, and justice, celebrated annually on his birthday
(Perunal). Sangam rulers such as Karikalan, Manu Needhi Cholan, and Porkai Pandyan were known for impartial
justice. Officials included Amaichar (Ministers), Purohitar (Priests), Thuthar (Envoys), Senapatiyar (Army
Commander), and Orrar (Spies).

Amaichcher

The amaichcher or minister was a very important official looked after the various administrative unit of the state.
The king employed many ministers and their duties were advisory. They were present in the court and advised the
king in matters on which they were consulted. Thiruvalluvar in his Thirukkural calls the ministers as Amaichchar and
Ulai Irundar. Kadiyalur Uruthiram Kannanar calls them as Amaichchar and Sutram. The post-Sangam
works Silappathikaram and Thirukkuralmake reference to ministers of various administrative units. The ministers
were famed because they were strangers to falsehood. It was their nature to give good and wise advice to the kings.
There was no definite commitment that the ministers should be selected from any particular community.

Purohitar

The Purohitar of the king’s court were called Asan or Karuma Vinainanor Andanars. All the rulers of the Sangam
period had Purohitar in their court. The kings respected them and seek their advice in the emergency situations. A
Chola king who once so far forgot himself to offend such a Purohitar promptly expressed his regret and the poet
had the good grace to appreciate the character of the prince.

Senapatiyar

The Senapatiyar or Senapati was important official, who controlled and administered the army force of the state.
Under his control the army like infantry, the cavalry, the elephantry, and the chariotry actively participated in
warfare for the safeguard of the state. The Senapati who rallied the army around the banner and he continued the
fight under his leadership. The Senapatis were so brave that they did not care even if arrows fell on them, even if
the elephants attacked them. These brave army chief were notable for a great quality and they were very
courageous in the battlefield.

Dutar

The Dutar or Ambassadors were representatives of one king in the court of another king. The chief qualification of
an ideal Dutar were pleasing manners, coming of a high family, kindness, expressiveness, a good and stately figure,
a good and high standard of education, ability to time his message without betraying fear or showing favour and
courage in the face of certain death. Dutu was a normal political activity; but they were busy during the war time.
Nachinarkkiniar says “the ministers, the priests, the generals, the envoys, and the spies are the five great
advisors” were busy in the execution of the central administration. In Sangam literature there are evidences to Dutar
and their activities. The most familiar instance of Dutar in the Sangam period is Auvvai’s dutu to Adiyaman
Neduman Anji. Purananuru gives many instances of Kovurkilar’s attempts to subdue royal anger and bringing about
reconciliation. It appears that the Ambassadors were not permanently assigned to foreign courts with regular
routine of political activity but were chosen and employed only when and if the need arose.

Orrar

The spies were employed by the king in large numbers. The spies of royal king were called Orrar and espionage was
called ‘vevu’ or ‘orru’. The slight distinction between ‘vevu’ and ‘orru’, the former is the report of the spies and
while the later refers to the act of espionage. Mostly the spies were employed during the war time. Not only during
war time but also during peace the spies were employed. Espionage was a permanent institution in early Tamil
society. The commentator Nachinarkkiniar notes that when spies brought information from enemy ranks they
were liberally rewarded. Some times Dutar also employed as Orrar. It may be maintained that officially the Dutar
were considered superior to the Orrar and that while king looked upon Dutar as part of his court he considered the
Orrar as part of his personal guards and information service.

Administrative Division

During the Sangam age each kingdom was divided into different administrative units. There divisions
were mandalam, nadu, valanadu and ur. The entire kingdom was called mandalam. There were major mandalams
viz. the Chola mandalam, the Pandya mandalam and the Chera mandalam, which indicates the geo-political
divisions of the Sangam dynasties. Nachinarkkiniar speaks of the four divisions of Tamil country the Chera, Chola,
Pandya and Tondai mandalams. Below the mandalam was a major division was nadu (province). The administration
of nadus was generally carried on by hereditary chiefs. The ur was a village which variously described as a big village
(perur), a small village(sirrur) or an old village (mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was
the harbour area. Kaverippumpattinam was generally known simply as Pattinam, which was the most popular
coastal town, involved in export and import during the Chola period. There were many commercial as well as
political centres mentioned in the Sangam texts, namely Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Musiri, Vanji or Karur, and
Kanchipuram. Among these we get detailed account of Puhar, Maduraiand Kanchipuram. It can be noted that
the account of Madurai in Maduraikkanchi and that of Puhar in Pattinappalai are all stereotyped and do not much
different from each other.

Village Administration
The village was the fundamental unit of administration. Generally the village managed its own affairs. Generally the
term ‘ur’ stands for village. The village affairs were managed by manram, podiyil, ambalam and uravai. The
manram (general assembly) and podiyil and the ambalam seem to synonymous terms; and one understands that
the small village met there to transact local business. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri treats the manram as a hall and the
podiyil as a common place. The commentator says manram the foot of the tree in the centre of the village for the
people to come and sit down and equates podiyil with ambalam. The word ambalam is meaning by a small building
on a slightly raised platform. The term ‘podiyil’ is derived from ‘podu’ and ‘il’, meaning common place.
Nachinarkkiniar explains podiyil also as a place where any body could worship. The podiyil was cleaned with cow-
dung paste and captive women were made to look after the maintenance. It was a village site, generally outside it
usually under a tree where people assembled to take rest, to chatter in consequentially, to talk responsible politics,
to constitute the forum for village opinion for politico judicial purposes. The foot of the Margosa tree supplied an
ideal venue for the manram as it is well known for its medicinal qualities. The village institutions of manram and
podiyil were concerned mainly with the arbitration of petty disputes arising in the villages. They had more powers
because there was no hierarchy of officials to whom appeals could be made and necessarily village elders exercised
ample powers. The village elders were not selected or elected. The people chose themselves and as they were
aged, influential and perhaps rich the others rarely objected to it. The entire Sangam kingdom was referred to as
Mandalam, with major Mandalams such as Chola Mandalam, Pandya Mandalam, and Chera Mandalam. Beyond
Mandalam, there was a significant division known as Nadu (province). Nadus were typically administered by
hereditary chiefs. Villages served as the fundamental units of administration, overseen by local assemblies called
Manrams. Ur, described variably as a big village (Perar), a small village (Sirur), or an old village (Mudur), functioned
as a town.
Revenue Administration
In the Sangam age, various kinds of taxes were known and collected. Out of that revenue, the king incurred his
private and public expenditures. A number of officials were appointed by the king to look after the revenue
affaires. The king levied the various taxes according to the customs. Unjust and unusual taxation, the demand for
forced gifts, etc. were not approved. Among the revenue of the state land revenue was the chief source of income.
The land tax was called irai or karai, but the share of the agricultural produces, claimed and collected by the king, is
not specified. The land tax was paid in cash or kind. The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as measure
of grain. It was considered to be the legitimate share of the king. The water charge was also levied from the farmers
to whom water was supplied from the reservoirs or canals for irrigation. Other important sources of income of the
state were tolls and customs duties, which were called as ulgu or sungam. The tolls and the customs were levied at
all the sea ports. Mainly the tolls were collected on the trunk roads and at the frontiers of the kingdom. The tributes
paid by the vassal chiefs and princes, the booty obtained during expeditions and the profits out of the forests,
fisheries, and elephants of the state also formed the income of the state. Booty captured in wars was also a major
income to the royal treasury. Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent
robbery and smuggling. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a variyam (vari meant tax) and an officer in-
charge of collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar. The Pattinappalai refers to the custom
officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Land revenue and customs duty on foreign trade were key sources of
state income. The royal treasury was supplemented by tributes from feudatories and war booty. Roads and
highways were actively maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Administration of Justice

The king was the repository of all secular power and was therefore the source of justice. He meted out justice with
the help of the ministers and Purohitars. It appears that the courtyard of the palace where the king’s official court
met, also served as a court of justice. Complaints were heard and enquired into and cases were decided. The Tamils
of the Sangam age had most of the simple paraphernalia required to maintain a judicial system. There was sense of
justice and administration of justice during the Sangam period . There was defined institution for the discharge of
justice, which is known as arakkalam, the place of justice administration. The king’s court was called avai, which
was the highest court of justice. In the king’s court learned men were assisted the king in judicial administration.
The village court of justice was manram, where the village level problems were settled by the elders of the society.
A clear division was made between civil and criminal cases. The criminal cases were decided with the aid of witness.
The procedure was simple and justice was accessible to the entire population. The primitive system of trial by
ordeal existed. Though it is not appealing to modern reasoning, it was applied on the firm faith in super natural help
or participation. The punishments were very severe. It was disciplinary in nature. Exclusion and similar punishments
were very common. Death penalty was given even for theft. Imprisonments and fines were minor punishments. This
system though cruel in nature was effective in results. The threat of severe punishments is a standing warning,
where voluntary submission to law is paucity.

Military Administration

A well-organized military structure existed, with each ruler having a regular army comprising chariots, elephants,
cavalry, and infantry. Warfare was a major occupation of the ruling classes of the Sangam period. Generally war
started with the well known incident cattle-fighting. The incident was both a protest and a justification. There was
no dearth of wars in the Sangam age. The kings maintained armies and weapons necessary for it. The art
of warfare was fairy advanced. Methods of attack and defense were many and well-defined, well- understood and
well-practiced. The army was the mainstay of the royal might. The king was an integral part of the army. They spend
their most of their revenue for the maintenance of the army. Apparently out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry and other sources, the state maintained a rudimentary army and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen,
of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an important part in war. Horses were imported by sea into
the Pandyan kingdom. The institution of virakkal or nadukal (hero-stone), which was a practice of erecting
monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent at that time. The institution of Kavalmaram
or Kadimaram was also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great tree in his palace as a symbol of power.

