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2. Hydrolysis (minerals break with water),

Lesson 1: Weathering 3. Hydration (minerals absorb water),
4. Oxidation (oxygen reacts with minerals
● Weathering: The breakdown of rocks like iron).
and minerals at Earth's surface by Biological Weathering:
physical, chemical, and biological ○ Plants: Root growth widens cracks.
processes.
○ Animals: Burrowing weakens
○ Agents: rocks.
■ Water ○ Microorganisms: Produce
■ Wind acids that dissolve minerals.
■ Ice https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
■ Plants content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforstem_g
■ Animals 2_mod1%20_weathering_v2.pdf
■ People
■ Chemicals Lesson 2: Earth’s Internal Heat

TYPES OF WEATHERING Sources of Internal Heat:

○ Primordial Heat: Accretional
● Physical Weathering (Mechanical Heat from Earth's formation;
Breakdown): Gravitational Release due to dense
○ Agents: materials sinking.
■ Temperature, ○ Radioactive Heat: From isotopes
■ pressure, K40, Th232, U235, and U238.
■ Frost wedging, ○ Gravitational Pressure: Overlying
rock increases heat with depth.
■ Abrasion,
○ Dense Core Material: Heavy
■ Organic activities,
elements like iron and nickel
■ Human activities
contribute to heat.
■ Burrowing animals
● Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
○ Processes:
○ Convection:
■ Abrasion (wearing
Circular movement of heated
down by friction), material.
■ Freeze-thaw (water ○ Conduction: Heat transfer via
freezes in cracks and
expands), contact.
■ Exfoliation (outer rock ○ Radiation: Heat escapes into space.
layers peel due to ○ Advection: Horizontal transfer of
pressure release). heat due to external forces.
● Chemical Weathering: https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
○ Agents: content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforstem_g
2_mod2%20_earthsinternalheatsource_v2.%20pdf
■ Water,
■ Oxygen,
■ Carbon dioxide, and
■ Acids.
○ Reactions:
1. Carbonation(CO₂ reacts with water),

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Lesson 3: Endogenic Processes Lesson 4: Metamorphism

● Endogenic Process: An endogenic process is a ● Metamorphism: Transformation
geological process that was formed, originated, of rocks under heat, pressure, and
and located below the surface of the earth. It chemical processes.
involves geologic activities such as tectonic
movements, metamorphism, seismic activities Meta – after, morph – form
and magmatism.
● Factors Affecting Metamorphism:
Magma forms from partial melting of mantle rocks. ○ Temperature: Higher
temperatures drive
● Magma Formation: chemical reactions.
○ Mechanisms: Decompression melting
(pressure reduction allows melting), flux Geothermal Gradient - The rate at
melting (water or CO₂ reduces melting which temperature increases with depth
point). in the Earth’s crust.
○ Properties: Rich in silicon and oxygen;
viscosity depends on silica content; “the higher the temperature, the higher
temperature range of 600–1300°C. the metamorphism grade”
● Processes:
Ex. Shale →Slate→Schist
An intrusion is magma that moves up into a volcano
without erupting.
○ Pressure:
Co
○ Plutonism: Magma solidifies below the nfining pressure (equal
surface, forming plutonites; associated in all directions) and
with metallogenesis. differential pressure
(uneven forces).
Plutonites are igneous rock formations that are created ○ Hydrothermal
when the process of crystallization and solidification of
magma takes places below the Earth's surface and Fluids: Circulate
particularly in the crust. minerals, altering rock
composition.
An extrusion is an eruption of magmatic materials that
causes land formation
on the surface of the Earth.
● Grade of Metamorphism
○ Volcanism: Magma erupts to the
surface, forming volcanoes and lava Prograde Metamorphism - the grade of
flows. metamorphism increases.
Molten material in the form of lava that
Metamorphic Grade is a general term
undergoes the process of crystallization
for describing the relative temperature
on the natural terrestrial surface gives
an
birth to rock formations known as
volcanites.
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content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscien
ceforstem_g2_mod3%20_plutonismand
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Faults: Fractures caused by stress.

