VOLCANISM

The word volcano has been derived from the island of Vulcano, which lies off the north-east coast of
Sicily. A volcano is essentially a conical or dome shaped hill or mountain, formed by the extrusion of lava
or any other pyroclastic materials from a vent. Volcano is considered to be the most significant landform
created by volcanism. Volcanism is the general term used to cover all the phenomena related to the
eruption of magma to the surface of the earth. It is one of the most important evidences of the dynamic
nature of the earth and arises from the forces which are endogenous in nature.

CAUSES AND FORMATION OF VOLCANOES

As it has already been indicated, a volcano is the result of the process of volcanism in which lava is
extruded on the surface of the earth. This process is also known as effusive magmatism. Volcanism is
considered to be the outcome of the release of high pressures which build up within the magma chambers
below the ground surface. The origin of volcanism can be dealt with the explanation for-

(a) The origin of magma with its high temperature;

(b) The origin of volcanic gases; and
(c) The extrusion of magmas. ·
Magma may be produced because of the factors like-

(i) Geothermal gradient i.e. the increase of temperature with depth;

(ii) Accumulation of radioactively generated heat;
(iii) Relaxation of pressure locally etc. As we know, because of the high pressure at depth, the sub crustal
region is in a viscous state. Any release of pressure due to some diastrophic movements melt the rock
below and thereby producing pockets of magma.

It is also believed that water percolating through the crust gets converted in to steam du~ to increase of
temperature with depth. Besides, a number of gases may be produced due to the effect of magma on the
surrounding rocks. The steam and other gases may force the magma upwards causing eruption. There are
instances when the eruptions are accompanied by powerful explosion of gas.

The magma once produced will find its way upwards by the pressure of the overlying rock through
fissures, joints, cracks. etc, the development of which is mostly associated with crustal deformation.
Reaching the surface, igneous material may pour out in tongue-like lava-flows or may be ejected as

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tephra (pyroclastic debris) under pressure of confined gases. Whenever, the magmatic material is ejected
from an opening it spreads around the outlet and gradually cools and consolidates. The process of
repeated eruption, cooling and consolidation over a period of time gives rise to a conical structure,
commonly known as a volcano.
Every well-developed volcanic cone has near its top, a funnel-shaped depression that acts as the avenue
for the magmatic materials to rise. This depression at the top of a volcanic-cone is known as crater. The
crater is connected with the magma reservoir at the bottom through a pipe-like conduit, called volcanic
pipe. Sometimes lava may also issue from the sides of the volcano, giving rise to secondary, satellitic or
parasitic cones on the flanks of the main structure.

VOLCANIC PRODUCTS
Volcanoes usually produce three types of materials viz. solid, liquid and gaseous.
(a) Solid products Enormous quantities of solid materials are thrown out by volcanoes during an eruption.
They consist of fragments of rocks or pieces of already cooled lava. The ejections of the solid materials
are usually accompanied by violent explosions. The solid materials, during the initial stages of volcanism,
mostly contain the fragments of the crustal rocks through which the pipe of the volcano passes; but at
later stages they consist mostly the fragments of solidified lava, resulted from the partial solidification in
the molten reservoir beneath the surface as well as the solidified lava of earlier eruptions. The rock
fragments ejected during volcanic eruptions are called pyroclasts or tephra. Generally, larger fragments
fall at the edge of the crater and slide down its inner and outer slopes, while smaller ones are thrown into
the surrounding plains or pile up at the foot of the cone. According to their size and shape the pyroclastic
materials are classified as follows:

(i) Volcanic blocks: These are the largest masses of rock blown out. These are either the masses of the
solidified lava of earlier eruptions or those of the pre-existing rocks. They are usually angular and the
diameter of the fragments is always above 32 millimeter. Thus they are the huge solid fragments ejected
during a volcanic activity.

(ii) Volcanic bombs: These are rounded or spindle-shaped masses of hardened lava, which may develop
when clots of lava are blown into the air and get solidified before reaching the ground. Their ends are
twisted, indicating rapid rotation in the air while the material was plastic. Because of their somewhat
rounded appearance, they are known as volcanic bombs. The diameters of these fragments are always
above 32 millimeter. Bread-crust bombs are those volcanic bombs which present a cracked surface, may
be due to the approximately solid state of the material from which they have been formed, which gives
the appearance of the crust of bread.

