ECE 2304 Hydraulics I

Chapter 2: Steady flow in open channels

Dr. Kahsay Negusse 2024 JKUAT

1
 2.1 Uniform Flow in Open Channel

Uniform flow in an open channel must satisfy the following main

features:
1. The water depth y, flow area A, discharge Q, and the velocity
distribution V at all sections throughout the entire channel length
must remain constant.
2. The slope of the energy gradient line (Se), the water surface slope
(Sws), and the channel bed slope (S0) are equal.

Se = Sws = S0

2
 Dx

Development of uniform flow equation:

A
Steady-Uniform Flow (Force Balance) P
V2
oP D x
Shear force =________ 2g Energy grade line
P Hydraulic grade line
Wetted perimeter = __ b
Gravitational force = A Dx sin
________ Dx c

 A D x si n    o P D x  0 W sin 
a
A
 o   sin d
P Shear force
W cos  

A Hydraulic radius W
=R For small angle 𝛉
P
sin 
W sin  S  tan    sin 
cos
3
Relationship between shear and velocity? ___________
2.2 Open Channel Flow: Discharge/Depth
Relationship

 Given a long channel of V Q

constant slope and cross
section find the relationship A y
between discharge and depth
P
 Assume
 Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________
no acceleration
 prismatic channel (no change in _________
geometry with distance)
 What controls depth given a discharge?
 Why doesn’t the flow accelerate? Force balance

4
 ….Open Channel Flow: Discharge/Depth Relationship

6.1 Chezy Equation (1768)

W sin   F1  F2  Ff  0 This is possible when the

F1  F 2  Hydrostatic forces at 2 ends gravity force (W sin )
sin   tan   S0 component equal the
resistance to the flow
W sin   (AL) sin   ALS 0
(Ff)
Ff  ALS 0 .....but.....Ff   0 PL ....... 0 PL  ALS 0 ..... 0  RS0 .
From exp eriments..... 0  KV 2 .........KV 2  RS0 Chezy Equation
 0  resisting force per unit area of channel , (1768)
K  cnsant of proportionality

  V  C RSO
ALS 0  ( KV ) PL  V   .R.S0 
2

K
Q  CA RSO
 A
C  Chezy cons tan t R  Hydraulic Radius 5
K P
 ….Open Channel Flow: Discharge/Depth Relationship
6.2 Manning Equation (1891)

areaof flow( wettedarea) A

R   • R = hydraulic radius
wetted perimeter P

• C = Chezy coefficient (Chezy’s resistance factor), m1/2/s, varies in

relation of both the conditions of channel and flow.

• Manning derived the following empirical relation:

1 1/ 6
C R
n
where n = Manning’s coefficient for the channel roughness

See the next table for typical values of n. 6

 ….Open Channel Flow: Discharge/Depth Relationship
…….Manning Equation

 Substituting into Chezy equation, we obtain the Manning’s

formula for uniform flow:
Manning’s Equation
1 2/3 1
V R So OR Q  VA  A R 2/3
So
n n
Where:
• Q in m3/sec, Discharge (flow)
• V in m/sec, Mean velocity
• R in m, Hydraulic radius
• Sf = So in (m/m), Slope of energy line
(same slope of channel for uniform flow
•n Manning’s n constant accounting
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roughness of the channel
 Values of Manning n
n = function of (surface roughness, channel irregularity, stage...)
Lined Canals n
Cement plaster 0.011

n  0.038d
Untreated gunite 0.016 1/ 6 d in m
Wood, planed 0.012
Wood, unplaned 0.013
Concrete, trowled 0.012
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished 0.015 d = median size of
Rubble in cement 0.020 bed material
Asphalt, smooth 0.013
Asphalt, rough 0.016
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight 0.025
Gravel beds plus large boulders 0.040
Earth, straight, with some grass 0.026
Earth, winding, no vegetation 0.030
Earth , winding with vegetation 0.050
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 Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness
Coefficient

