AGEN 131: BASIC FARM POWER SOURCE AND UTILIZATION

NOTES

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 CHAPTER ONE
FARM POWER
Farm power is any source of energy used in carrying out farm operations. It is the rate of doing
work in the farm

FARM POWER SOURCES

1. Human power
2. Animal power
3. Mechanical power
4. Electricity
5. Wind
6. Solar
7. Biogas
8. Mini hydro power
9. Fuels
1) Human power
On small farms, labour is supplied by the farmer and family members or employed labourers.
Humans are used to operate machines such as tractors, hand pumps or transportation e.tc.
Advantages of human power
Humans pay close attention to details, of agricultural operations. They can monitor health
of plants and animals, spot pests and diseases and device necessary actions. Machines
cannot or it is challenging for machines to detect diseases, pests in farmlands
Human power is cost-effective in small scale farms. Maintenance and operation of
machinery need technical expertise and resource that is not available to small scale
farmers or it is expensive
Cultural and traditional knowledge is integrated into farming from labourer. Human
power bring knowledge down generations such as local crop varieties, planting methods,
soil management and weather patterns which are adapted to suit local conditions
Precision in farm operations such as pruning, grafting, that harvesting machines struggle
to imitate
Employment to many people that machine replace. Agriculture is a major employment to
many people around the world

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 Resilience to technological failure, Humans acts in times of machine breakup as a
backup guaranteeing operation even when machines break down
Environmental conservation, machines emit greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, using
human power prevent or reduce effect of green house gases.
Disadvantages of human power
Using human power can be tiring and put a strain on the body, leading to fatigue, injuries,
and potential long term health problems
When tasks like planting or harvesting are done manually they take more time, the lack of
efficiency restrict the farm’s production scale and overall productivity
Labour shortages because young people are not interested in farming which cause delays
in planting and harvesting
Human power is affected by weather conditions. During bad weather such a scorching
heat, cold, heavy rain, it stop farm work and result in crop damage
Relying on human labor can be tough financially because of increasing wages and the
expenses of hiring, training and keeping workers
Human power have different skills, efficiency and reliability which can result in
inconsistent quality and productivity.
Resistance or difficulty to embrace modern agricultural technologies
Farm workers are exposed to dangerous chemical and limited healthcare which result to
occupation health issues
2) Animal power
Animals such as Bulls, Donkeys, Buffaloes, Camels, Horses and Elephants are used to pull farm
implements to perform various farm operations. Animals are also used for transportation.

ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL POWER

1. Animals can perform more jobs than man

2. It is cheaper to purchase
3. It can handle many farm operations
4. It can be controlled or easy to maintain
5. Maintenance cost is low
6. Animals do not get tired or fatigue easily

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 7. It can be used in place of machines for drawing implement

DISADVANTAGES

1. Animals used for work have shorter life span

2. They loose energy and weight quicker than machines
3. Huge amount of money is needed to feed and maintain the animals
4. It cannot work at certain times of the day
5. Disease may affect the efficiency of the animal
6. The use of animals is restricted for certain climatic zone (e.g. tse-tse fly free zone)
7. They are not suitable for processing agricultural products as they may eat it up
8. Not suitable for large scale production
9. They can die or get fatigue easily
10. Power output is low.

3) Mechanical power/ agricultural machinery

Mechanical power is available through farm tractor and stationary engines. The engine converts
fuel into useful work. Agricultural machinery refers to various machines used in farming to
improve production.
Advantages of mechanical power
 Improve production per unit area
 Precise farming, inputs such as water, fertilizers, pesticides are applied precisely
where they are needed
 Faster operation; farm machines can do work of many people at a shorter time
 Economical, saves money in the long run by reducing labour costs and increasing
productivity
 Enhancement of safety of operations and environment
Disadvantages of mechanical power
 Mechanical systems are subject to frictional losses which can decrease efficiency and
lead to wear and tear of components
 Mechanical systems can be bulky and heavy in application requiring large amount of
energy transfer or storage

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  Designing and maintenance of mechanical system can be complex and require expertise,
especially in high performance or specialized applications
 Some mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines can produce emissions
and pollutants, contributing to environmental pollution and climate change
4) Electrical power

This is the type of Power derived from electricity or generator

Electricity is generated at power stations by electro- mechanical generators driven by heat

engines, chemical combustions, nuclear fission, kinetic energy of flowing water and wind, solar
photovoltaics and geothermal power and then transmitted to farms. Use of electricity is for
irrigation, lighting, water supply, dairy, cold storage, fruit processing, grain processing and cattle
feeds processing among others

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL POWER

1. It is cheap source of power

2. it is very neat
3. It cannot contaminate products
4. It can be used at different times for various services
5. It is easy to operate
6. It aids fast operation and increase productivity

DISADVANTAGES

1. It is dangerous if carelessly handled

2. It is not always regular especially in developing countries
3. It Maintenance cost may be high
4. It can cause five Lazard
5. It cannot be widely used in field operation

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 5) Wind Power
Wind is a renewable source of energy. Wind turbines installed in areas far from human
settlement and areas with strong wind can be used for irrigation, water supply or generation of
electricity that can be supplied to national grid or directly used for farm operations. Wind turbine
is a device that converts the kinetic energy of the wind into electricity.
Wind turbine should be far from residential buildings because, it causes health problems, if
installed close to people or animals.
Parts of a wind turbine
1. The foundation
This is a heavy structural block of concrete in the ground that support entire turbine and the
forces acting on it.
2. The tower
The tower is made of steel or wood and is assembled on site. The height varies but is same as the
diameter of the circle that the blade create when they spin. The tower contain the power cable
that connect the nacelle to the transformer on the ground
3. The nacelle
The nacelle is located on top of the tower and can turn 360 0 on its own axis, depending on the
direction of the wind. It houses the gear box and generator
4. Rotor and hub
The blades are attached to the hub and the hub is connected to the nacelle
5. The blades
The blades are located on top of the turbine. The length is 52m. Wind causes the air difference
that causes lift and drag that cause the rotor to spin
Advantages of wind energy
 Wind energy can be produced in lands not suitable for agriculture, residential or industry
therefore leveraging maximum land use and economical gain
 It is clean and renewable
 Low cost, Once wind turbines are installed, the only cost is maintenance
Disadvantages
 Causes health issues to animals and humans because windmills affect wind velocity at
installed sites, thus displacement of humans or animals if the place was, initially habited.

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  Wind turbines can be noisy. Wind turbines create both aerodynamic noise of the blades
slicing through the air and mechanical noise of power generating machines. The noise
can affect humans and wildlife
 Wind power is limited to areas with strong and steady wind. Energy generation slows or
stops when the wind slows or stops.
6) Solar energy
Solar energy is renewable and derived from the sun’s radiation. The heat from the sun is,
used directly to heat water, drying or converted to mechanical energy to run machines or
electrical energy for lighting, heating, cooling, or run machines. Photovoltaic technology directly
converts sunlight to electricity using panels of semiconductor cells. Panels can be, costumed to
various sizes according to affordability and energy demand in a particular setup. Solar energy
works everywhere and remote places can take advantages of the sun for generation of electricity
in areas not served by national grid.
Land requirements
Solar panels require land or space for installation and transmission of electrical energy from
the site to point of use. Possible spaces for installing solar panels are:
 Rooftops of buildings
 Arid and lands; suitable for large scale, where electricity is transmitted to the grid
 Other lands in case of small scale
Advantages of Solar energy
 Does not require a lot of land if it is in small scale
 Can be costumed according to farm or industrial needs
 Does not require water for production or operation
 Solar energy can be, costumed to various uses such as heating, directly run machines, drying
or converted to electrical energy.
 Suitable in decentralized set ups that are not, connected to the grid such as in a home,
institution, farm, or industry.
Disadvantages
 Solar energy requires sunlight
 High initial installation cost
 Requires space

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 Solar energy for small-scale use
a. Water pumping
Electricity generated from solar panels is, used to directly, pump water from wells or to house
outlets. Suitable in isolated wells, homes, irrigation and farms
b. Running DC Machines
Solar energy can be, used for directly running machines
c. Homestead lighting and street lighting
Isolated homes can take advantage of solar energy since it can be, costumed to suit homestead
lighting needs. It also saves on monthly electricity bills. Solar energy is economical in street
lighting and should be, widely adopted.
d. Water Heating
Solar energy is, directly used to heat water in various homes, farm, or industry
e. Drying
Sunlight is, used to dry grains, and various items by means of evaporation.
Large Scale Solar Energy
Electricity generated from sunlight in large scale is, incorporated to the national grid. It
requires a lot of land for large-scale solar energy production. The most appropriate land for this
purpose is, arid and semi arid lands that are not suitable for agricultural purposes.
Biogas
Biogas is a gaseous renewable energy source. It is produced from raw materials such as
agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste, waste water
and food waste. Biogas is biofuel that is naturally produced by anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic
digestion is a natural process of fermentation that breakdown organic matter to energy mainly
methane and carbon dioxide. It can be used for electricity generation, cooking, space heating,
water heating and process heating. When compressed into natural gas, it is used in vehicles.
Advantages of Biogas
 Biogas is renewable source of energy. The material used such as cow dung and food
waste are always available throughout
 The process of producing biogas is natural. It does not require other form of energy to
produce biogas