(iii) Cinders or lapilli: the sizes of the fragments are between 4 mm to 32 mm, and are shaped very much
like bombs. The term 'lapilli' is used when the fragments are not conspicuously vesicular; and in case of
vesicular fragments they are known as cinders. Still smaller fragments are called volcanic-sand.

(iv) Ash: These particles range in size. from 0.25 mm to 4mm and as such, are the fine particles of lava.

(v) Fine-ash or volcanic dust: These are the minute pyroclastic materials, and their diameter is always
less than 0.25 mm. In many instances volcanic dust was carried by wind to enormous distances and
scattered over a vast territory forming volcanic dust layers. Pyroclastic materials accumulating on the
slopes and adjoining areas of a volcano with gradual compaction and cementation gives rise to rocks
called Volcanic-tuffs. These tuffs when consist of angular fragmental materials, they are known as
Volcanic breccias, when volcanic bombs are predominant in the tuffs, they are referred to as Volcanic-
agglomerates. The diameters of these fragments are always larger than 20 mm. 'The welded tuffs are

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commonly known as Ignimbrites. In certain instances, a great cloud of superheated vapours and
incandescent rock material and volcanic ash are violently emitted during the eruption. These are called
Nuees ardentes and are sometimes referred to as glowing avalanches.

(b) Liquid products

Lavas are the major and the most important liquid product of a volcano. As we know, the magma that has
flowed out on to the surface is called lava. All lavas contain gases, but because of the high pressure that
prevails in the interior of the earth the content of gases and vapours in the magma are more.
According to the composition and the gas content, the temperature of lavas during eruptions usually
ranges between 9000C to 12000C.
Like magma, lava is also divided in to three types viz. acidic, medium and basic, depending on the silica
content. Acid lavas contain a high proportion of silica, have high melting point and are usually very
viscous and therefore their mobility is low. They cool very slowly and contain many gases in a dissolved
state. They congeal at relatively short distances from the crater. Rhyolites, composed of orthoclase
feldspar and quartz are the examples of acid lavas.
The lavas of intermediate or medium composition have the silica content between 55 to 60%. Andesite
lavas are the best examples of the lavas of intermediate nature and they mostly characterize extrusions
around the margins of the Pacific.
The basic lavas contain low percentage of silica, which is usually 50% or less. These lavas melt at lower
temperature, and have a high density as well as liquid consistency. They cool quickly and contain little
gas. These lavas are highly mobile and spread over large distances, forming flows or sheets. Basalts are
the best examples of the basic lava.
Since the lava behave differently depending on their chemical composition the give rise to different
configurations when consolidated, as described below:

(i) Lava tunnels Sometimes the outer surface of the lava flows; cools and solidifies first forming a crust
while the lava is still in a liquid state inside. This enclosed liquid may drain out through some weak spots
of the solidified flow forming a tunnel called a lava-tunnel.

(ii) Block lava It is also known as aa -lava. In this case, the gases escape explosively from the partly
crystallized flows thus breaks the congealing crust in to an assemblage of rough and uneven blocks. The
escape of gases increases the viscosity of the lava and helps in rapid cooling, giving rise to a solidified
lava flow with spiny, ruby surface. It is therefore the Hawaiian name, aa (pronounced ah-ah meaning
rough or spiny) is applied to this type of lavas.

(iii) Ropy-lava Lavas with low-viscosity remain mobile for a longer period. These lava£ usually contain
much entrapped gas and cool very slowly. The lava spreads out in thin sheets and congeals with a smooth
surface which wrinkles or twisted into ropy form like that of a stream of flowing pitch. It is also called
Pahoehoe-structure.

(iv) Pillow lava- Lava erupted under water-logged sediments in sea-water, beneath ice-sheets, or in to rain
soaked air, characteristically emerges as a pile of rounded bulbous blobs or pillows. Basic lava of spilitic
type often presents pillow structure.

(v) Vesicular or Scoriaceous structure- When lavas heavily charged with gases and other volatiles are
erupted on the surface, the gaseous constituents escape from the lava, due to the decrease of pressure,
giving rise to a large number of empty cavities of variable dimensions on the surface of the lava-flows.
Due to the presence of vesicles or cavities, the resulting structure is known as vesicular structure.
These cavities when filled up subsequently with secondary minerals, the structure is called amygdaloidal
structure and the infillings as amygdales.