Social Life
The society had divisions between Brahmins and Non-Brahmins, with Tamil Brahmins forming a respected and
learned community, often living separately. Many kings treated them with great courtesy. Trade was common
among Vaishyas and Villas. Learning, agriculture, and performing sacrifices were considered the prescribed duties of
a Vaishya. The practice of untouchability was present, and those considered untouchables were known as Parriyas.
Sangam society was regarded as advanced and civilized, emphasizing education as a widespread social activity.
Tolkappiyam referred to the five-fold division of lands: Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai
(pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), and Palai (desert). Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas,
Nagas, and Vedars coexisted during this period. Income from trade, war booty, and agricultural produce enabled the
king to maintain groups of professional warriors and also to pay the bards and priests who were largely brahmanas.
The brahmanas first appear in the Tamil land in the Sangam age. An ideal king was one who never hurt the
brahmanas. Many brahmanas functioned as poets, and in this role they were generously rewarded by the king. The
kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts. The warrior class was an important element in
the polity and society. The captain of army were invested with the title of enadi at a formal ceremony. However we
have no clear idea about the vaishyas. Civil and military offices were held under both the Cholas and Pandyas by
vellalas or rich peasants . The ruling class was called arasar, and its members had marriage relations with the vellalas,
who formed the fourth caste. They held the bulk of the land and thus constituted the cultivating class divided in to
rich and poor. The rich did not plough the land themselves but employed labourers to undertake this. Agricultural
operations were generally the task of members of the lowest class. Some artisans were not differentiated from
agricultural labourers. The pariyars were agricultural labourers who also worked with animal skins and used them as
mats. Several outcastes and tribes suffered from extreme poverty and lived from hand to mouth. We notice sharp
social inequalities in the Sangam age. Food and Dress Traditions- The staple food during this period was rice. Food
habits varied based on economic status, with other chief articles including grain, meat, and milk products. Grain was
dried and turned into flakes called Aval. A luxury food item was the rice cake soaked in milk, known as Apupa or
Appam. Dressing traditions varied based on social status, with wealthy individuals wearing silk and fine cotton
garments. The middle class and common people generally wore two pieces of cloth made of cotton. Both men and
women adorned themselves with a variety of ornaments made of gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones. Women in
the society were particular about their hairstyles, often adorning them with flowers like jasmine and lotus.
Position of Women
The status of women in Sangam society was unequal compared to men, despite women enjoying various freedoms.
Women poets like Avaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished during this period. Polygamy was
prevalent in society, and prostitutes and dancing girls lived in urban areas and towns, commanding respect. Female
ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain traditions, such as Kaundi Adigal and Manimekalai, were present. A large
number of courtesans also played roles in society. Arundhati, a character in Sanskrit literature, served as a model for
South Indian women during the Sangam age. The worship of Kannagi (the Chaste Lady) was an early institution and
an extension of the worship of the Goddess of Chastity. Economic Engagement: Women in Sangam society were not
confined to domestic spheres; instead, they actively participated in crucial economic activities such as agriculture,
weaving, pottery, and trade, playing pivotal roles in family and community sustenance. Literary Legacy: Enriched by
women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar, Sangam literature explored diverse themes including
ethics and life challenges, showcasing the literary prowess of women. Cultural Influence: Women poets like Avvaiyar
exerted a profound influence on culture and ethics, emphasizing virtuous living and significantly shaping the moral
fabric of society. Independent Agency: Sangam poetry portrayed women as independent agents, engaging in
conversations, expressing desires, and making decisions, challenging traditional gender roles. Cultural and Religious
Roles: Women held cultural and religious significance, actively participating in rituals, ceremonies, and cultural
events, often contributing as dancers and musicians. The worship of the goddess of battle, ‘Kotravai,’ indicated
women’s association with bravery and strength even in times of conflict. Literary Prowess: Sangam literature
celebrated women poets such as Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkai Padiniyar, highlighting their literary excellence
and intellectual capabilities, thereby showcasing women’s significant contributions to Tamil literature. Ethical and
Moral Teachings: Female poets, particularly Avvaiyar, were known for imparting moral teachings and ethical values.
Their poems emphasized the importance of virtuous living and ethical conduct, influencing the cultural and ethical
landscape of the time. Expression of Emotions: Sangam poetry, including verses authored by women, vividly
expressed a wide range of emotions and feelings, providing insight into women’s thoughts, desires, and emotional
experiences, reflecting their emotional richness. Love and Relationships: Sangam poetry frequently portrayed
women as active participants in love and marriage, challenging traditional gender norms by depicting women with
agency in choosing their life partners. Courage and Independence: The poems highlighted the courage and
independence of women, particularly in the context of love and relationships. Women’s voices were assertive and
fearless, showcasing their independent agency.

Economic Life
The Sangam economy was largely self-sufficient, with agriculture being the primary occupation. Chief crops
included rice, cotton, millet, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, and cinnamon. Land was categorized
as Vanpulam (non-agrarian) and Menpulam (Agrarian). Ulavar and toluvare were referred to as tillers of
Menpulam. Irrigation methods like tank irrigation (ayam) and minor dam (Sinai) were employed. Land tax, known
as Karai, was a common and significant source of revenue, but the specific share claimed and collected by the king
was unspecified. Measures of land included Ma and Veli, while Kalam was considered a measure of grain. Variyam,
a well-known unit of territory yielding tax, had an officer called a Variyar in charge of tax collection. Tolls and
custom duties were referred to as Ulgu or Sungum, and duties paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai
or Paduvadu. The barter system was prevalent as a medium of exchange, and Pattinam served as a center for long-
distance trade. Weaving, ship-building, metalworking, carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making, ivory product
crafting, tanning, etc., were widely practiced handicrafts. The marketplace was known as Avanam, and craft and
industry thrived due to increased demand in overseas markets. Taniyurs, developed from major Brahmadeyas and
temple settlements, included several hamlets and revenue villages. Eripatti, a special category of land, contributed
revenue for the maintenance of the village tank. Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most
common crop. The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of
ornaments using beads, stones and ivory. These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was
at its peak during the Sangam period. A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk
clothes. These were in great demand in the western world especially for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port containing
precious goods. Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam. Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and
Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade. Major exports of the Sangam age
were cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products,
pearls and precious stones. Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.

Foreign Trade
Foreign trade occurred between South India and Hellenistic kingdoms such as Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, and
the Malay Archipelago. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provided valuable information about trade between
India and the Roman Empire. Leading ports during the Sangam period included Naura, Tyndis, Muzuris, and
Nelcynda. Exports to the Roman Empire included pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spike-nard, precious stones, and
tortoiseshell. Silk, a significant export, was considered highly valuable, with the Roman Emperor Aurelian declaring
it worth its weight in gold. The Romans sent a large number of gold and silver coins to India and exported items
like Amphorae wine and red glazed Arretine-ware to India, found at Arikamedu (modern-day Puducherry). Many
gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero have been found in
all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade. Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and
spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products, pearls and precious
stones. Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.

Religious Life
Religious practices were influenced by rituals and animism, with a planted log of wood called Kandu serving as an
object of worship. Brahmanism gained popularity in Sangam kingdoms, particularly in the northern part of India,
and kings performed Vedic Yajnas. A special festival dedicated to the Vedic God Indra was instituted in Puhar.
Deities like Korravai (Goddess of Victory) and Murugan were worshipped. Three strands of religion, marked off from
each other, were discernible during the Sangam period: Indigenous gods and systems of worship, Exotic Hindu
Gods and systems of worship, Exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions. The primary deity of the Sangam
period was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the
festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature. Murugan was honoured with six abodes
known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan
(Indiran), Varunan and Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and
was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors in the battle.

Sangam Literature
The age of Tamil literature, often referred to as Sangam literature, holds a special place as Tamil stands out as the
oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. This literary tradition delves into secular subjects related
to public and social activities, encompassing themes such as government, war, charity, trade, worship, and
agriculture. The Sangam literature can be broadly categorized into two groups: narrative and didactic, offering a
unique secular perspective with major themes revolving around love, revenge, and poetry. Notable poets and
thinkers from the Sangam era include Tolkappiyar, Tiruvalluvar, Ilango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar,
Paraner, Auvaiyar, and Mangudi Marudanar.
Earliest Tamil Works
Tolkappiyam: The oldest surviving Tamil grammar, written by Tolkappiyar (one of the 12 disciples of sage Agastya). It
is divided into three major parts, each consisting of nine years (sub-parts), totaling 1612 sutras. Pattupattu (Ten
poems): The poetry in Pattupattu is classified into two main groups: Aham (dealing with matters strictly limited to
subjective experiences like love) and Puram (dealing with matters capable of externalization or objectification).
Works like Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar), Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattanar), Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by
Mangudi Marudam), Pattinappalai (by Kannan), and others fall under the category of Pattupattu. Ettutogai: A
collection of eight anthologies including Aingurunuru, Agananuru, Narrinai, Kuruntogai, Purananuru, Kalithogai,
Paripadal, and Padirruppattu.
Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works)
These works, considered minor due to their shorter form, include the significant Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, known as
the Bible of the Tamil land. Tirukkural combines elements of Dharmashastra, Arthashastra, and Kamasutra.
Translated into English by Dr. A. Dakshinamurthy in 2010, these works primarily focus on morals and ethics.
Book Author Significance

Various poets (mainly Jain The most important ancient didactic text in Tamil is next
Naladiyar
monks) after Tirukkural.

Contains one hundred songs, and each poem has four

Nankakatigai Vilambi Naganaar
ideas.

Inna Narpathu Kapilar Describes the most undesirable things one should avoid.

Iniyavai Narpathu Putham Sernthanar Explains the most desirable things in life.

Deals with the intangibles of life, such as human

Kaar Narpathu Kannankoothanaar
emotions, love, separation etc.
Kalavazhi Narpathu Poigayaar Deals with the puram (external) subjects.

Ainthinai Aimpathu Kannankoothanaar Deals with the aham (internal) subjects

Tiṉaimozhi Aimpatu Kannan Chenthanaar Deals with the aham (internal) subjects

Aintinai Eḻupatu Muvathiyaar Deals with the subjective (aham) concepts.

Tiṇaimālai
Kanimeytaviyar Deals with the subjective (aham) concepts.
Nūṟṟaimpatu

Thirukkural Thiruvalluvar Discusses epics, love, polity and governance.

Tirikaṭukam Nallathanaar Uses the analogy of traditional herbal medicine.

Concerned with personal rituals and the correct method

Acharakkovai Peruvaayin Mulliyaar
to follow.

Pazhamozhi Nanuru Munrurai Araiyanaar Employs old Tamil proverbs to illustrate its messages.

Siruppanchamulam Kariyaasaan Uses the analogy of traditional herbal medicine.

Employs a simple poetic style to enable the layperson to

Muthumozhikkanchi Mathuraikkoodalaar Kilaar
understand the messages.

The analogy of traditional herbal medicine known

Elathi Kani Methaviyar
as elathi is used.

Kainnilai Pullangkaathanaar Deals with the subjective (agam) concepts.

The Epics
The epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the Christian era.
Silappadikaram: Written by Ilango Adigal in the 2nd century AD, it narrates the tragic story of Kovalan, a merchant
from Puhar, who falls in love with the dancer Madhavi, leading to revenge by his wife Kannagi. The epic initiates the
Kannagi cult, venerating Kannagi as the true wife. There is also a reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being
present on the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi Goddess in the temple, by Chera king Senguttuvan.
Manimekalai: Penned by poet Sattanar, this epic continues the story of Manimekalai, daughter of Kovalan and
Madhavi. The primary aim of this epic is to showcase the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the painful life
of Manimekalai due to the loss of the city, Puhar. It stands as an essential ancient work providing a glimpse into the
development of fine arts in the Sangam age.
Epic Author Feature

- Describes the story of Kovalan and Kannagi.

- Gives insight into contemporary Tamil society, polity and social life of the
Silappadikaram Ilango Adigal
people.

- Called the Iliad of Tamil Literature.

- Sequel to Silappadikaram, where Manimekhlai is the daughter of Kovalan,

born to Madhavi (she becomes a Buddhist monk).

- It contains useful details about the Sangam government and society.

Manimekhlai Seetalaisattanar
- Related to philosophical topics and Buddhism in South India.

- Called the Odissi of Tamil literature.

 - Related to the life of Jivaka, who marries eight queens and later becomes
Jivaka a Jain monk. (associated with Jainism)
Tiruttakrdeva
Chintamani
- Also called the Book of Deity and Manannul (Book of Marriages).

- Story of a son and father, where the father left before the birth of the son,
and the son seeks his father
Valayapathi Tamil Jain monk
- Supported the ideologies found in early Jainism

- A story about love, marriage, getting tired of the married partner, murder
and then discovering religion.
Kundalakesi Nathakuthanaar
- Related to Buddhism.