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  Biogas production helps in cleaning the environment of wastes that would otherwise
accumulated as landfills and contaminate soil or water when washed away
 The discharge from the digester can be used as fertilizer
 The cost of production is low and adjustable to a size of the farm
 Biogas can also be compressed to natural gas to power automobiles
Disadvantages
 It is affected by the weather and suitable in warm weather, during cold climates, gas
production may be difficult
 Less suitable in high populated areas, appropriate in rural or suburban area

6) Mini hydro power

Mini Hydro power is suitable in isolated areas not served with electricity from national grid.
Hydroelectric power is the generation of electricity from the flow of water. Water flows from a
reservoir through a pipe into a turbine and rotates the electrical generators that converts the
motion into electrical energy. The water source should be dependable and at a reasonable height
Factors considered in developing mini hydropower
 The distance from a water source (stream, river, or lake) to the location where energy is
required
 The size of stream, flow rate, output, drop, and balance of inverters, batteries, controller,
transmission line and pipeline
Advantages of mini hydro power
 It is an efficient energy source since it requires small amount of flow or drop to generate
electricity.
 Produces continuous source of energy, even during cold/winter, unlike solar or biogas
that depend on the sun and high temperatures
 Electricity is generated as water moves through a river and the water that passes through
a generator flows back into the river preventing impact on the surrounding environment.
 It is a cost effective source of energy since building a small- scale hydroelectricity and
maintenance is relatively small, compared to other technologies
9. Fuels

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Fuels are combustible substances containing carbon as main constituents which on proper
burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used for various purposes.
Fuels can be classified based on their occurrence and physical state
Occurrence
a) Primary (natural) fuels
These are fuels that occur in nature . examples are wood, peat, coal, petroleum, and natural gas
b) Secondary ( artificial) fuels
These are fuels derived from the primary fuel by further processing. Examples are; charcoal,
kerosene, diesel, petrol and coke
Classes of fuels
a) Solid
Wood, peat, coal, dung, coke, charcoal
Advantages of solid fuels
 Easy to transport
 Convenient to store without risk of spontaneous explosion
 Cost of production is low
 Posses moderate ignition temperature
Disadvantages
 High Ash content
 Heat is wasted during combustion
 Clinker formation
 Combustion operations cannot be controlled easily
 Cost of handling is high
 Low calorific value
 Excess air for complete combustion
 Cannot be used as internal combustion engine fuels
b) Liquid fuels
Petroleum, Diesel, petrol, kerosene, ethanol
Advantages of liquid fuels
 They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels
 They burn without dust, ash, clinker
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  Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel
supply
 They are easy to transport through pipes
 They can be stored indefinitely without any loss
 They are clean in use and economic to handle
 Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness
 They require less excess air for complete combustion
 They require less furnace space for combustion
Disadvantages of liquid fuels
 Liquid fuels are susceptible to catch fire and hence explosions are more likely to occur
than solid fuels
 Costly than solid fuels
c) Gaseous fuels
Natural gas, hydrogen, methane, coal gas, propane
Advantages of gaseous fuels
 They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby
eliminating manual labour in transportation
 They can be lighted at ease
 They have high heat contents
 Their combustion can readily be controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or
reducing atmosphere, length of flame, temperature e.t.c
 They are clean in use
 They do not require any special burner
 They burn without any soot, or smoke and ashes
 They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels
Disadvantages of gaseous fuels
 Very large storage tanks are needed
 They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use are very high


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Fossil fuels are coal and crude petroleum formed from organic matter many millions of years
ago
Advantages of fossil fuels
 Fossil fuels are used to generate electricity in bulk at a single location
 Fossil fuels are found easily
 Fossil fuels are cost effective
 Transportation of fossil is easy by use of pipelines for transporting petroleum
 Fossil fuel power station can be built anywhere
Disadvantages of fossil fuel
 Emission of carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels causes global warming and degrade
our environment
 Fossil fuels are exhaustible or non renewable
 Exposure to chemicals and silica is dangerous for the health of fossil fuel harvesters
 Harvesting fossil fuels is difficult and poses health risks

QUALITIES/PROPERTIES OF FUEL
(i) Volatility,-It is the vaporizing ability of a fuel at a given temperature. It indicates the
operating characteristics of the fuel inside the engine.
(ii) Calorific value -The heat liberated by combustion of a fuel is known as calorific value or heat
value of the fuel. It is expressed in kcal/kg of the fuel. Calorific values (kcal/kg) of different
fuels are as follows:

1) Petrol – 11,100 (highest)

2) Power kerosene – 10,850
3) High speed diesel oil (HSD oil) - 10,550
4) Light diesel oil (LDO oil) – 10,300
(iii) Ignition quality of fuel. -It refers to ease of burning the oil in the combustion chamber.
A good fuel contains a combination of qualities such as good volatility, high antiknock value,
chemical purity, and freedom from gum

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 CHAPTER TWO
COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
It is the engine designed to derive its power from the fuel, burnt outside the engine cylinder, the
combustion process uses heat in the form of steam, which is generated in a boiler, placed entirely
separate from the working cylinder
2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Internal combustion engine is an engine in which the burning of fuel occur in a confined space
called combustion chamber in the engine itself.

PARTS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

1. Engine block
Engine block is the main housing of the engine of the engine and is usually made of cast iron or
aluminum. It contains cylinders, piston and crankshaft
2. Cylinder head
The cylinder head sits on top of the engine block and contains the valves which control the air
and fuel ration in the cylinder and the exhaust gases that go out of the engine. It also houses the
spark plugs which ignite the air and fuel mixture inside the cylinder
3. Intake and exhaust valves
Intake valve are responsible of letting air and fuel into the cylinders, while exhaust valves allow
the combustion gases to exit the engine. The timing of the valve opening and closing is
controlled the camshaft which is driven by the crankshaft.
4. Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a long rotating shaft that control the up and down motion of the pistons that
powers the wheels or moves the vehicle. The timing of the crankshaft is controlled by the timing
belt or timing chain
5. Connecting rod.
It connects the piston and crank shaft, hence it is used to transmit power between the two during
power stroke
6. Piston

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It is used for compressing petrol-air mixture in petrol engines and air in diesel engine. Also used
to expel exhaust gases from the cylinders. Conducts away excess heat and prevents leakage of
fuel.
7. Fuel system
The fuel system is responsible for delivering fuel to the engine typically through fuel injectors or
a carburetor
8. Ignition system
The ignition system is responsible for providing the spark that ignites the air and fuel mixture
inside the cylinder
9. The lubrication
The lubrication system is responsible for circulating oil throughout the engine to lubricate the
moving parts and reduce friction wear. It typically consists of an oil pump, oil filter, and oil
passages throughout the engine
10. The cooling system
Power production process in the engine gives a lot of heat. This heat should be kept at safe
limits. Too much heat within the engine may lead to overheating and hence expansion of engine
components, which can distort its shape causing gas leakage, valve burning, loss of engine power
and even cracking of the cylinder or its head. Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others
are cooled by water.
All of above components have to work together in perfect harmony to produce power and propel
the tractor.
TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
a) 4 stroke engine
Four stoke engines are fuel-efficient and operates in four steps
1) Intake stoke
The intake valve opens and fuel is drawn in with a piston downward stroke. The exhaust valve is
closed
2) Compression stoke
As the piston moves upward, the fuel is compressed. All valves are closed.
3) Power stoke

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After the fuel is compressed, it is ignited to produce the engine power. All valves are closed. The
piston moves downward.
4) Exhaust stoke
The exhaust valve opens and the exhaust gases exit the cylinder. The inlet valve is closed and the
piston moves upward.

Four stroke engine

b) 2 stroke engine
A two stoke engine combines the compression and ignition step on the upward stroke and power
and exhaust steps on the downward stroke
1) Upward stroke (ignition/compression); the piston goes up, air and fuel enter the
crankcase. The fuel-air mixture is compressed and ignited
2) Downward stroke (power/exhaust); once the fuel is ignited, the piston is pushed down
and the exhaust is expelled.

