Advanced Thermo-fluids in Energy Systems

3. Conduction Heat Transfer

Compiled:
Balewgize A. ZERU
Assistant Prof. of Mechanical Engineering, JiT, JU

Text book: Heat Transfer 10th Edition by J. P. Holman

Steady-State Conduction – 1D
When to assume 1D?
 When the length L of the material, relative to the source of
heat, is too small compared to the other dimensions – eg. plane
wall
 Special cases due to insulations on other two dimensions
 Cylindrical and spherical systems are one-dimensional when
the temperature in the body is a function only of radial distance
and is independent of azimuth angle or axial distance.

2
The Plane Wall
■ Heat transfer in a plane wall of constant thermal
conductivity

■ If the thermal conductivity varies with temperature

according to some linear relation k =𝑘0 (1+βT ),

■ If more than one material is present – composite wall

 Note flow q is constant through out the composite

material.

Figure One-dimensional heat transfer

through a composite wall and electrical
analog.

3
The Plane Wall (cont’d)
■ Solving simultaneously, and writing q in terms of
the two end temperatures;

 The temperature is the potential, or driving,

function for the heat flow, the combination of Δx,k
and A are thermal resistance, i.e.

■ The Fourier equation may be written as;

■ The electrical analogy may be used to solve more

complex problems involving both series and
parallel thermal resistances.
Figure One-dimensional heat transfer
through a composite wall and electrical
analog.
 where 𝑅𝑡ℎ are the thermal resistances of the various
materials with unit of °C/W
4
Insulation and R values
■ In classifying the performance of insulation, the
building industry use a term called the R value, which
is defined as

 The units for R are °C𝑚2 /W

 Note that R differs from the thermal resistance, 𝑅𝑡ℎ
concept discussed above with unit of °C/W

Figure Series and parallel 1D heat

transfer through a composite wall and
electrical analog.

5
Insulation and R values (cont’d)

6
Radial Systems – Cylinders and Spheres
■ Cylinders
 For a cylinder shown in figure
 1-D assumption - For a cylinder with length very large
compared to diameter, it may be assumed that the heat
flows only in a radial direction.
Area of heat transfer becomes

Fourier Law for conduction;

Or

 The gradient of temperature in radial direction (𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑟)

is obtained from solution of the governing equation.
Figure One-dimensional heat flow
through a hollow cylinder and electrical
analog.

7
Radial Systems – Cylinders and Spheres (cont’d)
■ Cylinders (cont’d)
 The governing equation for conduction in cylindrical
coordinate is

Boundary conditions:

Double integration gives:

Second integration:
Apply BCs and rearranging :–

Temperature distribution in dimensionless form becomes;

Figure One-dimensional heat flow
through a hollow cylinder and electrical
analog.

8
Radial Systems – Cylinders and Spheres (cont’d)
■ Cylinders (cont’d)
The radial heat transfer q becomes

From 𝐶1 coefficient;

Then q becomes

Thermal resistance becomes

 The thermal-resistance concept may be used for

multiple-layer cylindrical walls just as it was used for
plane walls

9
Radial Systems – Cylinders and Spheres (cont’d)
■ Spheres
 Spherical systems may also be treated as one-dimensional
when the temperature is a function of radius only.
 The heat flow is then

■ Convective Boundary condition

Convective heat transfer

Resistance analogy

Convective resistance,

10
Example

11
Overall heat transfer coefficient U
Consider the plane wall shown in Figure exposed to a hot fluid
A on one side and a cooler fluid B on the other side.
■ The heat transfer is expressed by

■ Using resistance network, overall heat transfer q is

■ The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and

convection is frequently expressed in terms of an overall
heat-transfer coefficient U, defined by the relation

 U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient

Figure.
Overall heat transfer through
a plane wall

12
Overall heat transfer coefficient U (cont’d)
For the plane wall, U becomes

 The overall heat-transfer coefficient is also related to the R

value as;

■ For a hollow cylinder exposed to a convection

environment on its inner and outer surfaces,

■ In this case, U may be based on either the inside 𝐴𝑖 or the

outside area 𝐴𝑜 of the tube, i.e Figure.
Resistance analogy for hollow
cylinder with convection
boundaries.

13
14
15
Example

Figure (a) Construction of a dwelling wall;

16
(b) thermal resistance model.

(c) Alternative thermal resistance model.