The commercial ties between the West and South India are mentioned by Greek authors like Megasthenes, Pliny,
Strabo, and Ptolemy. The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings in the southern region of the Mauryan empire are
mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions Tamil
kingdoms.
Art Forms

Among the Sangam people, poetry, music, and dance held prominent positions. Monarchs, chieftains, and the
nobility generously rewarded poets for their contributions. Two singing bards, Panar and Viraliyar, graced the royal
courts, showcasing mastery in traditional tunes and dances. Music and dance flourished as highly developed arts
during the Sangam period. Various groups of performers included:Thudian players, skilled in the use of the thudi, a
small percussion instrument. Paraiyan is responsible for beating maylam (drums) and performing kooththu, a dance-
based stage drama, along with proclaiming the king’s announcements. Muzhavan, who played the muzhavu, a wind
instrument, signaling the start and end of the day and battlefield victories for the army. They also participated in
kooththu performances alongside other artists. Kadamban, adept at playing a large bass-like drum, the kadamparai,
and blowing a long bamboo instrument, kuzhal, theri thuthi (similar to the present naagasuram). Paanan, responsible
for singing songs in all pann tunes (specific tunes for each landscape) and mastering the yaazh, a stringed instrument
with a wide frequency range. These talented individuals, along with poets (pulavar) and academic scholars
(saandror), emerged from diverse backgrounds, showcasing their skills regardless of their native professions. The
Sangam age was characterised by the widespread popularity of poetry, music, and dancing. Kings, chieftains, and
nobles lavishly bestowed gifts upon poets. Panar and Viraliyar, two singing bards, were common performers in the
royal courts. They were experts at folk music and dance. Dance and music were both highly developed arts. The
Sangam literature makes reference to a wide range of yazhs and drums. Kanigaiyar performed dances. Koothu was
the most popular form of entertainment among the people. Sangam painters employed the painting
guidebook Oviya Nul to direct their creative endeavours.

End of Sangam Age

The Sangam period gradually declined towards the end of the 3rd century AD. For nearly two and a half centuries,
the Kalabhras occupied the Tamil land. Limited knowledge exists about the Kalabhra reign, during which Jainism and
Buddhism gained prominence. The Pallavas in Northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in Southern Tamil Nadu
eventually ousted the Kalabhras, establishing their rule. The Sangam period gradually declined at the end of the
third century A.D. For almost two and a half centuries, the Kalabhras occupied Tamil land.There is very little
knowledge about the Kalabhra reign. During this time, Jainism and Buddhism rose to prominence. The Pallavas of
northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas of southern Tamil Nadu pushed the Kalabhras out of Tamil Nadu and
established their reign.

Chapter-8

Post -Mauryan Period

 Introduction
The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the north were the Shungas followed by the Knavas.
In the Deccan and in Central India, the Satavahanas succeeded the Mauryas, although after a gap of about 100 years.
The Satavahanas are considered to be the same as the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. The use of the iron
ploughshare, paddy transplantation, the growth of urbanisation, writing etc. created conditions for state formation
under the Satavahanas. The early Satavahana kings ruled not only in Andhra but in north Maharashtra where their
earliest coins and inscriptions have been found establishing power in the upper Godavari valley, which currently
produces rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gradually the Satavahanas extended their power over Karnataka and
Andhra. According to some Puranas, the Andhras ruled for 300 years with their capital at Pratishthana (modern
Paithan) on the Godavari in Aurangabad district. The fragmentation of the Mauryan empire marked the emergence
of numerous regional kingdoms across India. Concurrently, the subcontinent experienced invasions from
diverse Central Asian and Western Chinese groups, including the Indo-Greeks, Scythians (Sakas), Parthians,
and Kushanas. These events brought India into closer contact with Central Asian politics and culture.
• UPSC Complete Notes
o
o
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
o
• Toppers Copies
o
o
o
o
o
o
• UPSC NCERT Notes
o
o
o
 o
• Current Affairs
o
o
• Solved PYQs
o
o
• Courses
• Events

Search

Home » UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Post-Mauryan Period

NCERT - Ancient History Notes

UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Post-Mauryan Period

by Edukemy Team January 24, 2024
The post-Mauryan period in ancient Indian history marks a pivotal era characterized by dynamic political changes,
cultural evolution, and socio-economic transformations. Aspirants preparing for the UPSC (Union Public Service
Commission) examinations delve into the intricacies of this historical epoch through meticulously crafted NCERT
(National Council of Educational Research and Training) notes. These UPSC NCERT notes on Ancient History provide a
comprehensive and structured overview of the significant developments that unfolded in the aftermath of the
Mauryan Empire’s decline. By exploring the multifaceted dimensions of political fragmentation, the rise of new
dynasties, economic advancements, and the interplay of diverse cultural influences, aspirants gain invaluable
insights essential for navigating the complexities of the UPSC examination and fostering a nuanced understanding of
India’s rich historical tapestry.

▪ The period which began in about 200 BC did not witness a large empire like that of the Mauryas, but was
able for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In Eastern India, Central India,
and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by several native rulers such as the Shungas, the Kanvas, and
the Satavahanas. In North-Western India, the most famous empire was the Kushanas.

•
UPSC Complete Notes
o
o
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
▪
o
• Toppers Copies
o
o
o
o
o
o
• UPSC NCERT Notes
o
o
o
o
 • Current Affairs
o
o
• Solved PYQs
o
o
• Courses
• Events

Search

Home » UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Post-Mauryan Period

NCERT - Ancient History Notes

UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Post-Mauryan Period

by Edukemy Team January 24, 2024

The post-Mauryan period in ancient Indian history marks a pivotal era characterized by dynamic political changes,
cultural evolution, and socio-economic transformations. Aspirants preparing for the UPSC (Union Public Service
Commission) examinations delve into the intricacies of this historical epoch through meticulously crafted NCERT
(National Council of Educational Research and Training) notes. These UPSC NCERT notes on Ancient History provide a
comprehensive and structured overview of the significant developments that unfolded in the aftermath of the
Mauryan Empire’s decline. By exploring the multifaceted dimensions of political fragmentation, the rise of new
dynasties, economic advancements, and the interplay of diverse cultural influences, aspirants gain invaluable
insights essential for navigating the complexities of the UPSC examination and fostering a nuanced understanding of
India’s rich historical tapestry.

▪ The period which began in about 200 BC did not witness a large empire like that of the Mauryas, but was
able for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In Eastern India, Central India,
and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by several native rulers such as the Shungas, the Kanvas, and
the Satavahanas. In North-Western India, the most famous empire was the Kushanas.
Prominent Dynasties of the Post-Mauryan Period
Shungas (185-73 BC)
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga Dynasty by assassinating the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, in 184 BC, as
corroborated by Banabhatta in Harshacharita. The Shungas established their capital at Pataliputra and Vidisha.
Information about the Shunga dynasty can be found in various sources, including Garga Samhita, Patanjali’s
Mahabhasya, Divyavadana, Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram, and Banabhatta’s Harshacharita . Pushyamitra Shunga also
faced an invasion by Kharavela, the king of Kalinga. Dhanadeva’s Ayodhya Inscription credits Pushyamitra with
performing two Ashwamedha sacrifices. Pushyamitra’s kingdom stretched from Narmada in the South to Jalandhar
and Sialkot in the North-West, including the city of Ujjain in Central India. In Malavikagnimitra, there is a mention of
the conflict between Pushyamitra and Yajnasena, the King of Vidarbha in Eastern Maharashtra, where Pushyamitra
emerges victorious. According to Buddhist tradition (Divyavadana), Pushyamitra is portrayed as someone who
destroyed Buddhist monasteries and places of worship. Despite this, the Shungas repaired the Sanchi Stupa and fully
constructed the Bharhut Stupa during their time. Patanjali, the author of Mahabhasya, lived during Pushyamitra’s
era. Bhagbhadra, an important king of the Shunga dynasty, saw a reduction of the Shunga territories to Magadha and
Central India during his rule. Heliodorus, an ambassador from Taxila, constructed a pillar in Vidisha in honor of God
Vasudeva (Krishna), synonymous with Vishnu, during the time of Bhagbhadra. Devabhuti was the last Shunga king,
murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva in 75 BC, according to Banabhatta.

Origin of the Sunga Dynasty

The Sunga Dynasty came into existence in 185 BCE, 50 years after the death of Emperor Ashoka, marking the
downfall of the Mauryan Empire.Pushyamitra Sunga, the first ruler of the dynasty, was an army general under the
Mauryan regime. After assassinating the last Mauryan ruler, Bidaratha, he established his own kingdom with
Pataliputra as its capital.Many historians suspect the defeat of Bidaratha as an internal rebellion. He also bravely put
forward a counter-attack to two Greek rulers namely – Menander and Demetrius. Pushyamitra’s rule lasted for 36
years and soon his son inherited the throne.

Rulers of the Sunga Dynasty

Rulers Years Features

Pushyamitra 185 BCE – 149 Founder of the Sunga Dynasty, who fought against the Kharvela of Kalinga and
Sunga BCE defeated them.

Agnimitra 149 BCE – 141 Known for his patronage of the arts and literature.
BCE

Vasujyeshtha 141 BCE – 131 Focused on consolidating the empire’s power

BCE

Vasumitra 131 BCE – 124 Expanded the Sunga Dynasty’s territorial reach
BCE

Bhadraka 124 BCE – 122 Known for his reign of prosperity

 BCE

Pulindaka 122 BCE – 119 Strengthened the empire’s infrastructure

BCE

Ghosha 119 BCE – 108 Further expanded the kingdom’s borders

BCE

Vajramitra 108 BCE – 94 Known for his religious tolerance and patronage of Buddhism
BCE

Bhagabhadra 94 BCE – 83 BCE The downfall of the Dynasty started

Devbhuti 83 BCE – 73 BCE Last ruler of the Sunga Dynasty

Achievements and Contributions of the Sunga Dynasty

Many conflicts and sacrifices took place for the dynasty to keep their reign. However, they eventually contributed to
the growth and prosperity of the nation. Patronage of Buddhism: The Sunga rulers greatly contributed to the
promotion and development of Buddhism. They constructed numerous monasteries, stupas and viharas, which
became centres of Buddhist teachings and pilgrimage. Art and Architecture: Under the Sunga Dynasty, art and
architecture thrived. The famous Satavahana lion capital, depicting four lions back to back, was created during this
period and is now the national emblem of India. Literary Contributions: The Sunga Dynasty witnessed a remarkable
growth in literature. The two most famous literary works are – By Sage Patanjali the Yoga Sutra and Mahahasya.and
By Kalidasa. Malavikagnimitram Infrastructural Development: The Sunga rulers focused on improving the
infrastructure of their empire. They built roads, canals, and irrigation systems all contributed to agricultural growth
and economic prosperity.

Decline of the Sunga Dynasty

The decline of the Sunga Dynasty can be attributed to various factors. Internal conflicts, weak rulers and invasions
from foreign powers gradually weakened the empire. The ruler Devbhutti, was assassinated by his own minister
Vasudeva Kanva around 73 BCE. Kanva Dynasty was established at Magadha from 73 BCE to 28 BCE. Furthermore,
regional uprisings and rebellions eroded the Sunga Dynasty’s control over its territories. Ultimately, the empire fell
to the incursions of the Kanva kingdom, bringing an end to their reign. The Sunga Dynasty had a significant effect on
the history of ancient India. They helped in the revival of Hinduism and since they had an orthodoxical Brahminical
approach, the Brahaman system also revived under their rule. From their origin as a successor to the Mauryan
Empire to their contributions in the fields of art, literature, and trade, they left a lasting impact. However, internal
conflicts and external invasions took their toll, leading to the eventual decline of this once-mighty dynasty.