pressure conditions under which ● Parts of a Fault:
metamorphic rocks form. ○ Hanging Wall
○ Footwall
○ Low-grade Metamorphism - takes
place at temperatures between about ○ Fault Plane
200 to 320 Celsius, and relatively ○ Fault Trace
low pressure.
○ High-grade metamorphism The strike is the direction of the fault trace on
- takes place at temperatures greater than the Earth's surface.
320 Celsius and relatively high pressure.
The dip is the measurement of how steeply the
fault plane slopes.
● Types of Metamorphism:
○ Contact: High temperature near magma ● Types of Fault:
intrusions. ▪ Normal - the hanging wall drops
○ Burial: Sediments buried under low down.
temperature and pressure. ▪ Reverse - the hanging wall moves
○ Shock: From meteor impacts (e.g.,
upward relative to the footwall
graphite to diamond).
▪ Strike-slip - the movement is
○ High-Pressure: Forms unique
primarily horizontal,
rocks at great depths.
https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp- with minimal
content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforste vertical displacement (Ex.
m_g2_mod4%20_metamorphism_v2.pdf San Andreas Fault)
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content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforste
Lesson 5: Rock Behaviors Under Stress m_g2_mod5%20_rockbehaviorsunderstress_v2.
%20pdf
● Types of Stress:
○ Tension: Pulls rocks apart at divergent
boundaries. Lesson 6: Seafloor Spreading
○ Compression: Squeezes rocks together
at convergent boundaries. Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging) – a
○ Shear: Forces slide past each other at device that bounces sound waves off underwater
transform boundaries. objects and then records the echoes of these
sound waves.
● Geologic Structures:
○ Folds: Caused by Magnetometers - attached to ships scientists
compressional stress discovered a lot about the magnetic properties of
○ Anticline - arches the seafloor.
upward where the oldest
rocks are found Magnetic Polarity - is a phenomenon where
○ Syncline - bends two magnetic poles are present, as seen in a bar
downward which rocks magnet or with the North and South Poles of the
are curved down to a Earth.
center.
○ Monocline - a simple ● Process:
bend in the rock layers ○ Magma rises at mid-ocean
where the oldest rocks ridges, forming a new crust.
are at the bottom and the ○ Older crust subducts at trenches
youngest are at the top. and melts back into the mantle.

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● Evidence: https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
○ Molten Materials: Rock pillows content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforstem_g2_mo
indicate magma cooling. d7%20structureandevolutionofocean%20basins_v2.pdf
○ Magnetic Stripes:
Alternating patterns of magnetic polarity Lesson 8: Plate Movements
on the ocean floor.
○ Drilling Samples: Younger rocks near ● Types of Plate Boundaries:
ridges, older rocks farther away. ○ Divergent: Plates move apart
https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp- (e.g., mid-ocean ridges).
content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforstem_g2_mo ○ Convergent: Plates collide,
d6%20_seafloorspreading_v2.pdf forming trenches, volcanic arcs,
and mountains.
○ Transform: Plates slide past
Lesson 7: Ocean Basin each other, causing
Structure and Evolution earthquakes.
● Landform Formation:
● Ocean Basin Structures: ○ Folds and Faults: Due to stress
○ Continental Shelf: Shallow extension of at boundaries.
continents. ○ Trenches and Volcanoes: At
○ Continental Slope: Steep transition to convergent boundaries.
deep ocean. Oceanic crust → ○ Rift Valleys: At divergent
Continental crust. boundaries.
○ Continental Rise- It is where the ocean
begins. The continental margin starts
from continental shelf up to continental
rise. ● Motion of Plates
○ Abyssal Plain: Flat, deep ocean floor. ○ Collision - two continental
○ Island - Part of the ocean basin that plates are moved toward each
extends up from the ocean floor. other.
○ Seamount - It is an undersea mountain. ○ Subduction - one plate
○ Trenches: Deepest areas of the ocean subsides beneath the other
(subduction zones). plate.
○ Mid-Ocean Ridges: Seafloor mountain ○ Spreading - occurs when two
ranges formed by magma plates are moved away from
upwelling each other.
(underwater mountain range). ○ Transform faulting - occur
● Evolution (Wilson Cycle): when two plates slide past each
○ Embryonic: Rift valleys form (e.g., East other.
African Rift). https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
○ Juvenile: Narrow seas form (e.g., Red content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforste
Sea). m_g2_mod8%20_movementsofplates_v2.pdf
○ Mature: Full ocean basin develops (e.g.,
Atlantic Ocean).
○ Declining: Trenches form at subduction Lesson 9: How Rock Layers are Formed
increases (e.g., Pacific Ocean).
○ Terminal: Narrow seas and Stratum - sedimentary rock layer bounded by
sedimentation occur (e.g., Mediterranean two stratification planes, the latter being
Sea produced by visible changes in the grain size,
texture, or other diagnostic features of the rocks
○ Suturing: Continents collide, forming above and below the plane.
mountains (e.g., Himalayas).