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18
19
Critical Insulation thickness, rcr
■ The total resistance is

■ An optimum thickness would be associated with the value of r

that minimizes q or maximizes 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 . This will be obtained
from requirement that

20
Critical Insulation thickness, rcr (cont’d)
■ To determine whether the foregoing result maximizes or minimizes
the total resistance, the second derivative must be evaluated.

 Since this result is always positive, it follows that r = k/h is the

insulation radius for which the total resistance is a minimum, not a
maximum.
 Hence an optimum insulation thickness does not exist rather critical
insulation thickness exist.
 r = k/h is called critical thickness, rcr
 Insulation thickness below rcr increases q with increasing r
 Insulation thickness above rcr decreases q with increasing r.

21
Find, rcr with the following given values:

 The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed insulation thicknesses

may be calculated and are plotted as follows: rcr = 6 mm

Notes:
 rcr is important when the
pipe/wire diameter is
small
 Increase in heat loss due
to higher insulation
thickness is desirable in
electrical wire insulations.
 Plane walls has no critical
insulation thickness
22
Heat Source System
■ Plane Wall with Heat Sources
Applications of heat transfer with systems in which heat may
be generated internally. Examples
 Nuclear reactors
 electrical conductors and
 chemically reacting systems, etc
■ the differential equation that governs the heat flow is

 Boundary conditions
Figure.
Sketch illustrating one-
 The general solution to Equation, after double integration is dimensional conduction
problem with heat generation.

23
Plane Wall with Heat Sources (cont’d)
■ Apply BCs
 Because the temperature must be the same on each side of the
wall, C1 must be zero.
 Hence, by evaluating T at x = 0;

■ The temperature distribution is then;

■ At steady-state conditions the total heat generated must equal the

heat lost at the faces.

■ The temperature gradient at the wall is obtained by differentiating

non-dimensional T expression equation.

24
Plane Wall with Heat Sources (cont’d)
■ Then

 This same result could be obtained by substituting T =Tw at x=L

■ The equation for the temperature distribution could also be

written in the alternative form as function of Tw

Reading Assignment
 Cylinder with heat sources

25
Conduction-Convection Systems
■ The heat that is conducted through a body must frequently be
removed (or delivered) by some convection process.
 Consider the one-dimensional fin exposed to a
surrounding fluid at a temperature T∞ as shown in Figure
 Convection total from the fin,
■ Energy balance on an element of the fin of thickness dx

 Energy in left face

 Energy out right face

Figure. 1-D conduction and
convection through a rectangular
fin.

 Energy lost by convection

z is the depth of the fin, and t
is the thickness
 Balancing and Re-arranging :
dA = Pdx

 Non-dimentional temperature 𝜃
A - cross-sectional area of the fin
P - perimeter 26
Conduction-Convection Systems (cont’d)
■ Boundary conditions
 One boundary condition is x = 0

The other boundary condition depends on the physical

situation;
 Case 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the
end of the fin is essentially that of the surrounding fluid.
 Case 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat by
convection from its end.
 Case 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx = 0 at Figure. 1-D conduction and
x=L. convection through a rectangular
fin.
■ If we let 𝑚2 = hP/kA, the equation shortens to;

dA = Pdx
 The general solution becomes;

A - cross-sectional area of the fin

P - perimeter
 Apply the second BC to find the specific solutions
27
Conduction-Convection Systems (cont’d)
■ For case 1,
 The BCs are:

 The solution becomes,

■ For case 3,
 The BCs are:

Figure. 1-D conduction and

 The solution, after solving for constants convection through a rectangular
fin.

■ For case 2,
 the solution, after a long algebraic rearrangements dA = Pdx

A - cross-sectional area of the fin

P - perimeter
28
Conduction-Convection Systems (cont’d)
Heat loss, q
■ All of the heat lost by the fin must be conducted into the base
at x = 0.
 We can compute the heat loss from temperature
distribution:

 Alternatively, integrating the convection heat loss,

Figure. 1-D conduction and

convection through a rectangular
Results: fin.
• Case 1,

• Case 3,
dA = Pdx

• Case 2: A - cross-sectional area of the fin

P - perimeter
29
Conduction-Convection Systems (cont’d)
■ 1-D assumption results
 When substantial temperature gradients occur only in the
x direction.
• Applies only if the fin is sufficiently thin
 1-D assumption results with an error of 1%
 Convection coefficient is seldom uniform over the entire
surface
• Numerical finite-difference techniques should be used to
consider variable h over the length of the fin.

Figure. 1-D conduction and

convection through a rectangular
fin.