Kanvas (75- 30BC)

Vasudeva, the minister of Devabhuti, established the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. A Vaishnavite, he used tax collections
for Brahmanical rituals and grants, with his reign confined to the Magadha region after surviving Indo-Greek
invasions. Bhumimitra, Narayana, and Susharman succeeded each other in the Kanva dynasty. The last Kanva king
was reportedly killed by Balipuecha, who founded the Andhra dynasty, later known as the Satavahanas.
The decline of the Sunga Dynasty can be attributed to various factors. Internal conflicts, weak rulers and invasions
from foreign powers gradually weakened the empire.

The decline of the Sunga Dynasty can be attributed to various factors. Internal conflicts, weak rulers and invasions
from foreign powers gradually weakened the empire.
 Satavahanas (130 BC-AD 250)
The Satavahanas, successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan region, were also known as Andhras, Andhrajatiyah, and
Andhrabbrityas in ancient texts. According to the Altareya Brahmana, the Andhras were referred to as the
degenerate sons of sage Vishvamitra. In the Nasik inscription of Balashri, Gautamiputra Satakarni is
called Ekabrahmana, meaning either an unrivaled Brahmin or the sole protector of the Brahmins.Two significant
Satavahana inscriptions, Nanaghat and Nasik, have been found in Maharashtra. Recent excavations in Telangana
have unearthed a large number of Satavahana coins and seals, indicating that Telangana was the heart of the
Satavahana Empire. The Nanaghat Inscription describes Satakarni I as Dakshinapatha Pati, suggesting that the
Satavahana influence extended beyond the Deccan.
Important Satavahana Rulers
Satakarni I

Called the Lord of Dakshinapatha, he conquered Western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada Valley), and Vidarbha (Berar).
After his death, the Sakas attacked the Satavahanas, pushing them out of Nasik towards the Andhra region.
Hala (AD 20-25)

Reigned for a brief but prosperous period. Authored Gatha Saptasati, an anthology of 700 erotic verses in
Maharashtra or Paisachi Prakrit.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 80-104)

Revived Satavahana power and known as Ekabrahmana. Considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty. His
achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik Prasasti by his mother Gautami Balashri.

Vasishtaputra Pulumavi I
He ruled for 28 years whose coins have been found in Godavari and Guntur districts. The old stupa at Amaravati was
repaired and ornamented with marble slabs during his reign.
Important Rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty

Rulers Features

Simuka (60-37 BC) Founder of the Satavahana dynasty.

Kanha (37-27 BC) Reign period mentioned in the Nasik inscription.

Satakarni I (27-17 BC) Son of Simuka, assumed the title of Dakshina Pathapati.

Hala (20-24 BC) Composed Gatha Saptasati in the Prakrit language.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106-130)

(AD 106-130) Regarded as the greatest ruler; achievements in Nasik Prasati.

Pulumavi (AD 130-154) Ruled for 28 years (second longest reign).

Yagya Sri Satakarni (AD 174-203)

(AD 174-203) Regained territories from the Sakas; longest rule.

Administration in the Satavahana Kingdom

The Satavahanas based their administration on the Mauryan model but on a smaller scale, involving multiple levels of
local rulers. The kingdom was divided into Janapadas, further subdivided into Aharas, and then into Grams. Local
administration was decentralized, with feudatories handling most affairs under general royal oversight.
Significant Officers

Rajan: Hereditary rulers, Rajas: Petty princes who issued coins in their names, Kumaras: Viceroy of provinces.,
Maharathis: Hereditary lords with the authority to grant villages and family ties to the ruling family , Mahabhojas:
Learned individuals in the court, Mahasenapati: Civil administrator/Governor., Mahatalavara: Important watchman.
Language in the Satavahana Kingdom
Most inscriptions and coin legends were in a Middle Indo-Aryan language known as Prakrit. Notably, Hala, a
Satavahana king, composed the anthology Gaha Sattasai in this language. Sanskrit was sporadically used in political
inscriptions, and bilingual coins featured Prakrit and Tamil.
Religion of the Satavahana Kingdom
The Satavahanas, with Brahmanical origins, made donations to both Brahmanical and Buddhist institutions. Despite
their Brahmanical roots, numerous Buddhist monastic sites emerged during their rule. The common people in the
Satavahana period did not exclusively support a particular religious group. The Naneghat
Inscription of Nayanika, found in a Buddhist monastic cave, mentions Satakarni I performing various Vedic sacrifices,
including Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, and Agnyadheya.
Economic Life in the Satavahana Kingdom
The rulers of the Satavahana Kingdom actively promoted economic expansion by focusing on intensified agriculture,
increased production of various commodities, and fostering trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Agricultural land saw a significant increase, thanks to the clearing of forests and the construction of irrigation
reservoirs. The establishment of new settlements played a crucial role in fostering commerce and crafts. Evidence of
increased craft production during the Satavahana period is found in archaeological discoveries at sites
like Kotalingala, along with references to artisans and guilds in inscriptions. The Satavahanas exerted control over
the Indian Sea coast, dominating the burgeoning Indian trade with the Roman Empire. Notably, the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea mentions Pratishthana and Tagara as two vital Satavahana trade centers.
The Pompeii Lakshmi
The ivory statuette known as the Pompeii Lakshmi was unearthed in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed in the volcanic
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. Believed to have originated from Bhokardan in Maharashtra within the
Satavahana region in the first half of the first century AD, it serves as evidence of Indo-Roman trade relations.
Significance of Satavahana’s Rule
The Satavahanas were referred to as Lords of the three Oceans, actively promoting overseas colonization and trade.
Under their rule, Buddhist art flourished, leading to the creation of beautiful and elegant forms found in the cave
temples of Western India and the surviving artifacts from the stupa of Amaravati, Goli, and Nagarjunakonda.
The Satavahanas issued a variety of coins in different denominations (gold, silver, copper, lead, potene), contributing
to the growth of currency and coinage. They were the earliest Indian rulers to feature portraits on their own coins.
Large settlements emerged during this period, especially along major rivers, contributing to significant expansion in
agricultural land through forest clearance and the construction of irrigation reservoirs. The societal position of
women improved, with inter-caste and foreign marriages being permitted. The growth of art, as seen in Amaravati,
Nagarjunakonda, Nasik, Karle, etc., established these locations as significant centers of artistic expression, with the
construction of the Southern gateway of the Sanchi Stupa as an example.
Ikshvaku Dynasty
Successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan region, the Ikshvakus ruled the Eastern Krishna-Guntur region, with
their capital at Vijayapuri (modern Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh) during the third and fourth centuries AD.
Historical details about this dynasty are limited, though the Matsya Purana identifies Ikshvakus as Shriparvatiya
Andhras. The Ikshvaku kings were Shaivites, engaging in Vedic rites, and also patronized Buddhism during their reign.
Ikshvaku Clan Origins
Ongoing debate surrounds the origin of the Ikshvaku clan. Numerous references provide insights into the emergence
and continuity of the dynasty.Inscriptions and Documented Activities- Ikshvaku inscriptions found in Nagarjunakonda,
Jaggayyapeta, Amravati, and Bhattiprolu. Documents activities such as donations, construction projects, religious
practices, and social outlook. Puranic Mentions- Puranas refer to Ikshvakus as Andhrabhrtyas (Andhra servants) and
Sriparvatiyas (Foresters).Sriparvatiya and Vijayapuri- In Ikshvaku inscriptions, "sriparvatiya" is linked to Vijayapuri
(ancient capital) as "Sriparvate Vijaypur." Possible ancient name for the Nallamalai Range. Lineage Claims- Kannada
poem Dharmamrita suggests Andhra Ikshvakus are descendants of renowned North Indian Ikshvakus. Authenticity
debated, possibly propagated to elevate the tribe's status. Mythical Descent- Andhra Ikshvakus believed claiming
descent from mythical Ikshvakus of Ayodhya, including Lord Rama, would endear them to subjects. Migration and
Sovereignty- Oriental scholars (e.g., Buhler, Rapson) propose a narrative of northern Ikshvakus migrating southward
and establishing sovereignty.
Art and Architecture
Dual Religious Beliefs- Ikshvakus is known for embracing both Buddhism and Brahmanism. Reflected in their art and
architectural projects. Inscriptions and Religious Practices: Records of donations for chaityas and viharas at
Bhattiprolu and Jaggayyapeta. Construction of temples during various rulers' reigns, showcasing syncretic religious
practices. Role of Ikshvaku Women- Inscriptions from Jaggapatteya, Kottampalugu, and Nagarjunakonda highlight
royal Ikshvaku women as major Buddhist patrons. Funding Buddhist construction projects. Cultural and Religious
Growth- Represents cultural and religious growth in the Krishna-Guntur region. Architectural Splendor- Mahachaitas,
viharas, and ornate temples, especially at Nagarjunakonda, showcase support for Vedic and Buddhist faiths.
Nagarjunakonda Excavations- Main site of Ikshvakus with advancements in architecture, religion, and sculptural
techniques. Ikshvaku Citadel- Prominent structure at Nagarjunakonda. Well-fortified with rampart walls. Includes
residential buildings, barracks, stables, baths, cisterns, and square walls. Speculated Palace Edifice- Unproven
speculation regarding an edifice near Nagarjunakonda as the Ikshvaku palace. Traces of a moat outside the edifice's
rampart support the hypothesis .ASI Stepped Tank Excavation- Stepped tank with water overflow mechanism
discovered at Nagarjunakonda. Originally featured a wooden superstructure with lamps and hooks, according to an
ASI study.
Sculpture
The Ikshvakus' sculptures represent a declining phase in the art tradition starting with Amravati and Jaggapatteya art
in the second century B.C. Ikshvaku art is considered the final chapter in the Satavahana art tradition, beginning
around 230 B.C.E. During Virapurushadutta's reign, early carvings lacked the vigor of mature Amravati tradition and
were in low relief. Stupas were plain, with no anthropomorphic depictions of Buddha, represented symbolically as a
wheel, feet, and throne with Swastika. The mature phase featured sculptures with delicate poses and subtle
expressions, often depicting Jatakas like the Mandhatu-jataka. Round figures appeared in the 11th regnal year of
Ehuvala Camtamula, evidenced by a mutilated Buddha image at Nagarjunakonda's site 9. An evolved phase is seen in
a long panel at site 106, dated to the 24th regnal year of Ehuvala Camtamula, featuring intricate depictions of
mithuna figures and scenes from Gautama Buddha's life. Other sculptures from this period show bold relief and
evolved features, including depictions of human emotions and expressions. Themes are drawn from Buddhist
literature, featuring over a dozen Jataka stories, including Sasa Jataka, Mahapaduma Jataka, Vessantra Jataka, and
Mahahamsa Jataka. Sculptures depict various scenes, such as Mara's attack and retreat, Muchalinda protecting
Buddha, and moments from the Lalit Vistara. The mature style of Ikshvaku art is prominent in the Brahmanical
tradition, showcasing intricately designed reliefs of Sati and Karttikeya sculptures carved in the ground. The secular
art tradition is visible in battle scenes on pillars, indicating military challenges faced by Vijayapuri, the capital city of
Ikshvakus, during the mature phase. Noteworthy scenes include the depiction of an elephant with a rider in King
Kulhaka-memorial Chamtapula's work.
Chedis

Following the decline of the Mauryan empire, Kalinga (present-day Odisha) gained independence and rose to
prominence under the Chedi dynasty. The kings of the Chedi dynasty are not well-documented, except for Kharavela,
who was the most significant and powerful ruler. His capital was Kalinganagara. The Hathigumpha inscription,
written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script, is the primary source of information about King Kharavela. In the
9th year of his reign, Kharavela built Mahavijaya Prasad on both banks of the river Prachi to commemorate his
victories in the North. During his 13th year, Kharavela undertook welfare schemes, including the construction of
caves for Jaina monks in the Udaigiri hills, specifically the Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha caves. In Kalinga (south
Orissa), Mahameghavahana Chedis established a kingdom towards the end of the first century BC. The title speaks of
the rulers’ power. The epithet Mahameghavahana means the ‘Lord of the Great Cloud’ who uses clouds as his
vehicle. It may mean that the kings were as powerful as Indra.