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A highly vesicular rock, which contains more gas space than rock, is known as Scoria. In more viscous
lavas, when the gases cannot escape easily and the lava quickly congeals, it forms Pumice or 'Rock -
froth', which contains so much void space that it can float in water.

(vi) Jointing As a consequence of contraction due to cooling joints are developed in the lava flows, which
may be manifested in the form of sheet, platy or columnar structures.

(c) Gaseous Produces Volcanic activity is invariably associated with emanation of steam and various
gases from the volcanoes. Water vapour constitutes about 60 to90% of the total content of the volcanic
gases· Second in abundance to steam among volcanic gases is carbon dioxide. Amongst other gases
which have been detected in considerable quantities, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur-
dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, boric-acid vapours, phosphorous, arsenic vapour, argon, hydrofluoric acid
etc. are the most important.
The vents emitting sulphurous vapours are called 'Solfataras when carbon-dioxides are emitted they are
called 'Mofettes' and in the case of emission of boric-acid vapours, they are known as Saffioni.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are classified in to various types on the following bases-
(a) Continuity of eruption;
(b) Nature of eruption; and
(c) Mode of eruption;

(a) Continuity of eruption On this basis volcanoes are classified as-Active, Dormant and Extinct. The
active volcanoes are those which still erupting either; intermittently or continuously. The volcano which
has not erupted for a longtime but is expected to be active at any time is called a dormant volcano;
whereas an extinct volcano is one which has stopped eruption over a long time. Killimanjaro in Tanzania
(Africa) is considered to be a dormant volcano.

(b) Nature of eruption Depending on factors like chemical composition of lavas, the amount of gas
contained in them and their pressure, temperature etc. the volcanic eruptions may be quiet, intermediate or
violent. In quite-type of volcanoes, the lava erupts quietly without any explosion. In this case the lava is
of basaltic composition, which is highly fluid and holds little gas. Intermediate-type of volcanoes erupt
intermittently with explosion in the beginning and gradually the explosive action dies down and lava is
emitted quietly.
In the Violent-type of volcanoes, there are explosive eruptions. The lava in such cases is of acidic nature
and has high degree of viscosity. The explosive volcanoes usually produce huge quantity of pyrociastic
materials.
(c) Mode of eruption On the basis of the mode of eruption volcanoes are classified as-Central-type and
Fissure-type.
1. Central type This type of Volcanoes are represented by a cone crowned by a bowl-like depression
called the crater and a vent, connecting the crater with the magma-chamber, through which the eruption
products reach the surface. A number of central types of volcanoes have been recognized depending on
the chemical composition of the lava, gaseous contents and the nature of the volcanic structure as
follows:-
(i) Hawaiian type In such cases the lava begins to pour over slowly the edge of the crater and flow down
the slope. Thus there is silent effusion of lava without any explosive activity. Sometimes, the lava,
foamed by gases, is sprayed into the air and solidified in the form of long glassy threads known as Pele' s
Hair. The lava is basaltic in nature. The Hawaiian type of volcanic eruption is characteristic of Mauna
Loa and Kilauea on the Hawaiian Islands.
(ii) Strombolian-type: In this type, the eruptions are rhythmic and they occur at intervals of 10 to 15
minutes. The lavas emitted are of basaltic composition which are less mobile and with more viscosity in

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comparison to those of Hawaiian types, because of more accumulation of gases. Moderate explosions
occur with the eruption, ejecting volcanic bombs, lapilli and slags. The Volcano 'Stromboli' in the Medit
rranean Sea shows this type of eruption. Since glow from the ejected masses are visible afar to men on
ships with regularity, it is called the Light house of the Mediterranean.

(iii) Vulcanian-type In this case, eruption takes place at longer intervals and the lava is more viscous
which quickly solidifies between consecutive eruptions, producing explosions. Each new-explosion
causes the shattering of the congealed cover. They emit much ash. This type is named after 'Vulcano' in
the Lipari Islands, north of Sicily, which shows this type of eruption.