30
Fins
■ Fins may have varying cross-sectional areas and
■ May be attached to circular surfaces.
These cases make derivation steps complex with a variable
area. Therefore, method of fin efficiency is applied
 Fin efficiency, 𝜂𝑓

actual heat transferred

𝜂𝑓 =
heat that would be transferred
if entire fin area were at
base temperature
 Case 3:

Where
Different types of finned surfaces.
(a) Straight fin of rectangular profile on
plane wall,
• z is the depth of the fin, and t is the thickness (b) straight fin of rectangular profile on
• if 2z >> 2t circular tube,
(c) cylindrical tube with radial fin of
rectangular profile,
(d) cylindrical-spine or circular-rod fin.
• 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐿𝑡 called profile area
31
Fins (cont’d)
 Case 2:
• The same efficiency equation as in case 3 can be used
if the length of the fin is corrected.
• Lc for rectangular and cylindrical fins,

• Results with less than 8% error if

■ fin effectiveness, 𝜖𝑓
𝐴𝑓 - total surface area of the fin
q with fin 𝐴𝑏 - base area
𝜖𝑓 =
q without fin

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Fins (cont’d)

Figure.
Efficiencies of straight rectangular and triangular fins.
33
Fins (cont’d)

Figure.
Efficiencies of circumferential fins of rectangular profile

34
Fins (cont’d)
■ For a fin attached to a wall as in figure,
 Thermal resistance for the wall
• Plane wall,
• Cylinder,

• Convection without fin,

 The combined conduction and convection resistance of fin, 𝑅𝑓
• Heat transfer,

• 𝑅𝑓 ,
𝐴𝑓 - total surface area of the fin
𝐴𝑏 - base area of the fin
𝐴𝑜 - area with out fin
 The overall heat transfer through the fin-wall combination 𝑅𝑤𝑓 - wall resistance at the fin
position
𝑅𝑤𝑜 - wall resistance open wall
𝑅𝑜 - convection outer
 The open wall heat transfer

35
Fins (cont’d)
■ The total heat lost by the wall becomes,

Figure.
Heat loss from fin-wall
combination.
Thermal resistance network

■ Practice problems and examples on text book

36
Thermal contact resistance
■ Imagine two solid bars brought into contact as show
in the figure (a) with the sides of the bars insulated so
that heat flows only in the axial direction.
 The materials may have different thermal
conductivities, but if the sides are insulated, the
heat flux must be the same through both materials
under steady-state conditions.
 The actual temperature profile through the two
materials varies approximately as shown in Figure
b.
 The temperature drop at plane 2, the contact plane
between the two materials, is said to be the result of
a thermal contact resistance.
■ Energy balance in the two materials

37
Thermal contact resistance (cont’d)
■ The quantity 1/hcA is called the thermal contact
resistance and hc is called the contact coefficient.
 Thermal contact exists due to mechanical joining
of two materials.
 The actual surface roughness determines the
magnitude of contact resistance.

■ There are two principal contributions to the heat

transfer at the joint:
1. The solid-to-solid conduction at the spots of contact
2. The conduction through entrapped gases in the void
spaces created by the contact.
• Contributes the major resistance to heat flow,
k gas << k solid .

38
Thermal contact resistance (cont’d)
■ Joint – roughness model
 The heat flow across the joint :– contribution of material A, B &
fluid in the void

Where
Ac - the contact area
Av - the void area
A - total cross-sectional area of the bars
Lg - thickness of the void space;
kf - thermal conductivity of the fluid which fills the void space;

 The contact coefficient hc becomes,

 Resulting contact resistance should be decreased for an increase in the

joint pressure since this results in a deformation of the high spots of the Figure.
contact surfaces, thereby creating a greater contact area between the Contact region resistance
solids. model

39
Thermal contact resistance (cont’d)

Table.
Contact conductance of typical surfaces.

40
Example

■ Assignment and exercises

 Text book: 2.2, 2.9, 2.20, 2.33, 2.45, 2.74 41
Steady-State Conduction - Multiple Dimensions
■ In 2-D heat conduction, the total heat flow at any point
in the material is the resultant of the 𝑞𝑥 and 𝑞𝑦 at that
point.
 Components of heat flow in 2-D

 The total heat-flow vector is directed so that it is

perpendicular to the lines of constant temperature in
the material,
■ Governing equation for 2-D conduction with no heat
generation

 If the temperature distribution in the material is Figure.

known, we may easily establish the heat flow. Sketch showing the heat flow in two
dimensions.