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 Two stroke engine
Induction and Compression
When the piston moves up the cylinder, it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and the
transfer port, which are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps a charge of fresh
mixture in the cylinder and further upward movement of the piston compresses this charge.
Further movement of the piston also uncovers a third port in the cylinder suction port. More
fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in the cylinder is ignited as in the four stroke cycle.
Power and Exhaust
The rise in pressure in the cylinder caused by the burning gases forces the piston to move down
the cylinder. When the piston goes down, it covers and closes the suction port, trapping the
mixture drawn into the crankcase during the previous stroke then compressing it. Further
downward movements of the piston uncover first the exhaust port and then transfer port. This
allows the burnt gases to flow out through exhaust port. Also the fresh mixture under pressure in
the crankcase is transferred into the cylinder through transfer port during this stroke. Special
shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in
driving out the exhaust gases. When the piston is at the top of its stroke, it is said to be at the top
dead centre (TDC). When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, it is said to be at its bottom

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dead centre (BDC). In two stroke cycle engine, both the sides of the piston are effective, which is
not the case in case of four stroke cycle engine.
Advantages of a 4 stroke engine
o four stroke engine yield higher level of torque at a lower RPM during operation
o A four stroke engine only consumes fuel once every four strokes, making it more fuel
efficient engine option
o Four stroke engine give off less pollution
o The four stroke engine is durable and can withstand higher amount of wear and tear
o Four stroke engine produces less noise and vibration during operation
Disadvantages of 4 stroke engine
o heavier than two stroke engine
o a four stroke engine contains more parts and valves making repair and maintenance
expensive
o the design is less powerful than a comparable two –stroke engine
o the design has gear and chain mechanism which can cause complications during
maintenance
o four stroke engine require regular maintenance leading to increased costs
Advantages of 2 stroke engines
o a two stroke engine weighs less compared to a four- stroke engine and requires less space
o the engine turning movement is even since it takes one power stroke for each crankshaft
revolution
o the engine’s design is simple due to the lack of valve mechanism
o during operation, this engine creates less friction on parts hence increased mechanical
efficiency
o the two stroke engine has high power to weight ratio
o the engine can operate at cold and hot external temperatures
Disadvantages of 2 stroke engines
o they consume more fuel
o two stroke engines have high vibrations or noise during operations
o two stroke engines have shorter life span since it incur increased wear and tear
o a two- stroke engine has a narrow power band

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 o two stroke engine may become unstable while idling
o A two stroke engine does not burn as cleanly leading to a higher level of air pollution
than four stroke engine
Applications of 2 stroke engines
Outdoor power equipment such as
- Chainsaws
- Blowers
- Trimmers
- Hedge trimmers
- Outboard motors
- Motorcycles
- Dirt bikes
Applications of 4 stroke engines
Outdoor power equipments
-vehicles
-tractors
-lawn mowers
- light aircrafts
- diesel trains
Differences between two stroke engine and four stroke engine
Two stroke engine Four stroke engine
1. A two stroke engine is a type of internal 1. A four stroke engine is an internal
combustion engine which completes a power combustion engine in which the piston
cycle with two stroke of the piston during one completes four separate strokes while turning
crankshaft revolution the crankshaft
2. It generate high torque 2. It generates less torque
3. It uses a port for fuel’s outlet and inlet 3. It uses valves for fuel’s outlet and inlet
4. Its engine result in lesser thermal efficiency 4. Its engine result in higher thermal efficiency
5. It has a larger ratio in terms of power to 5. It has a lesser ratio in terms of power to
weight weight
6. It generates more smoke and shows less 6. It generates less smoke and shows more

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efficiency efficiency
7. Requires more lubricating oil 7. Requires less lubricating oil
8. More wear and tear occur 8. Less wear and tear occur
9. Engines are cheaper and simple to 9. Engine are expensive due to lubrication and
manufacture valve are tough to manufacture
10. Engine is lighter and nosier 10. Engine1is heavier and less noisy

ENGINE TERMINOLOGIES

Bore: Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder

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Stroke: It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from Top dead centre (TDC) to Bottom
dead centre (BDC).
Stroke-bore ratio: The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of bore (D) of the Cylinder is
called Stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 to 1.45 and for tractor
engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
Swept volume (Piston displacement): It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of the
piston where A is the cross sectional area of piston and L is the length of stroke.
Engine capacity: Equal to swept volume multiplied by number of cylinders
Displacement volume (Vd) : It is the total swept volume of all the pistons during power strokes
occurring in a period of one minute.
Vd = ALn
A – piston area
L – piston stroke
N – number of power strokes per minute for all cylinders.
Power: It is the rate of doing work. Unit of power in SI units - Watt (Joule/sec).
Horse power: It is the rate of doing work. One HP is equivalent to 75 kg-m / sec.
Indicated Horse Power (IHP): it is the total horse power developed by all the cylinders and
received by pistons, without friction and losses within the engine.

Where P - Mean effective pressure in Kg/cm2

L- Length of the piston stroke in meters
A -Cross sectional area of piston in cm2
N- rpm of the engine
n - Number of cylinders in the engine

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Brake horse power (B.H.P): It is the horsepower delivered by the engine and is vailable at the
end of the crankshaft and it is measured by suitable dynamometer.
Frictional horse power (F.H.P): It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed
without producing any useful work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of the engine.
F.H.P= I.H.P - B.H.P
I.H.P = B.H.P + F.H.P
Mechanical efficiency: It is the ratio of the brake horse power to the indicated horse power.

Firing order

This is the order in which the power stroke occurs in the cylinder .The sequence of events is
staggered from one cylinder to another so that the crucial power strokes occur at equal intervals
one after the other .The order of the cylinders firing in relation to their position on the crankshaft
is also staggered to minimize stress on the shaft and its bearing mountings .On a four –cylinder
engine with its cylinder numbered 1–4 from the front end , the firing order is 1,2,3,4, or 1,3,4,2.
Firing Interval (F.I)
The interval between successive power strokes in different cylinders of the engine is called firing
interval and is determined as below.
720°
F.I = ---------------------- (for four stroke engine)
No. of cylinder
360°
F.I = ---------------------- (for two stroke engine)
No. of cylinder
Compression ratio:
This is the ratio of the total air in the cylinder to the ratio of compressed air i.e. ration of total
cylinder volume to clearance volume. It is usually about of 15:1 in petrol engines and 20:1 in
diesel engines.

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Exercise
Given the following data
Cylinder size bore 13 cm, length 16 cm
Fly wheel speed 1300 rpm
Mean effective pressure 8 kg/cm2
Mechanical efficiency 75%
Clearance volume : 120 cm3
Engine type: four stroke four cylinder compression ignition engine
Calculate
i. Indicated Horse power ( IHP)
ii. Brake Horse power (BHP)
iii. Compression ratio
iv. Swept volume
v. Engine capacity

Because of the higher compression ratio, a diesel engine is more efficient and economical than a
petrol engine. Apart from the use of different fuels, a basic difference between these engines is
that the petrol is first mixed with air in the carburetor. Diesel oil enters the cylinder through an
injector, and it is in the cylinder itself that the fuel mixes with air. Other differences between
these engines are summarized in table belo

PETROL ENGINE

It is the engine, in which liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with air in correct
proportion before entering onto the engine cylinder during suction stroke. The fuel is ignited in
the cylinder by an electric spark.

DIESEL ENGINE

In this engine, during suction stroke, only air enters into the cylinder and compressed. The fuel is
injected and ignited by heat of compression

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES

PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

1 Has a carburetor 1 Has an injector pump
2 Has a spark plug 2 Has no spark plug
3 Fuel is ignited by an electric spark 3 Fuel ignited by compression
4 Air/ fuel mixture compressed during 4 Only air is compressed during compression
compression stroke
5 Air and fuel meet in carburetor 5 Air and fuel meet in the cylinder
6 Has a low compression ratio 6 Has higher compression ratio
7 Has no sediment bowl 7 Has a sediment bowl
8 Produces little smoke 8 Produces a lot of smoke
9 Relatively light in weight and suited to 9 Heavy in weight and suited to heavy duties
light duties
10 They use highly flammable fuels e.g 10 They use low flammable fuel e,g diesel
petrol
11 A battery is always necessary and 11 They can operate without a battery
cannot operate without it
12 They use more fuel for the same 12 They are more economical in fuel
amount of work consumption

Detonation-Detonation or engine knocking refers to violent noises heard in an engine during the
process of combustion after the piston has passed over the Top Dead Centre. It is an undesirable
combustion and results in sudden rise in pressure, a loss of power and overheating of the engine.
This may cause damage to pistons, valves, gasket and other parts. Detonation is caused by
improper combustion chamber, high compression pressure, early ignition timing, improper fuel
and inadequate cooling arrangement.
Pre-ignition Burning of air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber before the piston has
reached the Top Dead Centre is called pre-ignition. This may be due to excessive heat in the
cylinder.