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A stratum that is less than one centimetre (0.4 inch) ● How Layers of Rocks are Formed
in thickness is termed a lamina, whereas one greater ○ The rock layers are formed by erosion and
than this thickness is a bed. weathering of mountains and the particles are
transported and deposited in the sedimentary
Stratified rocks are formed from layers of basin, then the sediment particles are
sediment or volcanic material that build up over cemented over hundreds of years to form
time (Ex. Sandstone). layers. These sediments are deposited
horizontally by gravity.
Stratification - the layering that occurs in most ○ Layered rocks may also result from successive
sedimentary rocks and in those igneous rocks lava flow or from the formation of extrusive
formed at the Earth’s surface, as from lava flows igneous rocks.
and volcanic fragmental deposits. ○ Law of Superposition is a basic law of
geochronology, stating that in any undisturbed
Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of sequence of rocks deposited in layers, the
pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living youngest layer is on top and the oldest on
organisms that accumulate on the Earth's surface. bottom.
○ Law of Original Horizontality was first
● How are Sedimentary Rocks Formed? proposed by Danish geological pioneer
○ Erosion and Transportation Nicholas Steno in the 17th century. The law
○ Deposition states that layers of sediment were originally
deposited horizontally under the action of
○ Compaction gravity.
○ Cementation ○ The Law of Lateral Continuity states that the
layers of rock are continuous until they
encounter other solid bodies that block their
deposition.
● Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
○ Layered Structure: These layers, content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforste
called strata, often contain m_g2_mod9%20_howlayersofrocksstratifiedro
valuable information about the c%20ksareformed_v2.pdf
Earth’s past environment and the
conditions under which the
sediments were deposited. Lesson 10: Different Methods of
○ Visible Particles: Determining the Age of Stratified Rocks
Sedimentary rocks often contain ● Two techniques used in
visible particles or fragments of geology to evaluate the age
various sizes, ranging from clay and the period of a fossil or
and silt tosand, pebbles, and even rock:
larger boulders. o Relative Dating
○ Fossils: Sedimentary rocks frequently –the technique used to
contain fossils, which are the remains of determine the age by
ancient plants, animals, or other comparing the historical
organisms preserved within the rock. remains to the nearby
○ Varied Composition: layers.
Sedimentary rocks can be composed of a ▪Stratigraphy - This
wide range of materials, including technique assumes that
mineral grains, organic matter, and even the lowest layer is the
chemical precipitates. oldest while the topmost
○ Soft and Easily Eroded: Compared to layer is the youngest
igneous and metamorphicrocks, layer.
sedimentary rocks are often relatively ▪ Biostratigraphy - In this
soft and easy to erode. technique, the faunal