42
Steady-State Conduction - Multiple Dimensions
■ Methods of Solution determination
 Analytical method
 Graphical method
 Conduction shape factor method
 Numerical method
■ Challenges
 Analytical solutions are not always possible to
obtain
 If available, in many instances they are very
cumbersome and difficult to use
■ Preferred method
 Numerical method is widely used alleviating the
challenges of analytical method.
■ Analytical and numerical methods will be covered
in detail

Figure.
Isotherms and heat flow lines in a
rectangular plate.

43
2-D Steady-State Conduction - Analytical Method
■ Consider the rectangular plate as in figure:
 Three sides of the plate are maintained at the
constant temperature 𝑇1
 the upper side has some temperature distribution
impressed upon it
■ The separation-of-variables method
 The solution to the differential equation is assumed
to take a product form

 The boundary conditions are then applied to

determine the form of the functions X and Y.
■ Case I: sine function BC at y = H
 A sine-wave temperature distribution with
amplitude 𝑇𝑚 impressed on the upper edge of the
plate
Figure.
 Other edges, Isotherms and heat flow lines in a
rectangular plate.

44
2-D Steady-State Conduction - Analytical Method (cont’d)
■ Re-arranging the 2-D conduction equation and
substituting with separation of variables X and Y

 These left and right side values are independent of

each other because x and y are independent
variables.
 This requires that each side be equal to some
constant resulting two ordinary differential
equations

• where λ2 is called the separation constant

determined from the boundary conditions.
 λ2 could be three cases with value of
• λ2 = 0
• λ2 < 0
• λ2 > 0
45
2-D Steady-State Conduction - Analytical Method (cont’d)
■ Case: λ2 = 0
 Solution

 Check for BCs

• This can not fit the sin-function BC at the top
boundary, y = H
• Therefore, λ2 = 0 case is excluded!
■ λ2 < 0
 Solution

 Again, the sine-function BC cannot be satisfied, so

this solution is also excluded!

46
2-D Steady-State Conduction - Analytical Method (cont’d)
■ λ2 > 0
 Solution

 Now, it is possible to satisfy the sine-function boundary condition;

 Apply the other BCs, with θ = 𝑇 − 𝑇1

 Applying these conditions, we have

47
■ sin λW = 0
 Several values of separation constant λ will satisfy Equation,
can be written as, for an integer n,

 Then, the solution to the differential equation may thus be

written as a sum of the solutions for each value of n.
 This is an infinite sum,
 Combining constants and the exponential terms converted to
the hyperbolic function, the final solution is the infinite series

 Apply the final boundary condition, then

for n = 1, its coefficient

• This requires that 𝐶𝑛 = 0 for n>1

 Final solution,
Figure.
Isotherms and heat flow lines in
a rectangular plate of sine
• The result is plotted as in the figure with isothermal lines function BC at y = H 48
■ Case II : Top face maintained at constant temperature

 Using the first three boundary conditions, we obtain the

solution in the form of Equation

 Applying the fourth BC gives a Fourier sine series

 The values of the 𝐶𝑛 may be determined by expanding the

constant temperature difference 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 in a Fourier series over
the interval 0 < x < W.

 Comparing the fourth BC and the Fourier expansion 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ,

49
Case II : Top face maintained at constant temp (cont’d)
 The final solution is expressed as,

 An extensive study of analytical techniques used in conduction

heat transfer requires a background in the theory of orthogonal
functions like
• Fourier series
• Bessel functions and
• other special functions applicable to different geometries
and boundary conditions.

50
Graphical Method
■ For the 2-D system shown the inside surface is
maintained at some temperature T1, and the outer
surface is maintained at T2.
■ Heat transfer calculation using graphical method
includes
 Isotherms and heat-flow lanes have been sketched
to aid in this calculation
 The heat flow across this curvilinear section is
given by Fourier’s law, for unit depth

 This heat flow will be the same through each

section within this heat-flow lane, and the total
heat flow will be the sum of the heat flows through where
all the lanes.  N is the number of ∆T increments
between the inner and outer surfaces
 M is the number of heat-flow lanes

 The total heat transfer Figure.

Sketch showing element used for
curvilinear-square analysis of 2-D heat
flow
51
Graphical Method
■ Therefore, to calculate the heat transfer,
 Construct curvilinear-square plots and count the
number of temperature increments and heat-flow
lanes.
 Care must be taken to construct the plot so that
∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 and the lines are perpendicular
■ For the corner section shown in Figure
 N = 4,
 M =8.2, i.e. total M = 4×8.2=32.8.
 M/N = 32.8/4=8.2
The ratio M/N is called the conduction shape factor.