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 CHAPTER THREE

THE ENGINE AIR AND FUEL SYSTEM

The Fuel System of a Diesel Engine

Fuel is a substance consumed by the engine to produce energy. The common fuels for I ( Internal
combustion engine) engines are:
(i) Petrol,
ii) power kerosene,
(iii) high speed diesel oil (H.S.D oil) and
(iv) light diesel oil (L.D.O)
Fuel supply system in compression ignition engine or diesel engine
The main components of the fuel supply system in diesel engine are:
(i) fuel tank,
(ii) primary fuel filter,
(iii) fuel transfer pump or fuel lift pump,
(iv) secondary fuel filter,
(v) fuel injection pump,
(vi) high pressure pipes,
(vii) fuel injection nozzles or fuel injectors and over flow pipe

24
Fuel system diagram

Fuel flows by gravity from the tank to the sediment bowl. The function of the bowl is to help
indicate whether the fuel is clean or dirty. However some tractors do not have a sediment bowl.
Fuel then goes down the lift pump which serves the purpose of:

i. Continuous pumping of fuel to the injector pump at constant pressure.

ii. Help to bleed out air bubbles in case any air enters the fuel system.
Fuel lift pump. This forces fuel to the carburetor in petrol engines or to the injector pump in
diesel engines.

Injector pump. In diesel engines this pumps meters the exact volume of diesel needed in each
cylinder, through the injector nozzles. The injectors break down the diesel into a very fine spray.
Fuel returns pipe line. Excess fuel from the cylinders is passed back to the fuel tank along this
pipe line.
From the lift pumped up through the fuel filters where any form of dirt is trapped so that fuel
enters the injector pump absolutely clean. This is because the injector pump is made up of very

25
delicate and expensive components which can be easily be damaged by dirt or dust particles.
Depending on the type and make of the engine, one or more filters may be fitted. After leaving
the fuel filters, fuel is fed to the injector pump where it is subjected to very high pressure. It is
also atomized and through injectors it comes out into the cylinders where it is delivered in mist
like spray.
A permanent bleed line connects the bleed points on the injector pump, fuel filters and injectors
to the fuel tank. This helps to return excess fuel back into the fuel tank
FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM OF PETROL ENGINE
The fuel system of an internal combustion Engine is intended to produce a combustible mixture
composed of the fuel stored in the fuel tank and atmospheric air, and then deliver both to the
cylinders. Petrol engine use light grade gasoline fuel while the Diesel Engines utilize heavy
diesel fuel, therefore fuel supply systems and their differ greatly in petrol and diesel engine
Fuel Pump is used to supply petrol from the petrol Tank to the Carburetor. The fuel pump may
be of mechanical or electrical type. If mechanical fuel pump is employed, it has to be placed on
the engine since it is driven by the engine camshaft through an eccentric. However, the
electrically operated fuel pump may be placed anywhere on the vehicle.
When the engine is cranked (started), vacuum is produced inside the cylinder. The atmospheric
air rushes in to the vacuum through the air cleaner.
Carburetor is the main device in this system. It vaporizes the petrol and mixes it with air in
desired proportions depending upon the requirements of operating conditions. The charge (Air +
fuel mixture) now flows into the inlet valve opens. It is ignited by spark that occurs due to an
ignition system.

Main parts of the Fuel Supply System of Petrol Engine:

- Fuel Tank

- Fuel Pump

- Carburetor

- Fuel Filter

26
Fuel Tank: The Fuel Tank used in a 4 Wheeler is different from that of a 2 Wheeler in location,
construction and control of fuel flow. A 4 Wheeler is not provided with a fuel tap whereas it is
invariably used 2 Wheeler. Details of Fuel Tank in common use, is given below. We shall study
fuel tanks for both categories of vehicles. The Fuel Tank is fabricated from sheet metal of steel
or aluminum alloy. Use of aluminium alloy tank is advantageous due to its lightweight and good
resistance to corrosion.
The Fuel is filled in through a filler tube, which can be closed by a filler cap. Provision of Lock
is generally made on this cap. Provision of lock is generally made on this cap. A number of
baffles (plate) are fitted inside to help in preventing the violent fuel surging during acceleration,
cornering and braking. The bottom surface of the tank is made sloppy so that even the last drop
of fuel may collect here for pumping. For periodic removal of the sediment, a screwed drain plug

27
is provided at bottom f the tank. A vent hole is provided in the filler tube or the filler cap through
which the air enters into the tank and occupies the space left vacant by the pumped fuel.
Fuel Filters: The Fuel is filtered at different stages in a fuel supply system. Therefore, many fuel
filters are used in the fuel circuit. The fuel filters serve the purpose of filtration in the delivery
system by preventing foreign particles from entering into the fuel pump and the carburetor. The
modern filtration practice employs a combination of coarse and fine filters. These Filters are
generally located at the following positions.
- Coarse filter (or gauge filter) incorporated within the fuel tank.

- Medium coarse filter outside the fuel tank and on the inlet side of the pump.

- Fine filter of built in surface type at inlet of fuel pump’s pumping chamber.

- Fine filter in pipeline between fuel pump and the carburetor.

Fuel Pump: A Fuel Pump is used to deliver fuel from the Fuel Tank to the float chamber of
Carburetor. It is generally mounted on the side of engine block near the eccentric end of the
camshaft. In V-type engines, it may be mounted between the two rows of the cylinders. Main
types of Fuel Pumps commonly used in auto vehicles are given as follows.
1. A.C. Mechanical Pump
- Diaphragm Type

- Plunger Type

- Rotary Type
2. S. U. Electrical Type
3. Electromagnetic Type
4. Combined Type
CARBURETOR

The carburetor is a complicated, delicate and one of the most important device of a petrol
engine. It is used on both the two-stroke and the four-stroke engines. Its function starts after
receiving the fuel (petrol) from the fuel pump and filtered air from the air cleaner. A carburetor
vaporizes the petrol and mixes it with the air in such proportion which is in accordance with the
weather and the driving conditions. A simple carburetor is unable to meet the widely varying

28
requirement of an engine, therefore commercial carburetor are employed to serve the purposes.
They employ various circuits through which petrol flows vivid situations of vehicles speed and
traffic conditions. The quality of petrol to be supplied into the engine is controlled by operating
throttle valve. This control can be done by automatic means or manually. If done manually, it
can be in accomplished by hand control or foot (leg) control. In 2 and 3 wheelers it is generally
done by hand and in 4 wheelers the acceleration pedal is actuated by foot.
Functions of a Carburetor:
A carburetor is required to perform the following functions.
- It maintains a small quantity of petrol in the float chamber at constant head (height) to ensure
an uninterrupted supply for vaporization.

- It breaks (atomize) the liquid petrol into fine spray of minute droplets. After thorough mixing
this mixture is passed to the engine for combustion and in this way produces power.

- To mix air and fuel in suitable proportions – the optimum air/fuel ratio of the mixture is 15:1,
this helps in obtaining the desired performance of the engine.

- It delivers correct air-fuel mixture inside the engine through inlet manifold, under varying
conditions of load and speed of the engine.

Requirement of Air: Fuel Mixture:

A petrol engine driven vehicle (whether moped, scooter, motorcycle or a car) runs in city and on
highways under different conditions of speed load and weather.
These can be:
- Cold Starting in winter season.

- Starting of vehicle in icy situation.

- Pickup of a vehicle with fully loaded, partially loaded or in unloaded condition.

- Idling speed at road crossing, traffic single crossing, or a situation where speed of the vehicle
has to be lowered-down.

- A speed suitable for driving in city and its markets.

- A cruising speed on highway and expressways.