About Kharavela of Kalinga

Kharavela was the third and greatest emperor of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga. During Kharavela’s reign,
the Chedi dynasty of Kalinga ascended to eminence and restored Kalinga’s lost power and glory, which had been
subdued since the devastating war with Asoka. Kharavela might reinstate the Kalinga military. Within ten years, He
could achieve a series of brilliant victories, extending his suzerainty from the Northwest part of India to the farthest
extent in the south. Under Kaharavela’s generalship, the Kalinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade
routes linking it to the then Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Kamboja, Malaysia, Bali, Sumatra and Jabadwipa.

Administration of Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

The rise of a regular monarchy in Orissa under the Mahameghavahana dynasty marks the expansion of state polity
into new regions. This development represented a significant evolution from previous political structures and added
to the complexity of regional politics, especially as it posed challenges to the Magadh rulers. Kharvela’s
administration is noted for its military and administrative skills, which contributed to the consolidation of Kalinga as a
significant regional power.

Religion of Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

Kharvela was a notable patron of Jainism, actively supporting Jain monks and contributing to the construction of Jain
temples and monuments. However, his administration was inclusive and did not discriminate against other religions,
reflecting a policy of religious tolerance and harmony. This approach helped maintain social cohesion and stability
within the diverse religious landscape of his kingdom.

Society of Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

Kharvela’s reign brought notable advancements in infrastructure, including the enlargement of an irrigation canal
initially constructed by a Nanda king, which profoundly impacted agriculture and local prosperity. His substantial
expenditures on the welfare of his subjects, including public works and social projects, reflected a commitment to
improving living conditions and supporting the community. This benevolent governance contributed to the stability
and growth of his kingdom.

Economy of Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

During the Mauryan rule, Kalinga was largely in a pre-state phase, characterised by rudimentary economic structures.
The independent state under Kharvela saw significant economic development, including advances in infrastructure
such as irrigation. This period marked an acceleration in economic activities, including trade and agriculture, driven
by Kharvela’s initiatives and investments in public works.

Importance of Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

Kharavela inscribed the Hathigumpha inscription (elephant cave inscription) from Udayagiri in the 2nd Century BCE.
Hanthigumpha inscription on Udaygiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar gives a detailed account of Kharvela’s military
conquests. The inscription records the historical events of the reign in chronological order. It sheds light on political
episodes and Kalinga’s religious, cultural, and social conditions during that glorious period. It is presented in Kavya
style, using Prakrit as the language and Brahmi script, which is very similar to Pali. The Hatigumpha Inscription is like
the history of Kharavela as a king, a conqueror, a patron of culture and a champion of Jainism. The accounts are
corroborated by other historical evidence relating to contemporary times.
 Hathigumpha Inscription

• The Elephant Cave inscription, also known as the Hathigumpha Inscription, provides insight into King
Kharavela’s reign. It begins with the Namokar Mantra, a sacred Jaina chant, describing the king as the
“worshipper of all religious orders, the repairer of all shrines of gods.” The inscription, consisting of
seventeen lines in the Brahmi script, details King Kharavela’s expeditions, including the victory in Magadha
and the retrieval of a Jaina cult image taken by the Nanda king Mahapadamananda long before from Kalinga.
Bhagwan Lal Indraji is credited with the first authentic reading of the Hathigumpha Inscription in 1885. The
Hathigumpha Inscription (“Elephant Cave” inscription) is a seventeen-line Prakrit inscription inscribed
in Brahmi script in a cave called Hathigumpha near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. It was inscribed by the Jain king
Kharavela of the Kalinga kingdom during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Kharavela was a king of Kalinga in
present-day Odisha. He is believed to have ruled during the second century BCE. He was the best-known
king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty. He is believed to have been a follower of Jainism, although the
Hathigumpha inscription describes him as a devotee of all religions. He was well versed in the ‘Gandharva
Veda’ or the arts and sciences of music. The Hathigumpha Inscription contains a biographical narrative of a
ruler from ancient India’s eastern area, among other things. It also contains religious ideals, public
infrastructure projects, military expeditions, and their objectives, as well as socio-cultural
data. Paleographically, the inscription dates from the middle of the first century BCE to the beginning of the
first century CE. It faces straight towards the Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli, situated at a distance of about
six miles. The inscription is written in a type which is considered as one of the most archaic forms of the
Kalinga alphabet, also suggesting a date around 150 BCE.

Invasion from Central Asia

Indo-Greeks
The Indo-Greek kingdom, governed by over 30 Hellenistic kings, spanned North-West and North India from the
second century BC to the early first century AD. In 326 BC, Alexander III conquered parts of the North-Western
Indian subcontinent, establishing satrapies. In 303 BC, Seleucus ceded his North-Western territories
to Chandragupta. Demetrius I, a notable Indo-Greek king after Alexander, expanded Greek influence in India. He
conquered Southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab, establishing Sakala (modern-day Sialkot) as his capital.
Demetrius I sent armies for further conquests, with one section advancing to Pataliputra and another moving
southward along the Indus. Demetrius II oversaw territories between the Hindukush and the Indus. Menander I
Soter, a famous Indo-Greek king, extended his empire from the Kabul River Valley to the Ravi River and from the Swat
Valley to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan). Menander is best known for the Pali work “Milinda Panho” (The
Questions of King Milinda), a dialogue between King Milinda of Sakala and Nagasena, a Buddhist scholar and the
book’s author. Having embraced Buddhism, he became a patron of the faith and passed away in 130 BC, succeeded
by his son Strato I.
The Rise of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
The Indo-Greek Kingdom emerged as a result of the collapse of the Mauryan Empire in India. The first Indo-Greek
ruler was Demetrius I, who invaded northwestern India in 180 BCE. Demetrius I was followed by a series of Indo-
Greek rulers, including Menander I, who is regarded as the greatest of all Indo-Greek kings.
Menander I (165 BCE- 145 BCE)
Menander I, also known as Milinda, was the most famous of all the Indo-Greek rulers. He was a patron of Buddhism
and was known for his efforts to spread the religion in India. Menander I is also remembered for his coinage, which
was the finest and most sophisticated of all the Indo-Greek rulers. His coins depict Buddhist symbols, such as the
wheel and the lotus, as well as Greek gods and goddesses.
The Indo-Greek Kingdom Ideology
The Indo-Greek Kingdom was a blend of Greek and Indian cultures, which is reflected in their art, architecture, and
coinage. The Indo-Greek rulers adopted Indian religious practices, such as Buddhism and Hinduism, and their art and
architecture featured a mix of Greek and Indian styles. The Indo-Greek coinage was also a reflection of this cultural
fusion, with coins featuring both Greek and Indian motifs.
Indo-Greek Coins
Indo-Greek coins were a series of coins issued by the Indo-Greek kings who ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and northwestern India between the 2nd century BCE and 1st century CE. Here are some key points about
Indo-Greek coins: Indo-Greek coins were influenced by the Greek and Roman coinage systems and typically featured
the image of the ruling king on the obverse and various gods, goddesses, and symbols on the reverse.The Indo-Greek
kings issued gold, silver, and copper coins. Gold coins were the most valuable and were used for large transactions,
while copper coins were used for smaller transactions. The Greek and Roman influence are evident in the use of
Greek and Kharosthi scripts on the coins, as well as in the depiction of Greek gods and goddesses such as Zeus,
Apollo, and Athena. The coins provide valuable insight into the culture, religion, and political system of the Indo-
Greek kingdom. For example, some coins depict the king performing Hindu rituals or wearing a helmet with a
Buddhist symbol. Indo-Greek coins were widely circulated in the ancient world and have been found as far as the
eastern Mediterranean, suggesting that the Indo-Greek kingdom had extensive trade and diplomatic relations with
neighboring regions.
The decline of the Indo-Greek kingdom in the 1st century CE led to the cessation of coin production, and the coins
gradually disappeared from circulation. However, the legacy of the Indo-Greek coinage system continued to influence
the coinage of later dynasties in the region.
Contribution of Indo-Greek
The influx of Indo-Greeks left a lasting impact on the governance, society, religion, literature, and art of ancient India,
eventually becoming assimilated into Indian culture. The Indo-Greek legacy continued to influence the Indian
subcontinent for centuries, contributing to the adoption of the Greek language, and calendar methods, and shaping
numismatics. The Greeks introduced the concept of military governorship known as Strategos, and their influence on
Indian science was acknowledged by contemporary writers, with the Gargi Samhita describing them as god-like in
scientific achievements. They played a role in the development of Astrology in India. Indo-Greeks were pioneers in
issuing gold coins in India, a practice later adopted on a large scale by the Kushanas. Actively promoting Indian art
and literature, the Indo-Greeks extensively employed the Hellenistic art form known as the Greco-Roman style in
crafting Buddha images.
Sakas (Indo-Scythians)
In the second century BC, nomadic tribes from Central Asia and China invaded the region of present-day Kazakhstan,
prompting the Scythians to move towards Bactria and Parthia. After defeating the Parthian king, they migrated
towards India, becoming known as Indo-Scythians or Sakas. The Sakas crossed the Hindukush and ruled over Sind
and Saurashtra. Predominantly pastoralists and skilled horsemen, they often raided settled societies to acquire
grazing land and livestock. Mentioned in various Indian texts, including the Puranas, Manusmriti, Ramayana,
Mahabharata, and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali.
Rudradaman I
Rudradaman I, a notable Saka ruler, had matrimonial ties with the Satavahanas, Ikshakus, and Lichchhavis, as per the
Junagarh Inscription dated AD 150, the first Sanskrit inscription. The Junagarh Inscription recounts Rudradaman’s
victories over Satakarni and the repair of Sudarsana Lake by his governor, Sutivashakh, funded entirely by the king’s
exchequer. Successors of Rudradaman I included Damaghsada I, Rudrasimha I, Jivadaman, Rudrasena I,
Sanghadaman, and Damasena.
Vikrama and Saka Era
In 57 BC, during the Indo-Scythians invasion of Ujjain, the Malwa king Vikramaditya suppressed the uprising,
establishing the Vikrama Era as a calendar starting in 57 BC to commemorate the event. The Saka Era was later
adopted by the Government of India as the Indian national calendar, commencing near the vernal equinox of AD 78.
The Saka calendar starts on 22nd March each year, except during leap years when it commences on 23rd March.
Parthians (247 BC-AD 224)
The Saka and Parthians ruled different parts of North-Western and Northern India at the same time. The Parthians
came from Iran, and the first ruler in their line was Vonones. Gondophernes was the most significant Indo-Parthian
king, reigning from AD 19 to 45. An important inscription found in the North-Western area of Pakistan is the
famous Takht-i-Bahi inscription, discovered near Peshawar. The inscription, dated AD 45, mentions Gondophernes as
a Parthian ruler. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes the presence of Parthian kings in the Sindh region. Another
inscription from Takht-i-Bahi refers to the regional year AD 26 of Gondophernes.