■ Limitations of Graphical method where

 Solution accuracy is dependent entirely on the skill  N is the number of ∆T increments
of the person sketching the curvilinear squares. between the inner and outer surfaces
 Gives historical interest to show the relation of  M is the number of heat-flow lanes
heat-flow lanes and isotherms. Figure.
 The process is slow and low accuracy. Therefore, Sketch showing element used for
it is not used to solve practical problems. curvilinear-square analysis of 2-D heat
flow
52
Conduction shape factor
■ In a 2-D system where only two temperature limits are
involved,
 Conduction shape factor S can be defined as

 Tables give the values of S for several geometries

• Note that the inverse hyperbolic cosine can be calculated
from

■ For a 3-D wall, eg. a furnace, separate shape factors are used to
calculate the heat flow through the edge and corner sections
 When all the interior dimensions are greater than one-fifth
of the wall thickness

Figure.
Sketch illustrating dimensions for
use in calculating 3-D shape
factors.
53
54
55
56
Numerical Methods of Analysis
■ Why Numerical methods?
 Analytical solutions for different conduction heat-transfer
problems are available
 However, in many practical situations the geometry or
boundary conditions are complex
 Fore these cases their analytical solution has not been
obtained at all, or if the solution has been developed, it
involves such a complex series solution that numerical
evaluation becomes extremely difficult.
 Therefore, numerical method of computation is the best
approach in such cases.
 There are three types of numerical methods
• Finite difference method
• Finite Volume method
• Finite Elements Method.
 Here, Finite Difference Method is considered generate the
system of linear algebraic equations from complex Figure.
differential equations.
Sketch illustrating nomenclature
used in two-dimensional
numerical analysis of heat
conduction 57
Numerical Analysis: Finite Difference Method (cont’d)
■ Consider a two-dimensional body as shown in Figure
 First the geometry is to be divided into equal increments in
both the x and y directions,
 The nodal points are designated as shown,
 the m locations indicating the x increment and
 the n locations indicating the y increment.
■ We wish to establish the temperatures at any of these nodal points
within the body, by solving the governing equation using Finite
difference method.
 Finite differences are used to approximate differential
increments in the temperature and space coordinates; and
 Smaller values of ∆𝑥 and ∆y results accurate values compared
to the true value.
■ Numerical differentiation

Figure.
Sketch illustrating nomenclature
used in two-dimensional
numerical analysis of heat
conduction 58
Types of Grids: Structured, block-structured and unstructured

Fig.a Example of a 2D, structured, non- Fig.c Example of a 2D unstructured grid

orthogonal grid, designed for calculation
of flow in a symmetry segment of a staggered
tube bank

Fig.b Example of a 2D block-structured grid which matches at interfaces, used to

calculate flow around a cylinder in a channel 59
 Finite Difference Method

— This is the oldest method for numerical solution of PDE's,

— easiest method to use for simple geometries
— Taylor series expansion or polynomial fitting is used to obtain approximations to the
first and second derivatives of the variables with respect to the coordinates.

Figure. An example of a 1D (above) and 2D (below) Cartesian grid for FD methods

(full symbols denote boundary nodes and open symbols denote computational nodes)
60
Approximation of First Order Derivatives: Forward, backward, and Central

Definition of Derivative:

Foreword Difference:

Backward Difference:

Central Difference:
61
Numerical Differentiation of governing equation for
2-D Steady State Conduction Heat Transfer
■ First order derivation

2-D,
Steady,
No heat generation,
■ Second order derivation
Constant k

■ Substituting to the governing equation and re-arranging

 If ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 , the equation reduces,

62
Numerical Analysis: Finite Difference Method (cont’d)
■ For 2-D steady state conduction with heat generation

2-D,
 If ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 , the equation reduces,
Steady,
With heat generation,
Constant k
 Re-arranging, for known heat generation value

63
Example: 2-D steady state conduction using FDM
Applying FD method to the governing equation

Applying this to each unknown nodes, and substituting the known boundary
values

Re-arranging them

Re-arranging using matrix notation:

Solving the matrix with appropriate method, results

64
Example: 2-D steady state conduction using FDM with heat
generation

65
■ Once the temperatures are determined,
 The heat flow may be calculated by evaluating the conduction at the
boundaries,

• Note ∆T is taken at the boundaries.