(iv) Vesuvian-type These are characterized by extremely violent eruptions of lava which is highly charged
with gases, possessing a relatively high degree of viscosity, during a long period of superficial
quiescence. The eruptions occur after long intervals, usually measured in tens of years, ejecting huge
amount of volcanic produced in the form of volcanic ashes, lapilli, bombs etc. The lava flowing out of the
crater runs down the slope of the cone. After the volcanic activity subsides, it remains at rest for an
indefinite time. Volcanoes like Vesuvius, Etna located in the Mediterranean shows this type of eruption;
hence of the name.

(v) Plinian-type These are the most violent type of Vesuvian eruption. In such cases, huge quantities of
fragmental products are ejected with little or no discharge of lava.

(vi) Pelean-type This is the most violent type of all the eruptions. Here the lava is of andesitic
composition, and highly saturated with gases and possesses a high degree of viscosity. Such lava congeals
in the crater and because the vent gets plugged, the free exit of gases is prevented thus creating a
tremendous pressure beneath the plug.

Here the lava, therefore force its way out through side fissures and sweeps down the slopes as avalanche
of molten rock-materials of self-explosive type and gases. This combination of extremely hot,
incandescent fine ash and coarse rock fragments permeated with hot gas is known as Nuees ardentes.

2. Fissure type Sometimes volcanic eruptions take place along a fissure or a group of parallel or closed
fissures. Usually volcanic cones are not produced through fissure eruptions. Lava, flowing out of fissures
spreads out over extensive areas forming lava sheets. Fissure - eruptions are characterized by quiet
welling out of molten lava. The Deccan Traps in India are made up principally of basaltic lava-flows,
which were erupted mostly through fissures and covered a major portion of the Deccan-plateau.

VOLCANlC TOPOGRAPHY
Volcanoes produce distinctive land-forms, through extrusion of lava. The most obvious landform created
by volcanism is a volcano i.e. a conical hill composed of materials erupted during volcanism. The
volcanic topography includes both positive as well as negative relief features. The positive relief features
consist of the hills, cones, mountains, lava plateaus etc while the negative relief features include the
depressed forms like craters, calderas, volcanic-tectonic depressions etc.

Positive relief feature Some of the important positive relief features produced by volcanism are as
follows:
(a) Hornitos These are the terms applied to very small lava flows.
(b) Driblet cones These are small conelets produced by the most acid and viscous lava.
(c) Cinder cones These cones are formed due to the accumulation of loose rock fragments ejected during
volcanism immediately round the vent. Since such volcanoes erupt only a small quantity of lava, the
cones are built up principally of pyroclastic materials as cinder, bombs, ash etc. The sides of the cones
have a slope that is the angle of repose of the pyroclastic debris. These cones commonly have slopes of

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300 to 400 and do not exceed a height of 500 meters. As these cones grow around a central vent, with the
accumulation of pyroclastic debris they are also known as Ring crater or as tuff-ring when composed
dominantly of finer materials.

(d) Lava cone These are built up of lava flows, due to heaping of lava during quiet-type of eruption. Such
cones are usually dome-shaped but not conical because of the fluidity of lava. The form of these domes
varies depending on the nature of the lava, whether acidic or basic. They have gently sloping sides and
very broad base. These are also known as lava-or plug dome

(e) Composite cone The composite cones are made up alternately of pyroclastic material and lava flows.
As indicated by its name, a composite volcanic cone is formed partly by explosive eruptions (which are
chiefly responsible for increasing its height and steeping it summit slopes) and partly by lava that flows
forth quietly and widens its base. Thus they are intermediate in nature and composition between the
cinder cones on the one hand and lava-cones on the other. These cones are built up over long spans of
time. Due to the rude stratification of explosive materials and lava flows in such volcanoes they are also
known as ' Strata-volcanoes'. The important examples of these cones are shown by Fujiyama in Japan,
Mayon in the Phillipines, and Vesuvius in Itlay. The slopes of these volcanoes are sometimes found to be
covered with deep radially diverging grooves called barrancos.

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(f) Shield-Volcano These are made up of lava alone and are broad, gently sloping cones constructed of
solidified lava flows. These are formed by the piling up of flow after flow of fluid lava; thus a rounded
gently sloping dome like mass is produced. The slopes rarely exceed 8°. These are the lava cones formed
chiefly of basalt flows and are frequently the sites of fissure eruptions. The volcano Mauna Loa of
Hawaiian islands is an excellent example of shield-volcano.