Aspect Information

Capital Ctesiphon

Duration 247 BCE - 224 CE

 Aspect Information

Territory From the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf

Government Decentralized administration with local satraps

Military Renowned for skilled cavalry and expertise in mounted archery

Culture Fusion of Persian, Hellenistic, and Central Asian influences

Economy Flourishing trade along the Silk Road

Religion Dominant Zoroastrianism with tolerance for diverse beliefs

Art & Literature Exquisite silverware, vibrant textiles, and contributions to literature

Legacy Influential in shaping the course of ancient history

Notable Feature Expert in Mounted Archery

Timeline & History of Parthian Empire

Timeline Event Description

Foundation of
Arsaces I establishes the Parthian Empire, marking the beginning of a new
247 BCE the Parthian
political entity in the region.
Empire

171–138 Reign of Under Mithridates I, the empire witnesses significant expansion, consolidating
BCE Mithridates I Parthian influence in the surrounding territories.

The Parthians, led by the skilled general Surena, achieve a decisive victory
against the Roman general Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. This victory
53 BCE Battle of Carrhae
showcases the prowess of Parthian military tactics, especially their formidable
cavalry and archery.

1st The Parthian Empire experiences a period of relative stability and cultural
Period of Stability
Century growth during the 1st century CE. This era sees advancements in trade, arts,
and Growth
CE and intellectual pursuits.

The Parthian Empire succumbs to the rising Sassanian Empire in 224 CE. This
Fall of the
224 CE marks the end of Parthian rule and the beginning of a new chapter in the
Parthian Empire
history of the region.

Parthian Empire in India

The Parthian Empire, originating from Iran in the mid-3rd century BCE, was one of the major ancient Iranian
empires. It extended into various territories over its existence, including parts of the modern-day Middle East and
Central Asia. However, the influence of the Parthian Empire directly in India was limited compared to other
regions. The confusion about the Parthian Empire's presence in India often arises from the interactions and
overlaps between different historical periods and cultures, particularly in the regions of modern-day Pakistan and
Afghanistan, which were historically part of ancient India or closely connected through trade and cultural
exchanges.
Indo-Parthian Kingdom
The actual connection between the Parthian Empire and the Indian subcontinent is best represented by the Indo-
Parthian Kingdom. The Indo-Parthians were a group that established a rule in parts of today's Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and northern India around the 1st century BCE through the 1st century CE. They were essentially
Parthian nobility or military leaders who extended their control into the Indian subcontinent, establishing a
kingdom that was culturally and politically distinct but still influenced by Parthian customs and governance.
Key Points about the Indo-Parthian Kingdom
Foundation and Territory: The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares I, who is sometimes linked to
the legendary King Gaspar, one of the Magi mentioned in the Christian Nativity story. The kingdom included
territories in what is now eastern Iran, southern Afghanistan, and Pakistan, extending into north western India.
Cultural Exchange: The Indo-Parthian period was marked by significant cultural exchanges between the Iranian
plateau and the Indian subcontinent. Art, religion, and architecture saw influences from Greek, Parthian, and
Indian traditions, reflecting a rich cultural synthesis. Buddhism and Other Religions: The Indo-Parthians, like many
rulers in the region, were patrons of Buddhism, and their rule saw the spread of Buddhist art and practices. They
also contributed to the development of the Gandhara culture, known for its distinctive Buddhist art that blends
Hellenistic and South Asian influences. Economic Impact: The Indo-Parthian Kingdom played a role in the Silk Road
trade network, facilitating trade between the Roman Empire, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. This trade
brought wealth and cultural exchange, influencing local economies and societies. End of the Kingdom: The Indo-
Parthian Kingdom eventually declined due to internal strife, pressure from the Kushan Empire, and other local
powers. The Kushans, in particular, expanded their empire to include much of the territory once controlled by the
Indo-Parthians. In summary, while the Parthian Empire itself did not directly rule over large parts of India, its
cultural and political influence reached the subcontinent through the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, contributing to the
rich tapestry of South Asian history.
Capital of Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire, known for its flexible administrative structure and network of cities, did not have a single,
fixed capital throughout its existence. Instead, the Parthians used several cities as their capital at different times,
reflecting their nomadic origins and the empire's expansive territory. The most notable capitals of the Parthian
Empire included: Hecatompylos: Believed to be the first capital of the Parthian Empire, Hecatompylos (meaning
"Hundred Gates") served as an administrative and military center. Its exact location is uncertain, but it is thought
to have been situated in what is now northeastern Iran. Hecatompylos played a crucial role in the early stages of
the empire, serving as a hub for trade and military expeditions. Ctesiphon: Located on the eastern bank of the
Tigris River, near present-day Baghdad, Iraq, Ctesiphon became the most significant capital of the Parthian
Empire, especially during its later stages. It was part of the Mesopotamian metropolis area, which also included
Seleucia on the opposite bank of the Tigris. Ctesiphon was a major political, military, and economic center, serving
as the heart of the empire and hosting the royal treasury. Its strategic location made it a key point of contention
between the Parthians and the Roman Empire during their numerous conflicts. Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan,
Iran): Used primarily as a summer capital because of its cooler climate, Ecbatana was an ancient city that predated
the Parthian Empire. It was a significant administrative and cultural center, known for its wealth and architecture.
The Parthians utilized Ecbatana for its strategic position and its established infrastructure.
Administration & Trade
The Parthian Empire boasted a decentralized administrative structure. Local rulers, known as satraps, governed
semi-autonomously under the central authority. This system facilitated efficient governance and allowed for
adaptability to diverse regional needs. The Parthian Empire thrived as a vital hub along the Silk Road, the ancient
trade network connecting the East and West. This strategic location facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and
cultural practices. Major cities within the empire, such as Ctesiphon, were bustling commercial centers where
merchants engaged in trade activities. The Parthians actively participated in long-distance trade, connecting the
Mediterranean, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.
Culture
Parthian culture was a unique blend of Persian, Hellenistic, and Central Asian influences. Renowned for their
exquisite silverware, vibrant textiles, and sophisticated artistic expressions, the Parthians left a lasting cultural
legacy.
 Artistic Achievements
Silverware: The Parthians were renowned for their exquisite silverware. Skilled artisans crafted delicate vessels
adorned with detailed engravings, often depicting scenes of court life, mythological figures, and animals. These
artifacts not only served practical purposes but also reflected the sophistication of Parthian artistry. Intricate
silverware and metalwork. Textiles: Vibrant textiles were another hallmark of Parthian culture. Elaborate fabrics,
often dyed in rich colors, were used for clothing and decorative purposes. The intricate patterns and designs on
Parthian textiles reflected the diverse influences present in the empire.Vibrant textiles showcasing diverse artistic
influences. Architectural Contributions: While not as renowned as some other ancient civilizations, the Parthians
made notable contributions to architecture, especially in the construction of fortifications and palace complexes.
Cities like Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian Empire, boasted monumental structures, including the Taq Kasra, a
grand arch considered one of the largest single-span vaults of antiquity.
Religion
Zoroastrianism, the ancient Persian religion, was the dominant faith in the Parthian Empire. The Parthians upheld
the teachings of Zoroaster, emphasizing the dualistic nature of existence and the eternal struggle between good
and evil. Fire temples, a hallmark of Zoroastrian worship, were established throughout the empire. One notable
aspect of Parthian religious practices was their tolerance for diverse beliefs. Local cults and deities were
accommodated, allowing for a pluralistic religious landscape within the empire. This inclusive approach
contributed to social harmony and stability.
Literature
While not as prolific as some other ancient civilizations, Parthian literature included historical accounts, epic
poetry, and administrative texts. Unfortunately, much of it is lost to time, leaving gaps in our understanding of
their literary contributions.
Prominent Kings of Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire, spanning several centuries, witnessed the rule of notable monarchs who played pivotal roles
in shaping its destiny. From its founding by Arsaces I to its eventual decline, these kings left lasting legacies
through military conquests, political strategies, and cultural developments.
Arsaces I (r. 247–211 BCE)
Arsaces I, the founder of the Parthian Empire, initiated a new era in the region's history. Rising against the
Seleucid rulers, Arsaces I established an independent Parthian state, marking the beginning of a dynasty that
would endure for centuries. His military prowess and leadership paved the way for the Parthian Empire to emerge
as a dominant force in the Near East.
Mithridates I (r. 171–138 BCE)
One of the most significant rulers of the Parthian Empire, Mithridates I, ascended to the throne during a critical
period. His reign witnessed substantial territorial expansions, solidifying Parthian influence in the region.
Mithridates I's military campaigns extended the empire's boundaries and contributed to its economic prosperity
by establishing control over key trade routes.
Orodes II (r. 57–37 BCE)
Orodes II, a successor to a line of influential Parthian rulers, faced formidable challenges during his reign. Notably,
he confronted the Roman general Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. Orodes II's victory in this battle
demonstrated the military capabilities of the Parthians, especially their skilled cavalry and expertise in mounted
archery.
Artabanus II (r. 12–38 CE)
Artabanus II ruled during a period of internal strife and external pressures. His reign witnessed conflicts with rival
claimants to the throne, contributing to a degree of instability within the Parthian Empire. Artabanus II's
challenges foreshadowed the difficulties that would eventually lead to the empire's decline.
Vologases I (r. 51–78 CE)
Vologases I ascended to the throne during a turbulent time, marked by conflicts with the Roman Empire. His reign
saw a series of conflicts, including the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 CE. Vologases I's interactions with the
Roman Empire shaped the geopolitical dynamics of the region, highlighting the ongoing power struggles between
major ancient civilizations.
Vologases IV (r. 147–191 CE)
Vologases IV ruled during a period of relative stability and cultural growth within the Parthian Empire. His reign
marked a resurgence of the empire's fortunes, with notable achievements in trade, arts, and intellectual pursuits.
Vologases IV's diplomatic endeavors also contributed to peaceful relations with neighboring states.
 Parthian Empire vs Persian Empire

Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire, c. 550–

Aspect Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) 330 BCE)

Founded by Arsaces I in the region of Parthia Founded by Cyrus the Great in Persis
Origins
(northeast Iran). (southwestern Iran).

Covered modern-day Iran, Iraq, and parts of

At its peak, it was the largest empire in
Territorial the surrounding countries, including areas in
history, covering parts of three continents:
Extent the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Near
Asia, Africa, and Europe.
East.

Pasargadae, followed by Persepolis as the

Initially Hecatompylos, later Ctesiphon
Capital(s) ceremonial capital. Susa and Babylon were
became the primary capital.
also important administrative centers.

Centralized bureaucratic system with

Feudal-like system with semi-autonomous
Government provinces (satrapies) governed by satraps.
local rulers. Central authority was
Structure Known for efficient administration and
maintained by the Parthian king.
infrastructure.

Noted for their heavy cavalry (cataphracts) Utilized a diverse and multinational army,
Military and horse archers, employing hit-and-run including the famous Immortals unit.
tactics. Emphasized infantry supported by cavalry.

Significant in art and architecture, with Made major advances in architecture, road
Cultural
influences from Greek, Persian, and regional systems, and the postal system. Known for
Contributions
styles. Contributed to the Silk Road trade. monumental constructions like Persepolis.

Practiced Zoroastrianism but was religiously

Practiced Zoroastrianism with a policy of
Religion tolerant, allowing Christianity, Judaism, and
religious tolerance across its vast empire.
Buddhism.

Weakened by internal conflicts, succession Conquered by Alexander the Great, leading to

Downfall issues, and external pressures, especially the empire's dissolution and the
from Rome. Fell to the Sasanian Empire. establishment of Hellenistic states.