a) Surface Roughness: The surface roughness is represented by the size and

shape of the grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter. This
usually considered the only factor in selecting the roughness coefficient, but
it is usually just one of the several factors. Generally, fine grains result in a
relatively low value of n and coarse grains in a high value of n.
b)Vegetation: Vegetation may be regarded as a kind of surface roughness, but
it also reduces the capacity of the channel. This effect depends mainly on
height, density, and type of vegetation.
c) Channel Irregularity: Channel irregularity comprises irregularities in
wetted perimeter and variations in cross-section, size, and shape along the
channel length.
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Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

d) Channel Alignment: Smooth curvature with large radius will give a

relatively low value of n, whereas sharp curvature with severe
meandering will increase n.

(e) Silting and Scouring: Generally speaking, silting may change a

very irregular channel into a comparatively uniform one and decrease
n, whereas scouring may do the reverse and increase n.

(f) Obstruction: The presence of logjams, bridge piers, and the like
tends to increase n.

(g) Size and Shape of the Channel: There is no definite evidence

about the size and shape of the channel as an important factor affecting
the value of n. 10
 Values of Manning n

1. Empirical Formulae for n

Many empirical formulae have been presented for estimating manning’s
coefficient n in natural streams. These relate n to the bed-particle size.
(Subramanya, 1997). The most popular one under this type is the Strickler
formula,

Where d50 is in meters and represents the particle size in which 50

per cent of the bed material is finer. For mixtures of bed materials
with considerable coarse-grained sizes, 11
 Computations in uniform flow

We can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate

steady uniform flow. Two calculations are usually performed
to solve uniform flow problems. 1 2/3
V R So
1. Discharge from a given depth
n
1
2. Depth for a given discharge
Q  VA  A R 2/3
So
n

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 Computations in uniform flow

The basic variables in uniform flow problems can be:

 discharge Q,
1 2/3
 velocity of flow V,
V R So
n
 normal depth y0,
1
 roughness coefficient n, Q  VA  A R 2 / 3 So
n
 channel slope S0 and

 geometric elements (e.g. B and side slope m for a trapezoidal channel).

There can be many other derived variables accompanied by corresponding
relationships. From among the above, the following five types of basic
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problems are recognized.
 Computations in uniform flow

Problem Type Given Required

1 y0, n, S0, Geometric elements Q and V
2 Q, y0, n, Geometric elements S0
3 Q, y0, S0, Geometric elements n
4 Q, n, S0, Geometric elements y0
5 Q, y0, n, S0, Geometry Geometric elements

 Problems of the types 1, 2 and 3 normally have explicit

solutions and hence do not represent any difficulty in their
calculations.
 Problems of the types 4 and 5 usually do not have explicit
solutions and as such may involve trial-and-error solution
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procedures.
Example 1
Example
Example
 Example 1

Open channel of width = 3m as shown, bed slope = 1:5000,

y=1.5m. Determine the flow rate using Manning equation,
n=0.025.
1 23 12
V  R So
3m 3m 3m

n
A  0.5  3  9 )  1.5  9 m 2

1.5m
1

P  2 3  1.5 )  3  9.708 m
2 2 2

3.0m
A 9
R   0.927m
P 9.708 Given: y= 1.5m FBD
1 2 Required: V, Q
V  0.927 3 1  0.538 m/s Assumption: Manning’s eqn is
0.025 5000
applicable
Q  VA  0.538  9  4.84 m 3 / s Analysis: 18
 Example 2

Open channel as shown, bed slope = 69:1584, find the flow

rate using Chezy equation, take C=35.

V  C RSO
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 …………………….Example 2

V  C Rh Se
2.52  5.04 0.72  2.52
A  2.52  16.8   3.6  0.72  150  162.52 m 2
2 2
P  0.72  150  1.8 2
 3.62 )  16.8  2.52 2
 5.042 )  177.18 m
A 162.52
R   0.917
P 177.18

V  35 0.917 
0.69
 0.7 m/s V  C RSO
1584
Q  VA  0.7  162.52  113.84 m 3 / s 20
 2.3 Best Hydraulic section or
Economical Channel Section

 Most economical section is called the best hydraulic section

or most efficient section as the discharge, passing through a
given cross-sectional area A, slope of the bed S0 and a
resistance coefficient, is maximum.
 Hence the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted
perimeter P is minimum.