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deposits such as fossils

of dead animals are used ●
Fossils give clues about
to establish a strategy for organisms that lived long ago.
dating. ● Fossils help scientists understand
what past environments may have
▪ Cross dating - In this method, the been like.
fossils of one layer are compared
with another layer with known dating. ● Types of Fossils
▪ Absolute Dating – a technique that
determines the exact numerical age of a
o Petrified Fossils - are formed
historical remaining. Since it evaluates the
through petrification that means
exact age of the sample, absolute aging is
turning into stones.
also called numerical dating.
o Molds and casts - hard parts of an
organism are buried in sediments
• Radiometric Dating – It determines the such as sand, silt, or clay.
age of the sample by measuring the amount o Carbon Films - all living things
of a particular radioactive isotope present in contain an element called carbon.
the sample. o Trace Fossils - shows the
•
activities of organisms. An animal
Amino acid dating - The change in the makes a footprint when it steps in
protein content of a biological sample can sand or mud.
be used to determine the age. o Preserved Remains - some
• Dendrochronology - The number of organisms get preserved in or
annual growth rings of a dicot is used in this close to their original states.
technique to determine the age of the tree. ▪ Amber-an organism- such as an
insect, is trapped in a tree’s sticky
• Thermoluminescence - This technique resins and dies.
determines the final period during which
the object absorbs light, emitting ● Tar an organism - such as mammoth, is
electrons. The age is determined for trapped in a tar pit and dies.
the emissions. ● Ice-an organism - such as wooly
https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp- mammoth, dies in very cold regions.
content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscienceforstem_g2_mo
d1%201_relativeandabsolutedating_v%202.pdf ● Geologic Time Scale
o The geologic time scale is divided
into
Lesson 11: Describe How Index
chronostratigraphic units and their
Fossils (also known as Guide
corresponding geochronologic units:
Fossils) are Used to Define and
▪ Eon is the largest geochronologic
Identify Subdivisions of the
time unit and is equivalent to a
Geologic Time Scale
chronostratigraphic eonothem.
▪ Hadean
Index Fossils - also known as key,
▪ Archaean
guide, or indicator fossils, are
▪ Proterozoic
preserved remains of ancient
organisms. ▪ Phanerozoic

A fossil is the remains or evidence ▪ Era - is the second largest geochronologic

of a living thing. The most time unit and is equivalent to a
common fossils are bones, scales, chronostratigraphic erathem.
teeth, leaves, spores, and seeds of ▪ Eoarchean
pollen grains. ▪ Paleoarchean

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▪ Mesoarchean o Whether the rate of sedimentation is slow or rapid

▪ Neoarchean o Clues about past climate.
▪ Paleoproterozoic ● How are Index Fossils Formed
▪ Mesoproterozoic o Index fossils are the preserved remains of specific species
▪ Neoproterozoi c found in the strata of sedimentary rock.
▪ Paleozoic o Index fossils are usually sea creatures due to preservation
▪ Mesozoic conditions and how widespread ocean-dwelling creatures
▪ Cenozoic can proliferate on the planet.

