3.2.1.

2 Forms of the intrusive bodies

Magma moving through the crust is intruding the surrounding rock, which is commonly
termed the country rock. When it solidifies, it forms a number of intrusive bodies including:
1 -Dikes, 2 -Sills, 3 -Laccoliths, 4 -Lopoliths, 5 -Batholith.
 Dikes: A dyke (or dike) in geology is a
type of later ver cal rock between older
layers of rock. Technically, it is any
geologic body which cuts across: flat
wall rock structures, such as bedding.
Dikes can be either magma c (igneous)
or sedimentary in origin. Magma c dikes
form when magma intrudes into a crack
then crystallizes as a sheet intrusion,
either cu ng across layers of rock or
through an un-layered mass of rock.
Clas c dikes are formed when sediment
fills a pre-exis ng crack.
 A sill: is a sheet-like intrusion that is
concordant with external layering such as bedding or
metamorphic folia on. Sills are formed from magma injected along planes of weakness
represented by layering in rocks and are dis nct from dykes that cut across layering (i.e.
are discordant). An intrusive mass of igneous rock which consolidated beneath the
surface and has a large horizontal extent in comparison with its thickness.

3.2.1.3 Forms of Extrusive Igneous Rocks

 Lava flows: On erup on of a volcano, lava simply flows on the surface and on
consolida on gives rise to lava flows. These resemble sills in shape. Based on surface
appearance, lava flows are described as block lava and ropy lava. Block lava is less
mobile and has a rough and irregular surface. The ropy lava is more mobile and has a
wrinkled but smooth and shining surface.
 Pyroclasts: They are rock fragments thrown out at the me of volcanic erup on. These
are described based on size and shape. Bigger and angular fragments are called
volcanic blocks. If they are somewhat rounded, they are known as volcanic bombs.
Smaller fragments are called lapilli.

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3.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks
 It is rock that forms at or near the surface of the Earth by the cemen ng together of
loose grains derived from preexis ng rock or of shell fragments, by the precipita on of
minerals from water solu ons.
 Cover more than 80 %of the Earth’s surface, about 5 % of the Earth’s crust.
 Many sedimentary rocks have high economic value. Oil and gas form in certain
sedimentary rocks. Coal, a major energy source, is a sedimentary rock. Limestone, an
important building material, both as an aggregate and as the primary ingredient in
cement is a sedimentary rock. Gypsum, a material for plaster, is a sedimentary rock.

3.2.2.1 Forma on of Sedimentary rocks

The forma on of sedimentary rocks occurs in three stages;
i. By an accumula on and lithifica on of material that originates and is transported as
solid par cles derived from weathering (Clas c or detrital sedimentary rocks).

ii. By precipita on of ions from soluble material produced largely by chemical

weathering (Chemical sedimentary rocks).

iii. By an accumula on and lithifica on of remains of died plants and animals

(Biochemical/Biological and Organic sedimentary rocks).

3.2.2.2 Classifica on of Sedimentary Rocks

There are 3 main types of sedimentary rocks;
1. Clas c sedimentary rocks: they are composed of fragments of weathered rocks, called
clasts, that have been transported, deposited and cemented together. Clas c rocks make
up more than 85% of all sedimentary rocks. Clas c rocks are classified according to their
grain size. Grain size is largely a func on of the distance the grains are transported. The
grains can consist of individual minerals (grains of quartz or flakes of clay) or fragments of
rock (for example, pebbles of granite). Clas c sedimentary rocks form by;
 Weathering: during weathering, the pre-exis ng rocks and their cons tuents are
broken down. The material thus produced is called sediment. These sediments range
in size from huge boulders to microscopic par cles.
 Erosion: A er rock fragments and sediments have been weathered out of the rock,
they are o en transported to new loca ons through the process of erosion. Erosion
takes place by main erosion agents such as wind, moving water, gravity and glaciers.
 Deposi on: or sedimenta on is the process of accumula on of rock fragments
(sediments) at a site. During transporta on, the sediments will be deposited according
to size. Fast moving water can transport larger fragments be er than slow moving
water. As water slows down the largest fragments se le out first. Such deposits are