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 2.3.1 Economical Rectangular Channel

A  B  y, A
P2y 
P  2y  B y
dP
P should be minimum for a given area; 0
dy
 A  B B
dP
 2   2
A By
  0  2  2  2 2  y
y 2
dy y  y y
A B y 2 y y 2 y2 y
R    R
P B2 y 2 y2 y 4y 2
So, the rectangular channel will be most economical when either:
the depth of the flow is half the width, or the hydraulic radius is half the
depth of flow. 22
 2.3.2 Economical Trapezoidal
Channel
A
A(Bn y )y or B  n y
y
A
PB2 y 1n P  (  n y)  2 y 1n 2
2

y
dP dP A A
0   2  n 2 1n  0 2 1n  2 n
2 2

dy dy y y
(Bny)y B2n y B2n y
2 1n 
2
2
n y 1n 
2

y y 2
PBB2n y2(Bn y )
A ( Bn y ) y y
R  R
P 2(Bn y) 2 23
 Other criteria for economic Trapezoidal section

 When a semi-circle is drawn with the trapezoidal center, O, on

the water surface and radius equal to the depth of flow, D, the
three sides of the channel are tangential to the semi-circle”.

Thus, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as center and radius

equal to the depth of flow D, the three sides of a most
economical trapezoidal section will be tangential to the semi-
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circle.
 The best side slope for Trapezoidal section

1
when n    60 
3

B2n y
y 1n 2   B2 y( 1n n)
2
2
A
PB B2n y2(Bn y )  B n y
y
A
n y 2 y( 1n 2 n)
y
A
y 
2

2 1n n
2 25
 The best side slope for Trapezoidal section

A
A
Now, from equations: B n y & P2(Bn y) P2
y y
A 2
squaring both sides P 4( ) 4 A( 2 1n 2 n)
2

y
1
dP dP 
 0 2P 4 A[(1n ) 2 * (2n)1]
2

dn dn

   60
2n 1 1 3
 1  4n 1n  n 
2 2
n

1
 tan 
1  n2 3
The best side slope is at 60o to the horizontal, i.e.; of all trapezoidal sections
a half hexagon is most economical. However, because of constructional
difficulties, it may not be practical to adopt the most economical side slopes
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 2.4 Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow

The total energy of a flowing liquid

per unit weight is given by:
V2
Total Energy  Z  y 
2g
If the channel bed is taken as the datum, then the total energy per
unit weight will be: 2
V
Es  y 
2g
Specific energy (Es) of a flowing liquid in a channel is defined as
energy per unit weight of the liquid measured from the channel bed as
datum. It is a very useful concept in the study of open channel flow.
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 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(a) Specific energy curve

V2
Es  y   E p  Ek
2g Ep = potential energy of flow = y

Q 2 V2
Valid for any
Es  y  cross section
Ek = kinetic energy of flow =
2g
2 g A2
Specific Energy Curve:
It is defined as the
curve which shows the
variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth
of flow y.
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 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(b) Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow

The criterion used in this classification is what is known by Froude number, Fr,
which is the measure of the relative effects of inertia forces to gravity force:
T
V QT2
Fr  Fr 
2

g Dh A3 g
V = mean velocity of flow of water,
Dh = hydraulic depth of the channel

Area of Flow (Wetted Area) A

Dh  
Water Surface Width T T

Fr Fr2 Flow
Fr < 1 Fr2< 1 Sub-critical
Fr =1 Fr2=1 Critical
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Fr >1 Fr2>1 Supercritical
 …….Energy Principle in Open
Channel Flow
Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow

Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc.