● Period - equivalent to a
chronostratigraphic system. The ● Fossilization
current being the Quaternary o Preserved Remains: The rarest form of fossilization is
period. As an exception two the preservation of original skeletal material and even soft
sub periods are used for the tissue.
Carboniferous Period. o Permineralization - The most common method of
● Epoch - the second smallest fossilization is
geochronologic unit. It is permineralization.
equivalent o Molds and Casts - In some cases, the original bone or
to a chronostratigraphic series. The current shell dissolves away, leaving behind a space in the shape
epoch is the Holocene. of the shell or bone. This depression is called mold.
● Age- the smallest hierarchical o Replacement - In some cases, the original shell or bone
geochronologic unit. It is dissolves away and is replaced by a different mineral.
equivalent o Compression - Some fossils form when their remains are
to a chronostratigraphic stage. compressed by high pressure. This can leave behind a
The current age is the dark imprint on the fossil.
Meghalayan. o Exceptional Preservation - Some rock beds have
produced exceptional fossils. Fossils from these beds may
A chron is a non-hierarchical formal show evidence of soft body parts that are not normally
geochronology unit of unspecified preserved.
rank and is equivalent to a
▪ chronostratigraphic chronozone. ● Living Fossils - Living fossils are
organisms that have existed for a
Adaptations are favorable traits that tremendously long period without
organisms inherit. Adaptations changing very much at all.
develop from variations within a https://depedtambayan.net/%20wp-
population and help organisms to content/uploads/2021/11/%20earthscience
survive in their given environment forstem_g2_mod1%20indexfossils_v2.pd
f
During the Phanerozoic Eon, all the
plant and animal types we know today Lesson 12: History of the Earth
have evolved.
The geologic time scale is a system
of chronological dating that relates
geological strata to time. It is used by
geologists, paleontologists and other
Earth scientists to describe the timing
● Clue from Fossils
and relationships of events that have
o Whether an environment was marine (underwater) or
occurred during Earth’s history.
terrestrial (on land).
o Fossils can indicate whether the water is shallow or deep
● Eons - It has the largest intervals of
and

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geologic time. A single eon covers a terrestrial life, the earliest well
period of several hundred million developed circulatory system
years. (vascular plants) known as
o Archaean Eon – it is the Cooksonia.
period where life first o Devonian Period - This period
formed on Earth, archaea was known as the age of fishes.
and bacteria. Lowland forests of seed ferns,
o Proterozoic Eon – it is the scale trees and true ferns
period just before the flourished. Sharks and bony
proliferation of complex life fishes developed. The
on Earth. Kellwasser Event was largely
o Phanerozoic Eon – it is the responsible for the demise of
period of visible life where the great coral reefs, jawless
rapid expansion and fishes and trilobites.
evolution of life forms occur o Carboniferous Period -
and fill the various Warm, moist climate conditions
ecological niches available contributed to lash vegetation
on Earth. and dense swampy forests. The
o The time between Earth’s evolution of the first reptiles
formation and the beginning took place with the
of the Paleozoic era are often development of the amniotic
collectively called the egg.
Precambrian time or also o Permian Period - A dramatic
known as the “time of climatic shift may have been
hidden life” (abundant partially triggered the assembly
microscopic life appeared). of smaller continents into a
● Era - It is the subdivision of eons. The geologic supercontinent, Pangea which
time scale is divided into three eras was surrounded by an immense
o Paleozoic (time of ancient life) – First ocean called Panthalassa. The
appearance of organisms with hard parts two major groups of reptiles –
o Mesozoic (time of middle life) – diapsids and synapsids
Extinction of over 90% of living dominated this period.
organisms Diapsids gave rise to the
o Cenozoic (time of recent life) – dinosaurs while synapsids gave
Extinction of dinosaurs and many other rise to mammals.
organisms ● Mesozoic Era - Known as the
● Periods age of reptiles, Mesozoic Era is
Six Major Periods of Paleozoic Era made up of three periods:
o Cambrian Period - One important event Triassic, Jurassic and
is the development of organisms having Creataceous.
the ability to secrete calcium carbonate o A major event of this era
and calcium phosphate for the was the breakup of
formation of shells. Pangea.
o Ordovician Period - This period marked o End of this era, the
the earliest appearance of vertebrates dinosaurs and reptiles
and the jawless fish known as Agnatha. were completely wiped
During this period, the level of carbon out.
dioxide was several times higher than
today.
o Silurian Period - This period
brought the emergence of

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Cenozoic Era - Known as the age of mammals

because mammals replaced the reptiles as the
dominant land animal. This era is made up of two
periods: Tertiary and Quartenary.
o Climates cooled during this era,
hence the widespread glaciation.
o The lowered sea level resulted in
the land bridges connections
between land masses.

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From the Lectures of Lydia O. Bustamante, LPT, MAST