■ The heat flow calculation
 Method I – from heat source (top face) at 500oC

 Method II – from the three faces at 100oC

 Note:
• If a sufficiently fine grid is used, the two values should be very
nearly the same.
• Best practice to take the arithmetic average of the two values for use

66
Example: 2-D steady state conduction using FDM (cont’d)
■ Exposed to convection BC at right face
 Its temperature can be determined by applying energy balance
at the boundary node i.e.

 If ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦

 The same must be done for each node along the surface with Fig.
convective BC Face exposed to convective BC
 When the BC type is different, other methods must be used
■ Corner section energy balance

 If ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦

Fig.
Corner exposed to convective
67 BC
Other boundary conditions

68
Other boundary conditions

69
Example: Nine-Node Problem

Fig. Example-
2-D SS conduction- two faces
exposed to convection and two
sides at fixed temperature

70
Fig. Example-
2-D SS conduction - two faces
exposed to convection and two
sides at fixed temperature

71
Fig. Example-
2-D SS conduction - two faces
exposed to convection and two
sides at fixed temperature

72
Solution Techniques
■ The numerical method is simply a means of approximating a
continuous temperature distribution with the finite nodal elements.
■ The more nodes taken, the closer the approximation with an
increased number of equations leading higher expenses of
computation time and requirement of higher performance
computers (in special cases) to get the solution.
■ Generally, the nodal equations may be written as

■ Matrix notation and equating for unknown variables;

 Solving for T:

 Where,

73
Application packages
■ Several software packages are available for solution of
simultaneous equations, including
 MathCAD
 TK Solver
 MATLAB, and
 Microsoft Excel.

■ Numerical Solution methods

 Direct solution method
• Gauss elimination method
 Iterative solution methods
• Gauss-Siedel Iteration method

■ Assignment and exercises

 Review questions 1-5
 3.31, 3.64

74
Unsteady-State Conduction
■ In the transient heating or cooling process that takes place in the
interim period before equilibrium is established, the analysis must
be modified to take into account the change in internal energy of the
body with time, and
■ the boundary conditions must be adjusted to match the physical
situation that is apparent in the unsteady-state heat-transfer
problem.
■ Unsteady-state heat-transfer analysis has significant practical
interest because of the large number of heating and cooling
processes applicable in the industry.

 1-D transient conduction governing equation (derived earlier in chapter

1) Consider the infinite plate of
thickness 2L.
Initially the plate is at a uniform
temperature Ti, and at time zero
the surfaces are suddenly lowered
 If , 𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇1 to T =T1.

 BCs and initial conditions: Figure.

Infinite plate subjected to sudden
cooling of surfaces.
75
Unsteady-State Conduction (cont’d)
■ Using separation-of-variables
 Assuming a product solution, we can get two
ordinary differential equations.

i.e.

where
𝜆2 as separation constant
𝝀𝟐 > 𝟎 only satisfies the BCs
■ General solution becomes

 From BC(b), 𝐶1 = 0 for 𝜏 > 0 then 𝐶2 ≠ 0

 From BC(c), sin 2Lλ=0,

76
Unsteady-State Conduction (cont’d)
■ The final series form of the solution

 Known as a Fourier sine expansion with constants 𝐶𝑛 can

be determined from initial condition (a), and

 The final series solution becomes, for n = 1, 3, 5, . . .

■ Note:
 at time zero (τ =0) the series on the right side of Equation
must converge to unity for all values of x.

77
Lumped-Heat-Capacity System
■ The system is considered to be uniform in temperature
through out the body, an idealized case, called lumped-
heat-capacity method.
■ This assumption is suitable for the smaller the physical
size of the body
■ Consider a hot steel ball were immersed in a cool pan of
water,
 The lumped-heat-capacity method of analysis might be used
if we could justify an assumption of uniform ball
temperature during the cooling process.
 The temperature distribution in the ball would depend on the
• conduction with in the material and
• surface-convection heat transfer coefficient
 Reasonably uniform temperature distribution exists if the
resistance to heat transfer by conduction were small where,
compared with the convection resistance at the surface. A is the surface area
 the convection heat loss from the steel ball should be equal V is the volume.
to the decrease in the internal energy.
Figure.
Nomenclature for single-lump
heat-capacity analysis. 78
Lumped-Heat-Capacity System
 The initial condition is

 The solution of the equation becomes: Re-arranging,

 The ratio ℎ𝐴/𝑐𝜌𝑉 is called time constant with unit s

ℎ𝐴
 When τ = ,
𝑐𝜌𝑉
• 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ has a value of 36.8 percent of the initial
difference 𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ Apply initial condition,
■ In reality,
 The temperarure through out the body may not be uniform
 Modes of heat loss include convection coupled with radiation
boundary conditions
 The “time constant” of 36.8 percent is based on constant
convection coefficient h boundary condition.
 The solution yield reasonable estimates within about 5%
error if Bi < 0.1 79
■ Criteria to use lumped-heat-capacity method

where k is the thermal conductivity of the solid

 If , called characteristic length

 If Bi > 0.1, other methods of transient analysis should be

followed.