(It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy is
minimum, E min  ycThe flow that corresponds to this point is called
critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding depths.
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other is smaller then
the critical depth, for example; Es1  y1 and y1'
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths.

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 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow
Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

3. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr < 1.0).

In this case Es increases as y increases.

4. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr > 1.0).

In this case Es decreases as y increases.

Question: For a given Q and

channel geometry, how can
we create critical sub-critical
and supercritical flow

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 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow

Specific
energy
curve

Question: For a constant discharge Q and

channel geometry, how can we create critical sub-
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critical and supercritical flow?
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(C) Critical depth, yc for rectangular channel

Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the

specific energy is minimum, Emin
The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by differentiating
energy equation with respect to y and equating the result to zero;
Q2 Q2 q2 Q
Es  y  2
 y 2 2
 y 2
.............  q
2g A 2 gb y 2g y b
Q2T
dE d q 2
q 22
1
0  ( y 2
)1 ( 3 )0 gA 3

dy dy 2g y 2g y
1 1
q 2
q 2
q2
 3
 Q  2 3
1 3
0  y 
3
yc   ` 2 
gy g  g  B g 33
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(d) Critical velocity, Vc for rectangular channel

2
q
y 
3
,
c
g Q q
Q Q q
Vc  
V   By c yc
A B y y
For rectangular channel Dh=A/T =y
OR 2 2
V y
y3
c
c c
Vc  g  yc
g
Vc
 1  Fr
g  yc 34
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(e) Minimum Specific Energy in terms of critical depth

2
v
Emin  yc 
2g
butVc  g  yc
ycg
Emin  yc 
2g
2 Emin
yc 3 yc yc 
Emin  yc 
OR
Emin  3
2 2 35
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(f) Critical depth, yc , for Non- Rectangular Channels

dEs d Q2 2 Q 2 dA
0  ( y 2
)1 3
( )0
dy dy 2g A 2 g A dy
Q2 dA
OR 1 3
( )0 (constant discharge is assumed)
g A dy

dA/dy = the rate of increase of area with respect to y = T (top width).

Q 2T Q2T Criterion for critical flow condition. It must be

1 3
 0 3
1 satisfied for the flow at the critical depth.
gA gA
A Q2
Recalling that Dh    A2 Dh
T g V2 Dh
The equation may also be written in terms of velocity 

2g 2
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The velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth for critical flow.
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(g) General equation for the specific energy in critical state

Q2 A This equation represents the critical

Es  y  Es  y 
2g A 2
2T state
1 A The general equation for the specific energy in
OR E c  yc  ( )
2 T critical state applicable to channels of all shapes.

Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

3 yc ( 3B  5n yc ) yc
Ec  Ec 
2 2 ( B  2 n yc )

Circular section Triangle section

5
d d ( 2  sin 2 ) Ec  yc
Ec  ( 1  cos )  4 37
2 16 sin 
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
(h) Constant Specific Energy

The specific energy was varied and the discharge was assumed to
be constant. Let us now consider the case in which the specific
energy is kept constant and the discharge Q is varied.
Q2
Es  y 2
 Q A 2 g ( Es  y )
2g A
Q2  A2 (2 g) ( Es  y)  2 gA2 Es  2 gA2 y
dQ
0
The discharge will maximum if dy

dQ dA  dA 2 
Q  2 g Es (2 A )  2 g (2 y A  A )
dy dy  dy 
dA/dy = T  2 g Es (2 AT )2 g (2 yAT )2 gA2 0 38
 …….Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
……Constant Specific Energy

4 EsT  4 yT  2 A  0
A
2T ( Es  y )  A  Es  y 
2T
2
Q
but Es  y 
2 g A2
2
Q 2
A QT
y 2
 y  3
1
2g A 2T Ag
Thus for a given specific energy, the discharge in a given channel is a
maximum when the flow is in the critical state. The depth corresponding
to the maximum discharge is the critical depth.
39
End of chapter 2

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