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- Need of instantaneous acceleration and deceleration
Air cleaner .Any dust in the air will be sucked into the engine and cause premature wearing of
parts. An effective air cleaner is essential to clean air before it reaches the carburetor in petrol
engines or the engine in diesel types. The oil bath filter illustrated in figure below is considered
the most effective .The dry element types, which use paper elements, are not recommended for
tractors since they cannot be effectively cleaned in dusty conditions.
Inlet manifold .Air is introduced into the cylinders through the inlet manifold in diesel engines
and the similar structure into the cylinders.
Exhaust manifold .Exhaust gases are released into the atmosphere from the cylinders via the
exhaust manifold.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

IGNITION SYSTEM

THE IGNITION SYSTEM

There are four different systems of igniting fuel: (a) Ignition by electric spark i.e. spark ignition
(b) Ignition by heat of compression i.e. compression ignition (c) Ignition by hot tube or hot bulb
and (d) Ignition by open flame. Only the first two are important methods for modern engines
Spark ignition
The purpose of spark ignition is to deliver a perfectly timed surge of electricity across an open
spark plug gap in each cylinder at the exact moment so that the charge may start burning with
maximum efficiency. There are two methods in spark ignition: (a) Battery ignition and (b)
Magneto ignition.
a) BATTERY IGNITION
Principle of working:
Battery ignition system includes two circuits:
(i) Low voltage (primary circuit) and
(ii) High voltage (secondary circuit).
The low-voltage circuit consists of: (i) battery (ii) ignition switch (iii)a series register (iv)
primary winding and (v) contact breaker. All are connected in series.
The high voltage circuit consists of: (i) secondary winding (ii) distributor rotor (iii) high voltage
wiring and (iv) spark plugs.
When the ignition switch is closed, current flows from the battery through the primary winding
of the ignition coil, provided contact breaker points arc closed. They produce magnetic field
around the winding. When the piston is at the end of compression stroke, the contact breaker
point opens. Thus the flow of current in primary winding causes the magnetic field to collapse.
As the field collapses, its lines of force cut the wire turnings of the secondary winding. This
increases the voltage across the secondary winding terminals to a value of 20 to 24 thousand
volts. The high-voltage surge is delivered to the centre terminal of the distributor cap where it is
picked up by the rotor and directed to the proper spark plug. A spark jumps the plug gap and
ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture.

31
Circuit: Ignition circuit gets electric current from the battery. When the distributor points are
closed, low voltage current flows through the primary winding of the ignition coil to the
distributor terminal and through the breaker points to the ground. A strong magnetic field is built
up during this period of operation. When the distributor points are opened, the magnetic field in
the coil starts collapsing. Thus a current is induced in the primary winding of the coil, which
tends to prevent break down of the magnetic field A very high voltage is produced in the
secondary winding due to sudden collapsing of the magnetic field. This high voltage makes the
spark to jump across the gap of the spark plug.
This system of a number of components such as: (i) Spark plug (ii) Distributor (iii)Ignition coil
(iv) Condenser (v) Ignition switch (vi) Dynamo and (vii) Storage battery.

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(1) Spark plug
Spark plug ignites the air –fuel mixture in combustion chamber. It is a device for the high
voltage current to jump and ignite the charge. Each spark plug consists of a threaded outer shell
with an outside electrode, insulator and a copper gasket. The width of the gap between the points
of the two electrodes of a spark plug should conform to the manufacturers. If the clearance is too
wide, it does not give satisfactory operation. Usually the spark plug gap settings are kept
between 0.5 and 0.85 mm. The higher the compression pressure, the more difficult it is for the
current to jump the gap. In this case, the gap setting should be closer. In adjusting the spark plug
gap, it is always the outer electrode that is bent. The central electrode is never bent; otherwise the
porcelain insulator may break. Sometimes, one or more cylinders of a tractor engine do not fire,
or fire irregularly. This is generally due to dirty, cracked or ground plugs. A rich mixture causes
carbon deposits on the plugs. Under all circumstances, the plugs should be taken out and cleaned
properly. The heat range of the spark plug is determined by the distance the heat must travel
from the lower most tip of the central electrode to the engine block (via) the spark plug gasket.
The farther the heat travels, the hotter the plug will run. Based on this, the spark plugs classified
into two types: (a) cold plug and (b) hot plug

Cold plug has a short insulator, extending into the cylinder. It conducts the heat away from the
point rapidly, allowing it to be cooled by the cylinder jacket. The short path dissipates heat
quickly, so it is named as cold plug. Cold plugs are used on petrol engines.
Hot plug has comparatively longer insulator, so the heat has to pass through a longer path to
reach the cooling water and hence the heat is not dissipated quickly. Hot plugs are used for
powering engines.
2. Distributor
This is a rotary switch driven by the engine through gears at half the engine speed. This device
used for interrupting the low voltage primary current and distributing the resulting high voltage
current to the engine cylinder in proper sequence and in proper time. The main functions of
distributor are: (i) it closes and opens the primary circuit. (ii) it distributes the resulting high
voltage current to the engine cylinder in proper sequence and in proper time. Distributor cap is
made of Bakelite or similar non-conducting material. High-tension cables connect the terminals
in the distributor cap to the spark plug.

33
3. Ignition coil
It serves the purpose of a small transformer, which sets up low voltage (may be 6 volts) to very
high voltage (may be 20,000 volts). It is necessary to jump the gap of the spark plug. The
ignition coil is sealed to prevent entry of moisture which would cause short circuiting within the
coil.
4. Condenser
A condenser consists of a pair of flat metal plates, separated by air. The most common type of
condenser is of metal foil strips, separated by wax impregnated paper. The condenser in the
distributor is connected across the contact breaker points. It is used to produce a quick collapse
of the magnetic field in the coil to obtain extremely high voltage. In doing so, the condenser
prevents sparking across the contact breaker points, thus preventing the points from burning.
5. Ignition switch
A switch is provided in the primary circuit for starting and stopping the engine is called ignition
switch. It may be push pull type or key type.
6. Dynamo
The purpose of the dynamo is to keep the battery charged and to supply current for ignition, light
and other electrical accessories. The dynamo supplies direct current to the battery and keeps it
fully charged.
7. Storage battery
Storage battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy. There are
several types of battery, but lead-acid battery is most common for IC engines, used for tractors
and automobiles. A battery consists of plates, separators, electrolyte, container and terminal wire.
Plates are of two types: (i) positive and (ii) negative. All positive and negative plates are
rectangular in shape. All positive plates are connected together to form a positive group and
negative plates are connected together to form a negative group. Positive plates are made of lead
and antimony and negative plates are made of spongy lead. Separators are used to act as
insulators

34
between the plates to prevent them from touching each other to avoid short-circuiting. Usually
separators are made of wood, rubber and cellulose fibre. Electrolyte is the chemical solution used
in battery for chemical reaction. It consists of 35% sulphuric acid and 65% distilled water by
weight with a specific gravity of 1.280 in fully charged condition. The specific gravity is
measured by hydrometer. The electrolyte level should be 12 to 14 mm above the top edge of the
plates. Specific gravity of the electrolyte should be checked at suitable interval. If the specific
gravity is below 1.225, it should be charged. Container is usually made of hard rubber. The tops
are covered with rubber material and sealed with a water proof compound. Terminal wires are
two in number, one connects the positive terminal and other connects the negative terminal with
the electric circuit.
8. Governor
Governor is a mechanical device designed to control the speed of an engine within specified
limit used on tractor or stationary engines for:
(i) Maintaining a nearly constant speed of engine under different load conditions
(ii) Protecting the engine and the attached equipments against high speeds, when the load is
reduced or removed.
Tractor engines are always fitted with governor. There is an important difference in principle
between the controls of a tractor engine and that of a motor car. In case of motor car, the fuel
supply is under direct control of the accelerator pedal, but in tractor engine, the fuel supply is
controlled by the governor. The operator changes the engine speed by moving the governor
control lever. A governor is essential on a tractor engine for the reason that load on the tractor
engine is subjected to rapid variation in the field and the operator cannot control the rapid change
of the engine speed without any automatic device. For example, if the load on the tractor is
reduced, the engine would tend to race suddenly. If the load is increased, the engine would tend
to slow down abruptly. Under these circumstances, it becomes difficult for the operator to
regulate always the throttle lever to meet the temporary changes in the engine load. A governor
automatically regulates the engine speed on varying load condition and thus the operator is
relieved of the duty of constant regulating the throttle lever to suit different load conditions.

THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The battery. Most tractors have an electric starter and electric lights. Electric energy is stored in
the battery. The batteries used on tractors are of the lead acid type. During the charging and

35
discharging cycles and particularly due to high temperatures the battery will lose water. It must
be checked regularly and filled with distilled water so that the water level is just above the plates.
Do not overfill as this will result in a loss of acid due to spillage with consequent loss in
performance.
Maintenance of a Lead Acid Battery
a. Check the level of electrolyte. It should be kept just above the plate by topping with distilled
water.

b. Corroded terminals should be scrapped clean and smeared with grease.

c. Battery should be fitted correctly on the tractor to avoid spillage of electrolyte.

d. It should be charged regularly and correctly.

e. Should be emptied and kept upside down in case of long storage.

f. Should tightly be fixed in a box to avoid spillage and damage.

g. Generator fan belt should always be functional to ensure that the battery is usually charged.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte (acid and water inside the battery) indicates the level of
charge in the battery and is measured with a hydrometer. For ambient temperatures of between
27–380C the specific gravity when fully charged should between 1.25 and 1.27 , fully discharged
below 1.12.The vent plug should be correctly fitted and not damaged.
The Alternator
This is used to recharge the battery mainly, but it can be used to provide electric current for
ignition and lighting.
Lighting
Headlights, parking lights, brake lights and reflectors all use current from the battery. One or
more fuses should be installed to safeguard against overloading.