Table. Examples of lumped-capacity systems, Bi values for some cases

80
Example
A person is found dead at 5 PM in a room whose temperature is 20°C. The temperature of the body is
measured to be 25°C when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be h=8 W/m2 ·°C.
Modeling the body as a 30-cm-diameter, 1.70-m-long cylinder and using Lumped method, estimate the
time of death of that person.
The average human body is 72 percent water by mass, and thus assume the body to have the properties
of water at the average temperature of (37 + 25)/2 31°C; k = 0.617 W/m ·°C,  = 996 kg/m3, and Cp
=4178 J/kg ·°C

Solution: Given:
 Find the characteristic length of the body and then Bi 𝑇∞ = 20°C
𝑇𝑓 = 25°C
𝑇0 = 37°C
Bi = h.s / k = (8 x 0.0689)/0.617 = 0.893 > 0.1

 This shows, Lumped system analysis is not a acceptable for good

approximation.
 However if we still use it

 Find time using the lumped equation

τ = 43860 s = 12.2 hours
81
Transient heat flow in a semi-infinite solid
■ Consider the semi-infinite solid shown with
 initial temperature 𝑇𝑖 , and
 The surface temperature is suddenly lowered and maintained at
a temperature 𝑇0
 The temperature distribution in the solid as a function of time
is needed to be determined
 The governing equation with its boundary and initial condition
are:

 Analytical solution with the Laplace-transform technique

• Where Gauss error function is defined as

Figure.
→ η is a dummy variable and the integral is a function of Nomenclature for transient heat
its upper limit.
flow in a semi-infinite solid.
82
Transient heat flow in a semi-infinite solid
■ The final temperature distribution becomes

 The heat flow at any x position,

→ where,

• Graphically available for ease of

use

 At , x = 0, the heat flow becomes

Figure.
Nomenclature for transient heat
flow in a semi-infinite solid.
83
Figure.
Response of semi-infinite solid to
(a) sudden change in surface temperature and
(b) instantaneous surface pulse of Q0 /A J/𝑚2

84
Constant Heat Flux on Semi-Infinite Solid
■ If the surface of a semi-infinte solid is exposed to a
constant surface heat flux 𝑄0 /A.
 The boundary and initial conditions are;

 The solution becomes

• Also available in graphical form for ease of use

 From the resulting indicates the temperature, due to
constant-heat-flux source, increases indefinitely for all x
Figure.
and times
Response of semi-infinite solid to
(a) sudden change in surface
temperature and
(b) instantaneous surface pulse of
Q0 /A J/𝑚2

85
Energy Pulse at Surface
■ In case of a constant surface heat flux, the flux remains
remains constant with time,
■ Pulse hear flux is
 a short, instantaneous pulse of energy at the
surface having a magnitude of 𝑄0 /A
 The resulting temperature response is given as

 In pulse heat case,

• The temperature response to the
instantaneous surface pulse will die out with
time, rapid with exponential function (shown
as in figure)
i.e.
Figure.
Response of semi-infinite solid to
(a) sudden change in surface temperature and
(b) instantaneous surface pulse of Q0 /A J/𝑚2
Examples and exercises
• To make use of the obtained analytical solutions/or the
graphical representations
• Other boundary cases – convection and radiations
86
Example: Semi-Infinite Solid with Sudden Change in Surface Conditions

87
Example: Pulsed Energy at Surface of Semi-Infinite Solid

88
Example: Heat Removal from Semi-Infinite Solid

89
Transient Numerical Method
■ Analytical solutions covered are
 Calculating temperatures in certain regular-shaped
solids under transient heat-flow conditions.
 In practice, geometries are complex
 The boundary conditions sometimes changes with time
too.
 With geometric and boundary conditions complexity,
analytical solutions are not always possible to obtain.
 Therefore, numerical computation is the best alternative
method
■ Consider a 2-D body divided into increments as shown
 Within the solid body the differential equation that Subscript:
governs the heat flow is, m denotes the x position, and
n denotes the y position