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 characteris c of sediment transported by water and wind. Wind, however, can move
only small grains. Glaciers can move all fragments of various sizes (large boulders, sand
and mud) and dump them in an unsorted pile as the glacier melts.
 Lithifica on: most sediments are eventually deposited in mostly low areas on Earth
such as valleys and ocean basins. As more sediments is deposited, the bo om layers
are subjected to increasing pressure and temperature. This situa on causes lithifica on
which is a physical and chemical process by which so and loose sediments are
converted into hard and firm rocks. This process is also called consolida on. The
physical and chemical changes that take place are called diagenesis. Diagenesis
includes:
 compac on (as the sediments are pressed closer and closer together, there is a
significant reduc on in pore space and volume) and
 cementa on (when water circulates through pore space in compacted sediment,
dissolved mineral ma er is precipitated in pore spaces and cement the clas c
grains together to form hard rock). The most common cemen ng materials are
silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clay minerals.

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According to grain size and texture clas c rocks can be divided into further categories;

Sediments which
contain grains of various
grades in nearly equal
amount are said to be
poorly sorted. Sediments
containing mainly grains
of one grade only are said
to be well sorted. Sor ng
depends on 3 factors: the
viscosity and velocity of
the transpor ng medium,
and the durability of the
grains.
The grains of a rock
may be angular or
rounded. In general, the
greater the distance traveled (transported), the smaller and more rounded the sediments will
be. During transport, rock grains become abraded and rounded as the grains scrape against
one another. This smoothing of rock fragments during transporta on is called rounding.
The angularity indicates that the sediments from which they formed did not have
me to become rounded. This suggests that the grains were transported only a short distance
and deposited close to their source.

Well-sorted sand Poorly-sorted sand

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2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: these rocks are formed
when the concentra on of dissolved minerals in water
or a solu on precipitate usually because of a change in
temperature or in the chemical content of the water or
solu on. The mineral precipitates se le at the bo om.
As a result, layers of chemical sedimentary rocks form.
On the basis of composi on, chemically formed rocks
can be classified as;
 Calcareous rocks: formed by precipita on of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
 Dolomites: formed by conversion of
limestone into dolomites through
replacement of calcium from limestone
by magnesium, CaMg(CO3)2.
 Siliceous rocks: formed by precipita on
of silica from water. Examples are Flint
and Chert.
 Evaporites: when water evaporates
from lake or sea, salts remain behind
and the lake/sea water becomes salty.
The most common evaporites are
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O/Anhydrite,
CaSO4/Halite, NaCl. Gypsum is used as
a plaster and halite is common salt.
Evaporites compose only a small propor on of sedimentary rocks.

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3. Biochemical and Organic
Sedimentary Rocks: these rocks are
formed from the remains of once
living things.

3.2.2.3 Sedimentary Features

Sedimentary rocks have features that
are very useful in understanding how
the sediment grains were transported,
where they came from, age rela on
between different layers and what the
environment was like when the
sediments were deposited. These
features that were part of the
sediments when they were deposited
are o en preserved when sediments
become lithified. The most common
features are;

 Bedding: consists of lines called bedding

planes which mark the boundaries of different
layers or strata of sediments. Bedding forms
because sediments accumulate layer by layer.
Individual beds can vary in thickness from a
few millimeters to several meters.
 Cross bedding: consists of small beds lying at
an angle to the main sedimentary layer. it is
formed as inclined layers of sediment are
deposited across a horizontal surface. When
these deposits are lithified, the cross beds are
preserved in the rock.

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 Graded bedding: occurs when largest grains
collect at the bo om of a layer and the grain
size decreases toward the top. Graded beds
happen form o en due to violent ac vity
such as flood or underwater landslide mixing
a range of grain sizes together in water. The
larger grains se le rapidly and accumulate at
the base of the bed. The finer grains se le
more slowly and accumulate in the other
parts of the bed.
 Ripple marks: they are small, nearly parallel
sand ridges and troughs that are formed by
moving water or wind. The back-and-forth
movement of waves form ripples that are
symmetrical while a current flowing in one
direc on such as in a river or stream,
produces asymmetrical ripples. Ripple marks
are o en preserved in sandy sedimentary
rocks.
 Mud cracks: they are mostly polygonal cracks
that form when a muddy sediment is
exposed to air and begins to dry out.