36
b) MAGNETO IGNITION
It consists of magnets instead of a battery, which produces and supplies current in the primary
winding. The remaining arrangement in this system is the same as that in the battery ignition
system. The magneto consists of a fixed armature having primary and secondary windings and a
rotating magnetic assembly which is driven by the engine when the magnets rotate, current flows
in the primary winding. The secondary winding gives high voltage current to the distributor,
which distributes it to the respective spark plugs. In the magneto, the magnetic field is produced
by means of permanent magnets where has in conventional generator, the magnetic field is
produced by passing some of generated current through the field winding which produces the
magnetic field. The magneto may be either rotating armature type or rotating magnet type. In
rotating armature type magneto, the armature carrying the primary and secondary windings and
the condenser rotate between the poles of a stationary horse shoe magnet.

37
 CHAPTER FIVE

THE ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

This system is aimed at supplying oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur.
The parts which require lubrication are: Cylinder walls and piston, Piston pin, Crankshaft and
connecting rod bearings, Cam shaft bearings, Valves and valve operating mechanism, Cooling
fan, Water pump and Ignition mechanism.
Aims of lubrication
1. Lubricants cools the engine by conducting away excess heat
2. It reduces friction between moving parts allowing maximum performance
3. Lubricants are needed to seal the compression between the cylinder and the piston
4. Rusting is prevented by the application of lubricants
5. Harmful deposits from the engine, such as dust and soot, are trapped by oil.
The lubricants used are grease and oil.
Types of lubrication systems in a tractor engine

1. Splash feed type – This is where the cranks of the crankshaft are dipped in the oil and splashed
up as they move. This is an old type of lubrication system and it is not good

38
2. Force feed type – it is a modern method and is the most common in 4 stroke cycle engine. The
oil is pumped directly to all the moving parts (i.e., crankshaft, connecting rod, piston pin, timing
gears and cam shaft) of the engine through suitable paths of oil. Lubricating oil pump usually
gear or vane type, which is driven by the camshaft .The oil in this case circulates around the
engine parts and drips back to the oil sump. A did stick is used as an indicator of how much oil is
in the sump.

COMPONENTS
Oil Pump
It is usually a gear type pump, used to force oil into the oil pipe. The pump is driven by the
camshaft of the engine. The lower end of the pump extends down into the crankcase, which is
covered with a screen to check foreign particles. A portion of the oil is forced to the oil filter and
the remaining oil goes to lubricate various parts of the engine. An oil pressure gauge fitted in the

39
line, indicates the oil pressure in the lubricating system. About 3 kg/cm2 pressure is developed in
the lubrication system of a tractor engine.
Oil filters
Lubricating oil in an engine becomes contaminated with various materials such as dirt, metal
particles and carbon. An oil filter removes all the dirty elements of the oil in an effective way. It
is a type of strainer using cloth, paper, felt, wire screen or similar elements. Some oil filters can
be cleaned by washing, but in general old filters are replaced by new filters at specified interval
of time. It is normally changed after about 120 hours of engine operation. Oil filters are of two
types:
i. full-flow filter, -In this filter, the entire quantity of oil is forced to circulate through it before it
enters the engine

ii. By-pass filter-By pass filters take a small portion of oil from the pump and return the filtered
oil into the sump.
Crankcase breather
The engine crankcase is always fitted with some kind of breather, connecting the space above the
oil level with the outside atmosphere. During the operation of engine, the crankcase oil reaches a
temperature of 160-170°F or even more and simultaneously the air above it gets heated up.
Consequently the air is likely to expand and cause pressure rise if it were unable to escape. The
purpose of breather is to prevent building up pressure in the crankcase. It serves as ventilating
passage of air.
Relief valve
It is provided to control the quantity of oil circulation and to maintain correct pressure in the
lubricating system.
3. Oil mist type- Common in 2 stroke cycle engines. The oil is mixed with fuel mainly petrol in
the tank at a rate of 0.25litre of oil to 6 litres of petrol.
Types of Lubricant
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables, and minerals. Lubricants made of animal
fat, does not stand much heat. It becomes waxy and gummy which is not very suitable for
machines. Vegetable lubricants are obtained from seeds, fruits and plants. Cotton seed oil, Olive
oil, linseed oil and castor oil are used as lubricants in small simple machines. Minerals lubricants

40
are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from crude petroleum found in nature.
Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and suitable for internal combustion engine
Good lubricant should have the following qualities.
(a) It should have sufficient viscosity to keep the rubbing surface apart.
(b) It should remain stable under changing temperatures.
(c) It should keep lubricated parts clean.
(d) It should not corrode metallic surfaces
Properties of lubricating oil

i. Viscosity

Primary viscosity is the most important characteristic of lubricating oil. It refers to the tendency
of oil to resist flow.
Temperature influences viscosity
A higher temperature reduces viscosity and vice versa.
Viscosity Index
The entire oil does not become less viscous at the same rate at the rise of temperature. To take
account of this factor another means of rating oil called viscosity index is adopted. In its use
every lubricant is given a number to indicate the rate at which it thins out as the temperature rises
or gets heavier as temperature falls. The rate of change of viscosity between 40 and 100oC is
used as a basis to calculate this value. The lower the rate of change, the higher the viscosity
index.
ii. SAE Number:
In practice lubricating oils usually are marketed by their SAE viscosity number recommended by
the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), USA. The lower the SAE number, the thinner the
oil. For example
i. SAE – 10 – This is thin engine oil which gives little protection when heated.

ii. SAE 50 – This is thicker engine oil which is recommended for protecting the bearings.

iii. SAE 90 – 150 – These are transmission oils which are recommended for clutch, gearbox,
wheel lubrications and ball bearings.

41
iii. Pour Point Depressants
At sufficiently low temperatures, some oils become so thick that they do not pour out at all.
Certain additives can be added to the oil which will depress or lower the temperature point at
which the oil becomes too thick to result flow. These additives are called pour point depressants.
iv. Resistance to carbon Formation

Carbon formation can cause poor engine performance and can also cause damage to it. Carbon
may pack in and around the piston rings, causing them to stick in the ring grove. This prevents
the proper operation of the piston ring. The result is poor compression, excessive oil
consumption, and scoring of cylinder walls. Carbon may build up on the piston head and the
cylinder heads which can result in the over heating of the piston. Pieces of carbon may break off
and drop in to the oil pan where they may be picked up by the lubrication system. They could
then clog oil channels and line so that the flow of the lubricant oil to the engine parts would be
dangerously reduced.
v. Oxidation Inhibitors
When oil is heated to a fairly high temperature and then agitated so that considerable air is mixed
with it, the oxygen in the air tends to combine with oil, thus oxidizing it. Since this is the
treatment that the engine oil undergoes, some oil oxidation is bound to occur. A slight amount of
oxidation will do no particular harm, but if it comes excessive, severe damage may occur in the
engine. As the oil is oxidized, it breaks down farming various harmful substances. Some of the
products of oil oxidation coat the engine parts with an extremely sticky tar like material. This
material may clog the oil channels and tend to restrict the action of piston rings and valves.
Care and Maintenance of Lubrication System
i. Old or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication.

ii. Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump.

iii. The oil filters should be replaced when necessary.

iv. The correct type of oil should be used as per manufacturers’ instruction.

42
Oil
The gearbox, transmission and the engine must be lubricated using oil of the correct viscosity
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. As the engine works, oil may be lost through
leakage, oxidation and burning. The level of oil must be checked regularly using a dipstick.
Grease
Ball bearing parts are lubricated with grease .They may be located by presence of s nipple. A
grease gun is used to apply the lubricant. In the engine a splash feed or force feed lubrication
system is used.
Storage and handling of lubricants and fuel
The types of fuels which may be stored are:
a. Petrol (gasoline)

b. Tractor vaporizing oil (T.V.O, paraffin, kerosene) and

c. Diesel

The types of lubricants which may be stored are:–

Engine oil, gear oil, hydraulic oils, grease, and special purpose oils, penetrating oil and anti
corrosion.
Storage

and dry and out of the direct heating effect of the sun this method should be perfectly
satisfactory.

required e.g four medium sized diesel tractors will use 40 gallons or more per day. The size of
the storage tank must be selected on the estimated use and frequency at which it can easily be
refilled, allowing some extra capacity for unforeseen delays.

govern the storage of more than a few gallons. An expensive underground storage tank will
probably be required, but you should check your own regulations during the planning stage.