 Using finite difference method, second order

Figure.
differentials w.r.t. x & y coordinates and first order
differentiation w.r.t. t will be done, resulting a system of Nomenclature for numerical solution of
two-dimensional unsteady-state
linear equations. conduction problem.
90
 Transient Numerical Method
 Second order derivation w.r.t coordinates x & y:

 First order derivation w.r.t time t,

 Combining these based on an Explicit Method, the 2-D transient

governing becomes: Subscript:
m denotes the x position, and
n denotes the y position

Superscripts;
 If the temperatures of the various nodes are known at any p and p+1 designate the time
increment
particular time τ, then the temperatures after at τ + ∆τ may be
calculated by writing such equation for each node. Figure.
 This equation reduces if ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 Nomenclature for numerical solution
of two-dimensional unsteady-state
conduction problem. 91
■ For uniform grid size,

(∆𝑥)2
 If the ratio d = = 4,
𝛼∆𝜏
• The temperature at time p+1 will be the athematic average of the four
surrounding nodal temperatures time p.

■ For 1-D case,

(∆𝑥)2
 If the ratio d = = 2, the temperature at time p+1 will be the
𝛼∆𝜏
athematic average of the two surrounding nodal temperatures time p.

92
■ Grid size and time increment selection
 The larger the values of Δx and Δτ, the more rapidly our solution will
proceed.
 On the other hand, the smaller the value of these increments in the
independent variables, the more accuracy will be obtained
 Once Δx or Δy are chosen, the value of appropriate Δτ should be chosen,
otherwise numerical computation instability arises, the iteration diverges
away,
 Value of M < 4 for 2-D and M < 2 for 1-D results an negative coefficient for
𝑇𝑚𝑃 in the previous time step, forcing heat to flow from low temperature to
higher temperature which violates second law of thermodynamics.
■ Therefore,

■ Boundary Nodes
 Each boundary condition must be handled separately using energy balance,
depending on
• The particular geometric shape under consideration and
• The type of boundary condition subjected to. 93
■ Convection BC
 Making energy balance at the node (m,n), with all the heat
getting in to the node and resulting a change in the internal
energy, balance gives,

 If Δx = Δy, the temperature at the next time step becomes,

 For 1-D case, Figure.

Nomenclature for nodal equation
with convective boundary
condition.

94
■ Grid size and time increment
 To ensure convergence of the numerical solution,
𝑝
• The coefficient of 𝑇𝑚 must be non-negative, i.e for all
interior nodes as well as boundary nodes. For the current
boundary condition,

• All selections of the parameter M must be restricted to

boundary condition information or interior node
information, which ever is large.

95
Implicit and Explicit Formulations
■ Explicit Method
 The spatial difference values are based on the previous time step values, i.e.

 Matrix notation; with A collecting coefficients based on implicit formulation and C

contains boundary and generation terms

■ Implicit Method
 The spatial difference values are based on the current time step (unknown value), i.e.

 Iterative form of writing for implicit formulation,

 Matrix notation; with A collecting coefficients based on explicit formulation and C

contains boundary and generation terms
96
97
98
99
Example: 1-D Transient conduction with/with out Heat generation
Case 1: With out heat generation with BC
and initial conditions of
a. Sub Case:
 Both ends are maintained at specified
temperature of T0 =100oC and
TL=20oC
 Initially maintained at room
temperature, Ti = 20
b. Sub Case :
 One end is at specified temperature T0
and the other is at Zero gradient
condition.
 Initially maintained at room
temperature, Ti = 20

100
Example: 1-D Transient conduction with/with out Heat generation
Case 2: With heat generation with BC
and initial conditions of
a. Sub Case:
 Both ends are maintained at specified
temperature of T0 =100oC and
TL=20oC
 Initially maintained at room
temperature, Ti = 20
b. Sub Case :
 One end is at specified temperature T0
and the other is at Zero gradient
condition.
 Initially maintained at room
temperature, Ti = 20

101
Selected examples and exercises
■ Examples
 EXAMPLE 4-12: Implicit Formulation
 EXAMPLE 4-16: Transient Conduction with Heat Generation
■ Exercises
 Review question 7 :- 1-D solution applications
 4.5 – lumped system
 4.42 - Constant heat flux with convection BC
 4.76 – numerical method for solution stability analysis
 4.109 – numerical method for cylindrical geometry

102