The Parthian Empire served as a significant The Achaemenid Persian Empire is celebrated
period of Iranian history, bridging the gap for its administrative innovations, cultural
Legacy
between the Hellenistic world and the rise of achievements, and influence on subsequent
the Sasanian Empire. empires in the region.
 Parthian Empire Vs Roman Empire

Aspect Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE in the West)

Covered modern-day Iran, Iraq, parts of At its peak, it encompassed the Mediterranean
Geographic
Turkey, Armenia, and areas in Central basin, including much of Europe, the Near
Extent
Asia and the Near East. East, and North Africa.

Initially Hecatompylos, with Ctesiphon Rome was the capital, though Constantinople
Capital becoming the most significant capital became the capital of the Eastern Roman
later. Empire (Byzantine Empire) after the division.

Feudal-like system with semi- Highly structured and centralized bureaucratic

Government and
autonomous local rulers under the system. The empire was ruled by an emperor
Administration
central authority of the Parthian king. with significant legal and political authority.

Renowned for heavy cavalry Featured a highly organized and disciplined

Military (cataphracts) and mobile horse archers army, with legions as the central military unit,
employing hit-and-run tactics. supported by auxiliary forces.

Blended Greek, Persian, and regional

Roman culture, including law, politics,
influences in art and architecture.
Cultural Influence architecture, and language (Latin), had a
Significant contributions to the Silk Road
profound influence on Western civilization.
trade.

Economy based on agriculture, trade Diverse economy based on agriculture, trade

Economic Basis (notably along the Silk Road), and tribute throughout the Mediterranean, mining, and
from semi-autonomous regions. taxes from provinces.

Practiced Zoroastrianism but was

Initially polytheistic, adopting a pantheon of
religiously tolerant, allowing various
Religion gods. Christianity became the state religion in
faiths like Christianity, Judaism, and
the late empire under Emperor Constantine.
Buddhism.

Engaged in several conflicts with Rome, Fought numerous wars against the Parthians as
Conflicts and notably over control of Armenia and part of its eastern expansions. These conflicts
Relations Mesopotamia, but also participated in were interspersed with periods of peace and
trade and diplomatic exchanges. trade.

Internal strife, succession disputes, and Gradual decline due to internal instability,
Downfall external pressures, especially from Rome economic difficulties, and pressure from
and later from the Sasanian Empire, invading tribes. The Western Empire fell in 476
which eventually overthrew the CE, while the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire lasted
Aspect Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE in the West)

Parthians. until 1453 CE.

The Parthian Empire is remembered as a

The Roman Empire has left a lasting legacy on
period of Iranian resurgence and cultural
law, language, architecture, and government,
Legacy flourishing after the Hellenistic period,
influencing the development of Western
serving as a bridge to the Sasanian
civilization.
Empire.

Conclusion
The Parthian Empire, with its military prowess and cultural richness, played a pivotal role in shaping the course of
ancient history. Its legacy is a testament to the enduring impact of a once-mighty empire that stood at the
crossroads of diverse civilization.
Kushanas
In the early first century BC, the Yuehchis (Yuezhi) abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and split into five groups or
principalities. They first displaced the Sakas and took control of Bactria (North Afghanistan). Gradually, they moved
into the Kabul valley, replacing the Greeks and Parthians in the Gandhara region and capturing Gandhara. They
occupied a significant part of the Gangetic and lower Indus basins, with the Kushan Empire stretching from Khorasan
in Central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Kujula Kadphises I, the ruler of one of the five principalities, united the
other four groups under his leadership. Kadphises I issued copper coins showing Roman influence. Vima Kadphises,
also known as the Kalhan, succeeded his father and ruled from AD 64-78. He adopted the titles Sachadharnathida4
and Dharmathida. The word Kushan is derived from the Chinese term Guishang, which was used to denote one
branch of the Yuezhi in ancient literature. Kushanas are one of the five lineages of the Yuezhi tribe that resided near
the Chinese border or in central Asia. In Chinese, they are referred to as Guishuang. They finally surpassed the
other Yuezhi tribes in power. In the first century AD, they pushed eastward towards India, defeating the Parthians
and the Sakas. The Kushans' dominion linked the Indian Ocean's seagoing trade with the Silk Road's commerce
through the long-civilised Indus Valley. The Kushans governed a realm that stretched from the Aral Sea through
present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India at its peak. The loose unity and relative
stability of such a broad area stimulated long-distance trade, bringing Chinese silks to Rome and establishing a string
of wealthy urban centres.

Kushana Rulers

Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I (AD 30-AD 80)

Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to build the groundwork for India's Kushan Empire. He consolidated his
control over Kabul, Kandahar, and Afghanistan. His son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80-AD 95) succeeded him and
expanded the kingdom into northwest India.

Vima Kadphises (AD 95-AD 127)

According to an inscription discovered at Rabatak, Afghanistan, he was the son of Vima Taktu and the father of
Kanishka. He has produced a significant quantity of gold coins. He was a Shiva enthusiast, as evidenced by the coins
he struck. A vast quantity of Roman gold coins discovered during this era attest to India's affluence at the time, as
well as the rising commerce with the Romans.
Kanishka (127 AD – 150 AD)

He was regarded as the greatest Kushan ruler as well as a renowned king of ancient India. Vima Kadphises' son.
Afghanistan, sections of Sindhu, Parthia, Punjab, Kashmir, parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras,
and maybe parts of Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar, and Yarkhand were all part of his realm (last three in modern China).
Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Kashmir, and Mathura were all part of his dominion. His dominion
comprised areas of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan as well. Peshawar, the called Purushapura, was his primary capital. He is
reported to have brought the Buddhist monk Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar after capturing Pataliputra. Parsva,
Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka, and Mathara were among the academics in his court. He was also a
fan of the Greek engineer Agesilaus. Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir at Kundalvana.
Although he was religiously tolerant, he patronised Buddhism. His coins include deities from India, Greece, and
Zoroastria. He was also an art and architectural patron. Under his leadership, the Gandhara School of Art prospered.
He also promoted the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which he was greatly responsible for spreading throughout
China. It's unclear how he died.

Kanishka & Buddhism

The Kushans inherited the Indo-Greek Kingdom's Greco-Buddhist traditions, and their sponsorship of Buddhist
institutions helped them to expand as a commercial force. Buddhism, patronised by the Kushans, spread to China
and other Asian countries along the Silk Road between the mid-1st and mid-3rd centuries. Kanishka is well-known in
Buddhist history for convening a large Buddhist council in Kashmir. Kanishka, along with his predecessors in the
region, the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda) and the Indian kings Ashoka and Harsha Vardhana, is regarded as
one of Buddhism's greatest benefactors.
Art
At the crossroads of the Kushan dominion, the art and culture of Gandhara established the traditions of Greco-
Buddhist art and are the best recognised manifestations of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct portrayals
of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they wear a tunic, belt, and pants and act as devotees to the Buddha,
as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya. Many pictures of Gandhara from the Kushan Empire have a
striking similarity to Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian figures. Heavy drapes and curling hair are common Western-
looking style trademarks. As the Kushans took control of Mathura, the Art of Mathura developed significantly, and
free-standing statues of the Buddha began to be mass-produced around this time, possibly encouraged by doctrinal
changes in Buddhism that allowed to depart from the aniconism that had prevailed in Buddhist sculptures at
Mathura, Bharhut, or Sanchi since the end of the 2nd century BC.
Kushana’s coins

Kushan coinage was plentiful and served as an essential propaganda weapon in supporting each Kushan emperor.
Dinara was one of the titles given to Kushan coins, and it was derived from the Roman word Denarius aureus. Kushan
coinage was replicated as far west as the Kushano-Sasanians as east as the kingdom of Samatata in Bengal.
Following Samudragupta's conquests in the northwest, the Gupta Empire's currency was also drawn from the
Kushan Empire's coinage, adopting its weight standard, procedures, and patterns. In comparison to prior dynasties,
where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were primarily followed, the iconography on Gupta coins grew more Indian
in both style and subject matter.

Society

The Kushana dynasty, which flourished from the 1st to the 3rd century CE, was a fascinating period in history marked
by cultural diversity and significant developments in various aspects of society. 1. Cultural Syncretism: The Kushanas
were known for their cultural syncretism, blending elements from Greek, Persian, Indian, and Central Asian cultures.
This is evident in their art, architecture, and coinage. Religion: The Kushanas were patrons of multiple religions,
including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism. Emperor Kanishka, one of the most famous Kushana rulers,
played a crucial role in the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to Central Asia and China. Art and Architecture: The
Kushana period saw the development of the Gandhara art style, which combined Greek and Indian artistic elements.
This style is particularly noted for its depiction of Buddhist themes. Trade and Economy: The Kushanas controlled key
trade routes, including the Silk Road, which facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture between the East
and the West. Their economy was bolstered by trade in silk, spices, and other luxury goods. Language and Literature:
The Kushanas used multiple languages, including Greek, Bactrian, and Sanskrit. They also contributed to the
development of literature, with notable scholars like Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna flourishing during this period. The
Kushana dynasty left a lasting legacy on the Indian subcontinent and beyond, influencing the cultural and religious
landscape of the region.

Polity
The vast Kushan Empire, extending from Central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to Sind, containing peoples
of different nationalities and religions with a heterogeneous socioeconomic background, was governed
through an organized administrative system, probably in three tiers, at central, provincial and local
levels. The Kushans seem to have followed the earlier existing pattern of the Indo -Greeks and Parthians by
appointing ksatrapas and mahaksatrapas for different units of the empire. Other inscriptions mention
other officials performing both civil and military functions, called ‘dandanayaka’ and ‘mahadandanayaka’,
indicating prevalent feudal elements. Further, inscriptions mention two terms – ‘gramika’ and ‘padrapala’,
both signifying ‘village headman’, who collected the king’s dues and took cognizance of crimes in his area.
Thus, the information available suggests that the Kushan rulers accepted the prevalent Indian and Chinese
concept of the divinity of kingship, and borrowed the Achaemenid and subsequently Indo-Greek and Indo-
Parthian system of appointing satraps as provincial governors, while the feudal lord (dandanayaka) was
their own creation.

Religion

Cultural exchanges flourished, encouraging the development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of Hellenistic

and Buddhist cultural elements, expanding into central and northern Asia as Mahayana Buddhism.
Kanishka has earned renown in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir,
in 72A.D. Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the
language of Sanskrit. The Kushan Empire's religion was characterised by a diverse and pluralistic approach,
reflecting the multicultural nature of its realm. The Kushans maintained a wide range of religions, including
Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. On their coins, they depicted various gods from Iranian, Greek,
Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Zoroastrian belief systems. Under Kanishka, Iranian religious ideas dominated, with Nana
as the presiding deity. However, Kanishka also patronised Buddhism. He is renowned for convening the fourth
Buddhist council. Kanishka's time saw the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. To spread the Mahayana, he also dispatched
missionaries to China and Central Asia. Huvishka, Kanishka's successor, adopted a more innovative strategy,
including Greek, Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Roman deities on his coins. Overall, the Kushan Empire
promoted pluralistic religious practices, acknowledging the diversity of belief systems within their territory without
allowing any single religion to dominate.

Art

The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, constitute the best - known
expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of Kushans from Gandhara have
been discovered, represented with tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as
well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya. The style of these friezes incorporating Kushan
devotees, already strongly Indianized, are quite remote from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the Buddha.