(g) Spatter Cone Sometimes small, steep-sided cones are developed on the surface of a solidified lava
flow, at the spots where breaks occur in the cooled surface of the flow due to the pressure of the
entrapped gases. Thus hot lava and gases blow out forming steep sided cones which rarely exceed 10
meters in height.
(h) Volcanic -plateaus These are built by extensive extrusions of lavas, notably basalts, and are associated
with the fissure eruptions. There is piling of lava flows and each layer ranges in thickness between 15 to
100 meters and hundreds of square kilometers in extent. The Deccan plateau of the Peninsular India
represents the best example.

Negative Relief Features The negative relief features in a volcanic terrain commonly consist of the
following:-
(a) Crater This is a depression located at the summit of the volcanic cone. It is usually a funnel-shaped
hollow that marks the top of the volcanic-vent. These craters may be formed as follows:
(i) Sometimes pyroclastic materials ejected out during a volcanic eruption, accumulate around the
opening i.e. at the upper end of the vent. Thus a ring-shaped mound is formed, which is known as the
Crater-ring. The crater is situated, in such cases, at the centre of the ring. Craters of such origin are called
'Ubehebes', a term applied by Cotton after the Ubehebe Craters at the north end of Death Valley.
(ii) Craters may also form by subsidence of the apex of the cone due to collapse of the structure because
of with drawl of the underlying support.
(iii) In majority of the cases, craters are formed by the explosion that occurs during a volcanic eruption,
whereby the apex of the volcano is blown out.
Sometimes due to explosive eruption· small craters are formed without the building of cones. Such small
craters are known as explosion pits. The explosion-pits, when occupied by small water-bodies form
miniature crater-lakes. Such small crater lakes are seen in the Eifel district of Germany, where they are
called maare or maars

(b) Caldera A caldera is generally a volcanic crater, which is enlarged to a diameter of several kilometers.
These circular depressions commonly have steep inner walls and a flat floor. The calderas may have
different origins and therefore, are of different types as follows:
(i) Explosion Calderas Sometimes due to violent volcanic explosion the entire central portion of the
volcano is destroyed and a great central depression remains. This great central depression is called a
Caldera. Bandai-San in Japan represents an example of this type of caldera.
(ii) Callapse Caldera These are formed when the top of a volcano collapses or subsides into a vacated
magma chamber beneath the volcano, because of the withdrawal of the underlying support. It is believed

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that the rapid eruption of lava and pyrociastic materials etc. lower the level of magma in the main
reservoir to such an extent that a potential void is left. Thus the crater-floor subsides, since there is no
support from beneath. The caldera of the volcano Krakatau in Indonesia is an example.

(iii) Resurgent Caldera According to M.P. Billings, these are formed where collapse is followed by the
doming of the central block. Example-Valles Caldera in New Mexico.

(iv) Erosion Caldera These calderas are formed by the enlargement of craters of volcanoes by various
eroding agents.
The Duldir -caldera is the largest known caldera located between the islands of Kiska and Buldir in the
Aleutian chain.
(c) Volcanic--tectonic depressions Due to tectonic reasons sometimes depressions are formed on the
slopes of the volcanic cones. These are volcanic-tectonic depressions.

IMPORTANT FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANOES

(i) Volcanic-necks It is produced when the conduit of the volcano is chocked up due to gradual
consolidation of lava and because of their resistant nature they are preserved even after the former
volcanic cone and domes is obliterated by erosion. The term volcanic plug is used for the lava-mass
solidified in the conduit of the volcano. These are also known as Puys.

(ii) Cone-in Cone topography: After an explosion destroys an existing crater, a new smaller cone with its
own crater is sometimes built up. The remnants of the previous large and old cone form a ring round the
inner young cone. The term Somma is used for the ring or the semi destroyed old crater, inside which
rises a cone by subsequent eruptions. The term was first used for the ring at the summit of Vesuvius. The
topography is known as Cone-in-Cone topography.