43
inflammable. The storage system must prevent contamination with dirt, dust, water and other
fuels. These impurities will severely affect the performance of the fuel in the engine and cause
expensive damage. Most of the contamination can enter the tank when it breathes due to day–
night heating and cooling.

slightly so that any contamination collects at one end and can be drained off through the drain
cock. The larger tanks must be kept out of the direct sunlight and fitted with a vent otherwise
dangerously high pressures can result and cause damage to the tank.

serious damage to the equipment. Diesel fuel must not be stored in galvanized tanks as it has a
tendency to attack the zinc coating , mild steel tanks are usually used but should be painted on
the outside to prevent rusting .

44
 CHAPTER SIX

THE ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

Power production process in the engine gives a lot of heat. This heat should be kept at safe
limits. Too much heat within the engine may lead to overheating and hence expansion of engine
components, which can distort its shape causing gas leakage, valve burning, loss of engine power
and even cracking of the cylinder or its head. Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others
are cooled by water.

Types of Cooling Systems

Water cooling system
In this system water is used to absorb heat from the engine block at a reasonable rate. Only about
25% of the energy stored in the fuel is turned into useful work. The rest is lost as heat from the
engine. Most of this is in the exhaust gases but about 30% has to be dissipated by the engine.
Most of this is in the exhaust gases, but 30% has to be dissipated by the engine’s cooling system.
Larger engines are water –cooled.
The major components of water cooled engine are the radiator, water jackets, water hoses, water
pump, thermostat and fanning mechanism. Cool water is sucked from the bottom part of the
radiator with the help of a water pump. It is pushed through the water jackets and circulates
within the engine block and the cylinder head. A thermostat is used to regulate the temperature
of water in the engine at 80oC – 90oC. When water becomes too hot it is forced back to the
radiator for further cooling. The parts of water –cooling system are as follows.
The radiator .This cools water from the water jackets by convection currents .The radiator tubes
increase the surface area for cooling. It is important to check the water level in the radiator each
day, topping up if necessary with water which is fit to drink.
The water jacket. This is an area surrounding the cylinders in which water circulates. It is
connected to the radiator by hoses.
Water pump- Circulation of water throughout the system is maintained by water pump.
Fan-Air is blown onto the radiator from fan causing rapid cooling.
Thermostat -This automatic device controls engine temperature
Temperature gauge -This is located on the instruments panel and indicates the temperature of
the engine to the drive, who can investigate when the temperature rises above normal.

45
Care and maintenance of Water cooling system
The water pump should be lubricated regularly.
i. Clean water should be used in the radiator and trash removed from the fins.

ii. All pipes should be fitted tightly to avoid leakage.

iii. The radiator should be filled with clean water before starting days work.
iv. Fan belt tension should be checked regularly and if too tight or too loose should be adjusted
accordingly.

Air cooled System

This type of engine is confined to small machines e.g land masters, chain saws, small generators
etc. but when the system is used by multiple cylinders are cast individually either in pairs or in
blocks.
Characteristic of air cooled engines
i. They have fins; and a fan blade is usually fitted on the flywheel to assist in circulation.

ii. They are light in weight because they need no radiator, water jackets, hoses etc.

iii. They are simple in construction.

Disadvantages of air cooled engines
i. They get hot quickly and use heavy lubricating oils.

ii. It is not possible for them to get proper cooling under all conditions, e.g when carrying heavy
loads.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

THE TRACTOR
It is a powerful and expensive multipurpose motor vehicle used for lifting or pulling farm
implements
FUNCTIONS OF A TRACTOR
Functions of tractors
- Transportation of farm input and outputs when a trailer is attached
- operating water pumps for irrigation or other farm purpose
- lifting implements by the hydraulic system
- pulling farm implements
- tilling the soil when appropriate implement such as plough is attached
- planting seeds when coupled with a planter
- spraying seedlings when coupled with a sprayer
- provision of electric power
- harvesting crops when coupled with harvester
- can be used for mowing a lawn with mower

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The tractor power transmission system

Function of power transmission system

(i) To transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of the tractor.
(ii) To make reduced speed available, to rear wheels of the tractor.
(iii) To alter the ratio of wheel speed and engine speed in order to suit the field conditions.
(iv) To transmit power through right angle drive, because the crankshaft and rear axle are
normally at right angles to each other.

The power transmission system usually consists of the following parts;

1. Crankshaft: It changes linear motion to rotary motion. It provides power to the pulley
and the wheel.
2. Flywheel - Serves as pulley for transmitting power

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 3. Clutch –is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the
transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of friction
between driving members and driven members.
4. Gear box- A device for transmitting power at a multiple of speed and torque
5. Differential- The device usually at the axle housing, that allows the two wheels on an
axle to rotate at different speeds.
6. Brake – The device, usually in the axle housing, that stops the motion of the tractor
7. Axle- The shaft and connecting parts that transmits torque from the differential or final
gear reduction to the wheels.
8. Power take off ( P.T.O ) drive- The part that transmit torque from the engine to the PTO
shaft on the rear of the tractor

The transmission systems is as follows

Engine – crankshaft - flywheel – clutch - gear box – differential – final drive - axle - drive
wheels

Functions of a flywheel
a) The rear surface of the flywheel serves as one of the pressure surfaces of the clutch plate.

b). It helps in adjusting the timing of the engine.

c). Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for transmitting power.
Valve

Functions of the clutch

Clutch in a tractor is essential for the following reasons:
(i) Engine needs cranking by any suitable device. For easy cranking, the engine is disconnected
from the rest of the transmission unit by a suitable clutch. After starting the engine, the clutch is
engaged to transmit power from the engine to the gear box.

(ii) In order to change the gears, the gear box must be kept free from the engine power, otherwise
the gear teeth will be damaged and engagement of gear will not be perfect. This work is done by
a clutch.

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(iii) When the belt pulley of the tractor works in the field it needs to be stopped without stopping
the engine. This is done by a clutch
Functions of the Gearbox
a. It adjusts the speed of the drive from the engine crankshaft to the drive shaft.

b. It helps the driver to select any forward or reverse gear to suit the operation.

c. The speed ratio can be altered conveniently in the gearbox.

d. It enables the power from the engine to be more easily applied to the work that the tractor may
be doing.

e. It enables the driver to stop the vehicle without suddenly stopping the engine, or without
keeping his foot pressed on the clutch pedal all the time.

Power take off ( PTO) of a tractor

Power take off(PTO) is a mechanical system on an engine tractor/vehicle that allows the transfer
of power from the engine tractor/vehicle to other equipment/implement. In agriculture , the
power take off (PTO) of the tractor operate ploughing implements, planting equipment,
harvesting, threshing, mowing, spraying chemicals(pesticides and herbicides), water pumping
etc.
Tractor hydraulic system
The tractor hydraulic system provide power through fluids that operate various agricultural
equipment. It transmit power through oil. It converts fluid pressure into mechanical energy.
Components of the hydraulic system
a. Hydraulic pump: Pumps hydraulic fluid into the system and builds necessary pressure for
power transmission
b. Cylinders and pistons: The pistons, moving within the cylinders harness the hydraulic fluid’s
pressure to generate mechanical movement
c. Valves and controllers: Valves guide the fluids while controllers, enable the operator to
command the fluid movement
d. Fluid reservoir: A storage unit for the hydraulic fluid, ensuring a steady supply for smooth
operation
e. Hydraulic fluid: Transmit pressure and minimize friction and regulates temperature.
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Advantages of tractor hydraulic system
a. Precision control
b. Offer power that ensure tasks are completed with efficiency
c. Multitasking: enables tractors to undertake diverse operations
d. Capable of handling tremendous weights
THE EXHAUST SYSTEM
This works at high temperature so the driver should be careful not to touch it when the tractor is
running. The pipes should be checked for damage as this may restrict the flow of the gases
causing a reduction of the engine power output.
THE BRAKING SYSTEM

Brakes are a mechanism for absorbing energy of motion of a body by converting it into heat.
Brakes either slow the movement of the tractor or stop it altogether. They also assist in steering
of the tractor. Disc, drum and shoe types of brakes are all in common use, and they may be
manually or hydraulically operated. Disc brakes are most usual on tractors, and they may be
mounted on the rear axle, wheel mounting or differential shaft. When parking, a hand brake or
parking gear is used.
STEERING SYSTEM
Front axle steering is the most common kind used for tractors. Steering geometry is optimized
focusing on manoeuvability. Small turning radius and yet reasonable steering angle error is
wanted. Varying soil conditions under driven wheels necessitates the use of differential locking
devices. Self locking and speed dependent differentials are used at which, in a turn, the inner
wheel is engaged and the outer wheels is disengaged.
Manual steering (mechanical) is limited only to small tractors. Hydraulic or power steering is
now in common use in all types of tractors.
ROLE OF STEERING SYSTEM
1. Minimize the effort of the operator in turning the front wheel with the application of
leverage
2. Change the direction of a tractor or move a tractor
3. Ensure tractor direction stability, control and precision
4. Well designed steering mechanism minimizes wear on the the tractor’s tire, contributing
to the overall longevity and efficiency of the tractor.