(ripples and mud cracks)

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 Fossils: they are remains or traces of a plant or
animal preserved in a rock. When an organism
dies, it some mes is buried before it
decomposes. If its remains are buried without
being disturbed, it might be preserved as a fossil.
Fossils provide evidence of the types of animals
or organisms that lived in the distant past, the
environments that existed in the past and
how organisms have changed over me.

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3.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks
 The word metamorphism is derived from Greek words meta, meaning change and
morphé, meaning form.
 When high temperature and pressure change the texture and mineral composi on of
a preexis ng rock (either igneous or sedimentary or another type of metamorphic
rock), without mel ng it, a metamorphic rock will form.
 The changes occur in the solid state.
 Metamorphic rocks are mainly the products of processes ac ng on rocks at depths
ranging from the upper to the lower crust.

3.2.3.1 Causes of metamorphism

1. Temperature (heat): Heat greatly affects a rocks chemical composi on, mineralogy
and texture. The temperature range over which metamorphic rocks form is
approximately 150oC to above 1000oC. Source is Magma (the upper limit of
metamorphism is the point at which rocks melt to form magma). The temperature
varies depending on rock composi on, pressure and amount of water present, but it
is between 600 and 1200oC for most rocks.

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 The main sources of heat in the earth are;
 Radioac ve decay: radioac ve isotopes within earth emit heat as they decay.
Introducing magma into an area of preexis ng rock which on cooling, the magma
introduces huge amounts of heat into the surrounding rock.
 Geothermal gradient:
The (rate) increase of
temperature with
increasing depth is
called a geothermal
gradient. The
geothermal gradient
varies between 20°to
60°C/km depending on
plate tectonic se ng.

2. Pressure: it changes a rock’s chemical composi on, mineralogy and texture. Pressure,
like temperature, increases with depth in the Earth. Pressure takes two forms (also
called stress);
 Confining pressure: is a general force applied equally in all direc ons.
 Directed pressure: is force exerted in a par cular direc on.

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 3. Fluids (H2O): rocks’ mineralogy can
change by introducing or removing
chemical components that dissolve in
water. As hydrothermal solu ons
percolate up to the shallower parts of
the crust, they react with the rocks
they penetrate, changing their
chemical and mineral composi ons.

3.2.3.2 Changes during metamorphism

Two main changes are observed in rocks during metamorphism;
1. Mineralogical changes: minerals are generally stable over restricted temperature and
pressures.
2. Textural changes: coarser grained with higher temperatures.

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3.2.3.3 Metamorphic Grade
A measure of the intensity of metamorphism to which a metamorphic rock was subjected.
Because temperature is the most important factor in metamorphism, metamorphic grade
closely reflects the highest temperature a ained during metamorphism.
 Low-grade metamorphism is associated with low temperatures and pressures which
occur in shallow depths, less than 10-12 km beneath earth’s surface where
temperature is below 350oC.
 High-grade metamorphism is
associated with high
temperatures and pressures
which are found at deeper parts
of the earth. It can also occur at
shallower depths where magma
rises to a shallow level of the
earth’s crust.
 Intermediate-grade
metamorphism is in-between
high and low-grade
metamorphism.

Certain minerals, called index minerals are good indicators of the metamorphic condi ons in
which they form;

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3.2.3.4 Main types of metamorphism
 Regional metamorphism: when high temperature and pressure affect large regions of
earth’s crust, they produce large belts of metamorphism. Regional metamorphism
occurs in or near subduc on zone, where tectonic plate ac vi es are found. It the most
common type of metamorphism and affects broad regions of earth’s crust. As magma
rises, it heats large regions of the crust. At the same me, the tectonic forces deform
rocks. As a result of all these processes ac ng together, regionally metamorphosed
rocks are formed which are strongly foliated and are typically associated with
mountains and igneous rocks.
 Contact metamorphism: occurs when hot magma intrudes cooler rocks (high T volcanic
intrusion). Higher-grades rocks form at the contact, closest to the magma. Lower-grade
rocks develop farther out. Contact metamorphism commonly occurs without
deforma on. Thus, they grow without random orienta ons (non-foliated).
 Burial metamorphism: results from deep burial of rocks in a sedimentary basin. Over
me, temperature and pressure increase within deep layers un l burial metamorphism
begins.
 Hydrothermal metamorphism: (also called metasoma sm), occurs when hot water and
ions dissolved in the hot water react with a rock to change its chemical composi on
and minerals.

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