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FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE" DECAYING
PHASES OF VOLACANISM .
Even after a volcano ceases to eject pyroclasic materials and lava, it may continue to emit steam, gases,
mud etc. and these activities are expressed in form of fumaroles, hot springs, geysers, mud-volcanoes etc.
(a) Fumaroles These are fissures or vents through which volcanic gases are ejected. The emission of
gases, especially steam, occurs in all stages of volcanic activity, but it becomes the dominating and
characteristic features of its declining stage. A volcano discharging gases only is said to have attained the
fumarolic stage. From the analysis of the materials accumulated by fumaroles, it has been established that
the fumarolic gases belong to the groups of halides, sulphur, carbon, water-vapour, boric acid vapour
hydrogen etc. The gas composition of fumaroles largely depends on their temperature and accordingly
they have been classified as follows:
(i) Dry fumaroles These are characterized by high temperature (around 5000C) and no steam. They are
highly-saturated, with chlorous compounds of sodium, potassium and iron.
(ii) Acid fumaroles These are also high temperature fumaroles, where the temperature is between 300 to
4000C. But they contain steam, hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide.

(iii) Alkaline fumaroles These are within the temperature range of 200 to 3000C and contain mainly
ammonium chloride.
(iv) Solfataras, are the fumaroles emitting sulpurous vapours and are characterized by temperature of 100
to 2000C.
(v) Mofettes are the fumaroles which mainly emit carbon dioxide and steam and are with a temperature
below 1000C.
(vi) Saffioni, are the fumaroles emitting boric-acid vapours.

The gaseous emanations from the fumaroles by the reaction with the country rocks sometimes bring about
remarkable change in their mineralogical composition. The processes as a whole, are known as
Pneumatolysis. The unique fumarolic field is the "Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes" near Katmai Volcano
(Alaska).
(b) Hot springs These are also known as Thermal. These are avenues through which hot-water escapes to
the surface. Hot springs occur not only in volcanic regions but also in areas characterized by recent
tectonic movements. Hot springs bring chemical substances to the surface. Calcareous deposits formed
from hot-spring are known as Travertine or Tufa. Siliceous deposits produced by hot-springs are called as
Siliceous-sinters.
The water of the hot springs usually gets heated with the increased temperature below, may be due to
magmatic or radioactive heat.
(c) Geysers These are hot-springs ejecting boiling water and steam intermittently. In these cases, hot
water and steam are explosively discharged. The waters of geysers contain a large amount of mineral
matter, predominantly silica. At the time of eruption, the mineral matter fall out on the edges of the
opening or vent, forming conical structures. Such mineral deposits are called geyserites.
(d) Mud-volcanoes These are cone-shaped mounds, built up of mud, like miniature volcanoes. It is
believed that hot water when passes through mud or volcanic ash in its ascent to the surface, it
becomes muddy and form a conical mound with a crater at the top. In certain cases the mud eruptions are
quiet where the mud boils up and erupts in small spouts, whereas in other cases the eruption is explosive.
The volcanic mud-flows are also known as Lahars.
Mud-volcanoes occur in volcanic regions as well as in the area of oil deposits( where the driving forces
are gases produced due to decomposition of organic matter).

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

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At present there are more than 500 active volcanoes but these are not scattered irregularly over the globe.
It has been observed that volcanic activity is strictly confined to certain limited sectors of the crust. They
are mostly found on the marginal parts of the continents and in the littoral zones of oceans and seas
they are situated within the boundaries of young tectonically mobile mountain structures. Thus, the
distribution of the present day volcanoes is restricted mostly to the mobile-zones of the earth's crust. Of
course there are certain exceptions as for example, there are no volcanoes in the Himalayas and there is
no sign of recent-folding in Iceland.
The most Important belt of volcanoes is the so-called Ring of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt where more
than 60 percent of the active volcanoes are located. It extends through the Andes of South America,
Central-America, Mexico, the Cascade Mountains of western U.S.A., the Aleutian Islands, Kamchatka,
the Kurile Islands, Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Hebrides and New Zealand.
Volcanoes like Cotopaxi, Katmai, Fujiyama etc. are located in this belt.

Another belt runs north-south through the Atlantic and accordingly is known as Atlantic belt. It extends,
from Jan Mayen Island in the north, through Iceland, the Azores and the Canary Islands to the Cape
Verde Islands in the south. Volcanoes like Mt. Pelee, St. Helena, Mt. Hekla, Mt. Helgalfel etc. are located
in this Another volcanic belt is the Mediterranean Himalaya belt extending east-west from the Alps via
the Apennines to the Caucasus and the mountains of Asia Minor. Volcanoes like Vesuvius, Etna, Mount
Ararat and those of the Lipari Islands are located in this belt.

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