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WHEELS AND TYRES
The wheel comprises tyre, tube, rim, nuts and bolts, all of which must be well maintained. The
tyres must be inflated to pressures recommended by the manufacture and caps fitted to the valves
to prevent the entry of dirt. The tyres should be checked regularly for damage; deep cuts and
bulges may result in the tyre exploding with serious consequences for any bystander. The chassis
and particularly the drawbar must not be allowed to contact the tyre as expensive damage will
occur rapidly.
Old tyres with little or no tread will reduce the tractor’s pull performance considerably. The tyre
may be water ballasted using a special valve attachment. The maximum water content
recommended for the particular tyre must not be exceeded otherwise the tyre can be severely
damaged. In areas where frost is likely in winter antifreeze should be used.
TRACTION

Traction is the pulling ability of a tractor,is influenced by the type and condition of soil surface
on which it is working. It is directly related to the contact area between the tyres and traction
surface i.e diameter, width and heavy tread bars. This happens because the bars provide a large
surface area of contact between the tyres and the ground.
Ways of improving traction
i. Ballasting method – weight are added to the rear wheels by adding water, heavy casting or
wheel weights.

ii. Reducing the pressure to increase the area in contact with ground, but its disadvantageous
particularly when its overdone.

iii. Increasing the number of wheels - Use of twin wheel especially on very wet land. This
prevents the tractor from sinking.

iv. Adding weight on driving wheels or infront or behind. This helps to increase stability as the
tractor moves, thus increasing grip.

v. Use metallic wheels - Use of retractable strakes which can be bolted to the wheel dish. It
should be fitted on landside of traction.
Safety Rules for Tractor Operation
1. Do not get on or off the tractor when it is moving, wait until it stops.

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2. Do not clean, grease or adjust tractor parts when in motion.
3. Do not allow other persons to ride on the tractor during operation.
4. Do not remove or fit belt from belt pulley when pulley is operational.
5. Do not remove cap from radiator as water boils.
6. Do not use clutch pedal as foot rest.
7. Do not operate the engine when the oil pressure reading does not show any reading.
8. Do not refuel the tractor when the tractor engine is operational.
9. Do not operate a tractor that has weak brakes, low oil level, faulty clutch or steering, improper
tyre pressure.
10. Do not depress the clutch when going down the hill except when stopping.

It’s important to always

i. Start engine when the gear shifts lever is in neutral position.
ii. Keep the tractor in gear when driving down hill.
ii. Drive at good speed to ensure safety.
iv. Stop P.T.O before dismounting from a tractor.
v. Engage clutch gently whenever going uphill, towing heavy load or pulling out of a ditch.

General Recommendations
i. Guard P.T.O shaft whenever a P.T.O driven machine is being used.
ii. Children should not be allowed to ride on a tractor.
iii. Make sure that the drawbar pin is securely fitted in position when trailing implements.
iv. Workers should not be allowed to ride on the linkage or drawbar whenever a machine is being
towed.
v. Driver should be alert and watch for holes, ditches, boulders and detect any fault in tractor
system during operation or when stationery.
Pre start checks
1. Check water level in the radiator.
2. Check oil level in oil sump
3. Check tire pressure.
4. Make sure that the gear lever is in neutral.

5. Make sure that fuel cut off knob is fully pressed in.
6. Ensure that both brake pedals are inter locked.
7. En sure that parking brakes are detached.

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8. Check fuel level in the fuel tank and ensure that fuel cock is in open position.

To start the engine

1. Press the clutch pedal.
2. Move the hand throttle lever to 1/3rd of its movement.
3. Push the starting key in the starting switch and turn it clockwise to ‘ON’ position.
4. Further turn the key in clockwise direction to start the engine.
5. Release the starting key immediately after starting to the engine.
6. To select the proper gear, press clutch pedal fully and move H/L gear shifter to select the proper
gear in usual manner. Do not shift gear from higher speed to lower speed suddenly.

To stop the Engine

1. Bring hand throttle lever to idling position.
2. Bring gear lever to neutral.
3. Pull fuel cut off knob.
4. Engage parking brakes.
5. Turn starting key to ‘OFF’ position.
6. Take out the key after the work is over, other wise battery may discharge.

Driving the Tractor

1. Before driving, check all controls, brakes, instruments, light etc., for proper working.
2. Release parking brakes.
3. Press the clutch pedal.
4. Select the proper gear as required and slowly release the clutch pedal while increasing the rpm by
throttle.

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Servicing a Tractor
The table below shows the main parts of a tractor which require daily attention.
Item Checking procedure

Engine oil Check level using dipstick and add more oil if
level low.
Battery
Check level of electrolyte. Add distilled water
if below plates. Use hydrometer to check
specific gravity. Clean terminals if corroded
and apply grease. Wash spillage with calcium
hydroxide solution .Recharge if discharged
Radiator Check level and add water if low
Nipples Apply grease with grease gun
Fan belt Check tension and correct if necessary. ’V’ belt
should deflect 1.9–2.54 cm when pushed in
Air cleaner Use compressed air to blow away dust on dry
element type.
Fuel Check level of fuel on fuel gauge and replenish
as required.
Nuts and bolts Tighten if necessary
Check tyre pressure with pressure gauge and
Tyre
inflate or deflate as required according to
manufacturer’s recommendations
Remove any large sediment from the bowl.
Sediment bowl

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TRACTOR IMPLEMENT HITCHING
Hitches and power applications
The power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or equipment to do the
actual work intended for the equipment. This may be accomplished via a drawbar or hitch system
if the implement is to be towed or otherwise pulled through the tractive power of the engine, or
via a pulley or power takeoff system if the implement is stationary, or a combination of the two.
The modern tractors are heavy duty machines, so majority of them use diesel engines. They are
used for various functions in the farm. These include.
i. Tillage( Primary and Secondary)
ii. Transportation

iii. Spraying

iv. Operating water pumps, shelling/ threshing and grinding machines etc
Drawbars
Until the 1950s, plows and other tillage equipment usually were connected to the tractor via a
drawbar, or a proprietary connecting system. The classic drawbar is simply a steel bar attached to
the tractor to which the hitch of the implement was attached with a pin or by a loop and clevis.
The implement could be readily attached and removed, allowing the tractor to be used for other
purposes on a daily basis. If the tractor was equipped with a swinging drawbar, then it could be
set at the center or offset from center to allow the tractor to run outside the path of the
implement.
The drawbar system necessitated the implement having its own running gear (usually wheels)
and in the case of a plow, chisel cultivator or harrow, some sort of lift mechanism to raise it out
of the ground at turns or for transport.
Fixed mounts
Some tractor manufacturers produced matching equipment that could be directly mounted on the
tractor. Examples included front-end loaders, belly mowers, row crop cultivators, corn pickers
and corn planters. In most cases, these fixed mounts were proprietary and unique to each make of
tractor, so an implement produced by John Deere, for example, could not be attached to a
Minneapolis Moline tractor. Another disadvantage was mounting usually required some time and
labor, resulting in the implement being semi permanently attached with bolts or other mounting

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hardware. Usually, it was impractical to remove the implement and reinstall it on a day-to-day
basis. As a result, the tractor was unavailable for other uses and dedicated to a single use for an
appreciable period of time. An implement generally would be mounted at the beginning of its
season of use (such as tillage, planting or harvesting) and removed only when the likely use
season had ended.
Three-point hitches and quick hitches
The drawbar system was virtually the exclusive method of attaching implements (other than
direct attachment to the tractor) before Harry Ferguson developed the three-point hitch.
Equipment attached to the three-point hitch can be raised or lowered hydraulically with a control
lever. The equipment attached to the three-point hitch is usually completely supported by the
tractor. Another way to attach an implement is via a quick hitch, which is attached to the three-
point hitch. This enables a single person to attach an implement quicker and put the person in
less danger when attaching the implement.

SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR TRACTOR MAINTENANCE

r than from the driving seat.

g a trailer, particularly on bends or on slippery road

surface.

implement when it is in raised position.

while engine is running.

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ne to cool before removing the Radiator cap.

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