Economy

The Kushan economy was primarily driven by trade, with agriculture playing a lesser role. The primary sources for
researching the economy of the Kushan Empire are numismatics, literature, epigraphy, and the archaeology of
excavated and studied sites. Agriculture: Agriculture played a minor role in the Kushan economy, with trade being
the primary source of wealth and resources. Irrigation was prioritised in order to increase agricultural production. In
Western-Central Asia, including Pakistan and Afghanistan, the earliest archaeological proof of extensive irrigation
dates to the Kushan period. Coinage: The Kushan coins were of the finest quality and met Roman coin weight
specifications. In the coins, Kushan rulers are referred to as “king of kings,” “Caesar,” “lord of all lands,” and other
such titles. Trade: The Kushan Empire's economy was not primarily reliant on agriculture but thrived through
extensive trade, both internally and externally. They controlled the Silk Route. Internal trade: Archaeological
evidence from sites like Begram, Ahichchhatra, and Kausambi reflects their trade connections and artistic influences.
External trade: The Kushan Empire actively participated in long-distance international trade networks, particularly
with the Roman Empire. The Roman market had a significant demand for Chinese silk, and the Silk Road played a
crucial role in connecting these regions. Merchant Classes: Different categories of merchants existed, including vanik
(petty merchant), sarthavaha (caravan trader), vyavahari (a trader), and sreshthi (rich trader and leader of a
mercantile guild). Crafts: During the Kushan period, there was a notable proliferation of crafts and occupations,
which was closely linked to the expansion of trade. Following are some of the terms related to crafts and
occupations: Superintendents of construction – navakarmikah, Actors - sailakah, Carpenters - vaddhaki, Perfumers –
gamdhika, Goldsmith - suvarnakara, Clothmakers – pravarika, Jewellers - manikara

The decline of the Kushan Empire

The decline of the Kushan Empire From the early third century CE, Kushana dominance progressively eroded. In the
mid-third century CE, the Sassanian Empire (of Iran) superseded the Kushan empire in Afghanistan and the territory
west of the Indus. However, Kushan principalities persisted in India for about a century. In the third and fourth
centuries CE, some Kushanas remained in the Kabul valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezm, and Sogdian (similar to Bukhara
and Samarkand). Vasishka, Kanishka's son, succeeded him. Huvishka and Kanishka II came after Vasishka (son of
Vasishka). Vasudeva, I came after Kanishka II. Vasudeva I was the Kushanas' final great ruler. The empire dissolved
after his death. He most likely died around 232 AD.
Coins by Vima Kadphises
Vima Kadphises proclaimed himself as Mahishvara on his coins and is likely the first king to introduce gold coins in
India. All his coins clearly show his affiliation with Shiva. The reverse side of his coins depicts Shiva with his long
trident, sometimes accompanied by his bull. On the obverse side, Vima Kadphises is represented on a couch,
standing at a sacrificing altar, or even riding a chariot drawn by two horses. The abundance of coins issued by him
suggests the large extent of his empire and economic prosperity. Many gold and copper coins depict the monarch
riding a chariot drawn by two horses.
Kanishka
Kanishka is often seen as the successor of Vima Kadphises and is considered the greatest king of his dynasty. He is
credited for initiating the Saka era, starting from AD 78, also known as Sakakala or Saka-Nripa-Kala. According to his
Sarnath Inscription, Kanishka’s rule was based on the Satrapa system, and he ruled from his capital Purushapura or
Peshawar, as confirmed by Hiuen Tsang. Kanishka established a city named Kanishkapura in Kashmir. Following
Parsva’s advice, he convened the Fourth Council of the Buddhists at Kundalavana Vihara in Kashmir, with Vasumitra
as President and Asvaghosha as Vice-President. The council compiled an encyclopedia of Buddhist philosophy known
as Mahavibhasa. Kanishka constructed a stupa, a matha, and a town in Peshawar, where relics of Buddha were
preserved. Kanishka was a significant supporter of art and literature, leading to the execution of outstanding works in
the Gandhara style during his reign. The towering structure in Peshawar (400 ft high) was primarily made of wood
and supervised by the Greek engineer Agesilous. Kanishka also erected a tower near Taxila. Images of Bodhisattvas in
the Gandhara style began to emerge during his rule. At Mathura, a headless image of Kanishka depicts him in the
attire of a warrior.
Scholars During the Period of Kanishka
Ashvaghosha, the author of the hagiographic Buddhacharita and composer of Saundarananda (a Sanskrit Kavya),
resided at Kanishka’s court. Nagarjuna, also known as the Indian Einstein for proposing the Theory of Relativity in his
book Prajnaparamita Sutra Sastra. Vasumitra authored a book on Buddhist philosophy titled Mahavibhasa Shastra.
Charak, known as the Father of Ayurveda, wrote Charak Samhita and Sushruta.
Successors of Kanishka
The first successor of Kanishka was Vasishka, later succeeded by Huvishka. According to Kalhana’s Rajatarangini,
Huvishka ruled concurrently with Vasishka II or Vajheska (Father of Kanishka II) and later with Kanishka 11. Huvishka
founded the town of Huvishkapura in Kashmir (referenced from Rajatarangini). Vasudeva, the last king of the dynasty,
assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshana. His coins featured the image of Shiva and his bull Nandi.
Kushanas’ Contributions
The vast empire of the Kushanas played a crucial role in fostering internal and external trade, leading to the
emergence of new urban centers. The flourishing economy during the Kushana rule is evident from the abundance
of gold and copper coins they minted. Progress was not limited to trade; literature and medicine also saw
advancements. The Kushana rulers were patrons of the Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculptural art, renowned
for creating the earliest images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The development of Sanskrit literature began under the
Kushana dynasty. The rulers of the Kushana empire controlled the Silk Route, a major source of their income. They
were the first Indian rulers to issue a substantial number of gold coins, and they actively promoted agriculture.
Impact of Central Asian Contacts
The invasion by Central Asian tribes brought about extensive changes, introducing new elements in architecture,
pottery, and more. During the Saka-Kushana phase, Red Ware Pottery was introduced in India. The use of burnt
bricks and tiles for construction, as well as the construction of brick walls, became prevalent. The arrival of Central
Asian tribes, like the Yue-Chis of Tocharians, led to the introduction of improved cavalry and the widespread use of
riding horses. Direct communication with Central Asia facilitated an expansion in trade relationships between the two
regions. Feudalism developed during this period, marked by reciprocal legal and military obligations among the
warrior nobility, focusing on the concepts of lord, fiefs, and vassals. New Elements in Indian Society These tribes
were assimilated into Indian society as the warrior class, known as the Kshatriyas, became Indianized. Religious
Developments: Mahayana, a new school of Buddhism, emerged during this period, introducing image worship
among Buddhists. The Besnagar Pillar Inscription by the Greek ambassador Heliodorus honored Lord Vishnu.
Literature and Learning: The earliest chaste Sanskrit inscription was found in Rudradaman’s inscription. Vatsayana
composed the Kamasutra, a prominent example of secular literature. Science and Technology: Contributions in
chemistry, botany, and medicine were made, and the production of leather items commenced. The impact of the
Central Asian Contacts left a huge mark on the lives of India and leads the way in generating a completely new
culture in terms of trading, agriculture, military types of equipment, and Politics. Agriculture and pottery − the
concept of the brick wall was introduced and pots with different shapes were made because of the contacts. The
agricultural sector also witnessed development in terms of technology. Trading − The direct contact between India
and Central Asia made trading easier. The trading between the Roman Empire and India started after the contact.
Military equipment − Because of central Asia contacts the military equipment changed and new modern techniques
were introduced. The use of Horses became much more popular and tunic turbans and trousers became a part of the
culture. Politics − The idea of a ruler and kingship started changeling with time because of it. New political posts
were also introduced during that phase. Society − Society was enriched with a lot newer culture and as a result, they
got absorbed in Society and created a completely new society. Religion − With the central Asia contact some new
religious view was introduced. During this period Buddhism also originated. Sculpture − Different invasions lead to
different types of sculpture styles, which provide much information about the phase.
Post-Mauryan Administration
The Sakas introduced the Satrapa system, featuring joint rule by Mahakshatrapa (Raja) and Satrapa (Yuvaraja).
Bhumaka, the first Satrap of the Kshaharata family, was succeeded by Nahapana, whose power was crushed by the
Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni. Chastana, mentioned by Ptolemy as Tiasthenes or Testenes, was the first
ruler in this line. Greek rulers employed Meriders as district officers and Strategoi as military commandants. The
general administrative structure remained similar to the earlier period, with senior officials known as Mahamatras
and Rajjukas.
Economy
The period from 200 BC to AD 300 marked a flourishing era in ancient India’s crafts and commerce. Chief exports
included spices, perfumes, pearls, copper, and sandalwood, while imports comprised cloth, glass, silver, and gold.
Mathura became a significant center for manufacturing a specific type of cloth. Artisans organized into at least 24
guilds, acting as bankers, financiers, and trustees, contributing to the widespread profession of banking. The gold
dinars and Suvarna of the Kushanas were based on Roman denarii. Hippalus, a Greek sailor, discovered the monsoon
sea route to India from West Asia in AD 46-47.
Society
Foreign influences brought new ideas to religion, culture, art, and administration into various aspects of Indian life.
Foreigners were incorporated into the caste structure, with Greeks referred to as Yavanas. Sakas were absorbed into
the Kshatriya caste, later emerging as the Rajput clan in the ninth and tenth centuries. The growth of arts, crafts, and
trade led to changed social status for the Vaishyas and Shudras.
Religion
In the post-Mauryan phase, people followed Vedic Sanatana Dharma, Buddhism, and Jainism. Rulers, despite
personal affiliations, did not declare a specific religion as the state religion. During this time, not only did Vedic rituals
thrive, but Bhagavatism also flourished. The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honor of Vishnu near
Vidisha. New branches, Mahayana and Hinayana, emerged from Buddhism. Like Vedic Dharma and Buddhism,
Jainism also transformed, splitting into Digambaras and Svetambaras by the first century AD.

Trade, Art, and Architecture

There was a huge expansion in trade during this period, especially between India and Rome, visible in the South of
Satavahanas, like Tamil kingdoms. Romans imported spices from India, as well as muslin, pearls, jewelry, and
precious stones. Products from China were brought to India and later exported to the Eastern Roman Empire.
Romans exported wine and various types of pottery to India, and Kushanas engaged in trade with the Romans. A
large number of Roman gold coins, around 6,000, were found in India during excavations, enriching Indian art
through cultural interaction with Western Asia. Sculptures of Greek and Roman Gods made their way into Northern
Indian cities. A new sculpturing style, known as the Gandhara School of Art, interested Indian artists in Gandhara.
Manufacturing of luxurious handicrafts became predominant during this period, with many craft materials found in
Kushana complexes. Ancient texts like Digha Nikaya mentioned about 24 occupations, while the post-Mauryan text
Mahavastu mentioned about 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir. Milindapanho listed about 75 works,
with 60 connected to various types of crafts. Eight crafts were associated with gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass,
iron, and precious stones. Various kinds of brass, zinc, antimony, and red arsenic were also mentioned in
Milindapanho. Iron artifacts were found in large numbers during excavations, indicating the Kushana period.
Science and Technology in the Post-Mauryan Period
Progress was made in metallurgy during the post-Mauryan period, evident from the presence of Greek engineers in
the Kushana court. Engineering skills in building dams and irrigation tanks are visible from their remains. Geometry
was well-developed and widely applied. In astronomy, Greek influence was evident from the text Panch Siddhantika.
Indian medicine made remarkable progress during this period, with Varanasi’s school specializing in Surgery
and Sushrita Samhita, an encyclopedia of surgery compiled by Sushruta, who also stayed at the court of Kanishka.